Defining the standard levels of spontaneous cognitive flexibility among master’s students

Abstract

Background and Study Aim. Research has shown that sports and physical activities have a positive influence on cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility is the ability to adapt and switch between tasks, thoughts, or strategies, and it is considered an important factor in enhancing spontaneous cognitive flexibility. The main purpose of this study is to determine the standard levels of spontaneous cognitive flexibility among master’s students. Material and Methods. In this study, we used a descriptive approach. The research sample included 50 master's students studying sciences and techniques of physical and sports activities, with an equal number of males and females. Among them, 25 students specialized in education, and the other 25 specialized in training. To measure the level of spontaneous cognitive flexibility, we utilized the Cognitive Flexibility Scale as the designated scale. Results. At the end of the study, the results showed a high level of spontaneous cognitive flexibility among students studying sciences and techniques of physical and sports activities. Furthermore, no significant differences were observed in spontaneous cognitive flexibility and its sub-skills based on the students' specialization (education and training). Conclusions. Spontaneous cognitive flexibility, a type of cognitive flexibility, can be enhanced through sports and physical activities. Engaging in physical activities often requires individuals to focus on body movements, coordination, and balance. This connection between the mind and body strengthens neural pathways between motor skills and cognitive processes, resulting in improved cognitive flexibility and its sub-skills.

Full text

156
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
OF STUDENTS
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Dening the standard levels of spontaneous cognitive exibility
among master’s students
Amina BougherraABCDE, Ameur HamlaouiABCDE, Ahmed LebchiriABCDE
Institute of Sciences and Techniques of Physical and Sports Activities, Mohamed Boudiaf University, Algeria
Authors’ Contribution: A – Study design; B – Data collection; C – Statistical analysis; D – Manuscript Preparation;
E – Funds Collection
Abstract
Background
and Study Aim
Research has shown that sports and physical activities have a positive inuence on cognitive
exibility. Cognitive exibility is the ability to adapt and switch between tasks, thoughts, or
strategies, and it is considered an important factor in enhancing spontaneous cognitive exibility.
The main purpose of this study is to determine the standard levels of spontaneous cognitive
exibility among master’s students.
Material and
Methods
In this study, we used a descriptive approach. The research sample included 50 master’s students
studying sciences and techniques of physical and sports activities, with an equal number of males
and females. Among them, 25 students specialized in education, and the other 25 specialized
in training. To measure the level of spontaneous cognitive exibility, we utilized the Cognitive
Flexibility Scale as the designated scale.
Results At the end of the study, the results showed a high level of spontaneous cognitive exibility among
students studying sciences and techniques of physical and sports activities. Furthermore, no
signicant differences were observed in spontaneous cognitive exibility and its sub-skills based
on the students’ specialization (education and training).
Conclusions Spontaneous cognitive exibility, a type of cognitive exibility, can be enhanced through sports
and physical activities. Engaging in physical activities often requires individuals to focus on body
movements, coordination, and balance. This connection between the mind and body strengthens
neural pathways between motor skills and cognitive processes, resulting in improved cognitive
exibility and its sub-skills.
Keywords:sports, physical activities, spontaneous cognitive exibility
Introduction1`
There is a full consensus that the development of
both the mind and the body is essential for individuals
and society to achieve optimal health, balance,
happiness, longevity, success, and productivity
[1]. Despite this, sports and physical activities
have often been marginalized within educational
settings, even though there is a consensus on their
importance for the healthy development of young
people [2]. Notably, mental health holds signicant
importance in relation to sports, and participation
in sports is known to contribute to physical tness
and mental strength [3, 4].
Emphasizing the application of sport-specic
stimuli and responses within cognitive diagnostics
can be instrumental in detecting expertise-related
differences [5]. Many instruments have been
developed to assess cognitive exibility, including
performance-based measures such as the Wisconsin
card sorting test and the Stroop color and word test
[6]. These instruments allow researchers to examine
cognitive exibility in a controlled setting and
compare performance across different populations.
Over the past fty years, there has been a
© Amina Bougherra, Ameur Hamlaoui, Ahmed Lebchiri, 2023
doi:10.15561/20755279.2023.0402
widespread implementation of physical education,
exercise science, and sports programs [7].
Increasingly, physical activity is being recognized
as a crucial factor inuencing cognitive and neural
functioning during middle childhood and adulthood,
in addition to its physiological and psychosocial
benets [8]. It is also important to highlight the role
of neurofeedback in professional sports [9].
Cognitive exibility refers to the human ability
to adapt cognitive processing strategies in response
to new and unexpected environmental conditions.
This ability can be acquired through experience
and involves the adaptation of cognitive strategies
that govern problem-solving processes. Cognitive
exibility is not limited to discrete responses
but encompasses changes in complex behaviors
[10]. In the context of cognitive neuroscience and
neuropsychology, cognitive exibility is often
measured by the detection of sudden and implicit
shifts in reward contingencies based on external
feedback [11]. It involves the ability to adapt to
changing tasks or problems and to restructure prior
knowledge to suit new situations [12, 13]. Individuals
with satisfactory cognitive exibility can effectively
handle new and challenging situations, generate
alternative opinions and ideas, and cope with

2023
0404
157
internal and external stressors [14].
Cognitive exibility is an inherent property of the
cognitive system, operating at both cognitive and
individual levels. At the cognitive level, it involves
the interaction of various cognitive components such
as executive functions, attention, representations,
perception, and coordination of task parameters with
goals. At the individual level, cognitive exibility
is inuenced by contextual factors, task demands,
and other variables [15]. Additionally, cognitive
skills, such as thinking, reasoning, and memory,
allow students to realize their full potential, while
non-cognitive skills, such as motivation, integrity,
and interpersonal interaction, are inuenced by
environmental factors [16]. Cognitive exibility is
believed to activate different cognitive processes
needed to handle challenging situations and prevent
interference [17].
Cognitive Flexibility Theory emphasizes the
exible use of an individual’s existing knowledge.
According to this theory, the required knowledge
should be organized, taught, and presented through
various mental approaches [18]. While most studies
examining the relationship between physical
activity and cognitive functioning have focused on
older adults, there is growing evidence supporting
these ndings in young people as well [2, 19].
Furthermore, behavioral interventions targeting
cognitive function should ideally be conducted
regularly rather than sporadically [20].
Purpose of the Study: The study purpose was
about knowing the standard levels of spontaneous
cognitive exibility among master’s students of
staps.
Materials and Methods
Participants
The research society consisted of 614 students
studying sciences and techniques of physical and
sports activities. The research sample comprised 50
master’s students, 25 specializing in education and
25 in training. They were both males and females
aged 22-24 years (table 1).
Table 1. Students stats
Variable Educational level
Research Society 614 students of sport
Participants 50 students of sport
Level Master
Specialization Education Training
Note: - Human eld: 50 students of sports. - Spatial
eld: Algeria. - Temporal eld: from 10/12/2022 to
12/05/2023.
These students were actively studying at
Mohamed Boudiaf M’sila University during
the academic year 2022-2023. The selection of
participants was done randomly, and all students
agreed to take part in the study. The study protocol
received approval from the Ethics Committee of the
University Mohamed Boudiaf M’sila Algeria.
Research Design
As the topic of the research revolves around
spontaneous cognitive exibility within the
cognitive eld, we opted for a descriptive approach
in conducting the current study.
In this study we employed the cognitive
exibility scale [21] as instrument, the scale used to
specify spontaneous cognitive exibility level (scale
of three degrees (disagree, agree, strongly agree)
was distributed for the purpose to knowing the level
thinking among students of sciences and techniques
of physical and sports activities.
We calculated the psychometric characteristics
of the questionnaire [22] before we distributed
to the sample of this research, where the stability
coefcient was 0.670 and the honesty coefcient
was 0.818
Statistical Analysis
We used version 26 of the SPSS program to
obtain accurate results, including mean, standard
deviation, percentage, T-score, and T-test.
Results
Table 2 presents the results of standard levels
of spontaneous cognitive exibility among students
of sciences and techniques of physical and sports
activities.
Based on Table 2, it is observed that the T scores
for the level of spontaneous cognitive exibility
among the research sample (N=50) indicate a good
level. The T score corresponding to this level had
the highest frequency within the research sample,
with 22 repetitions. The raw scores representing the
lower and upper values of this level are 24.897 and
29.700, respectively. The percentage of repetitions
for this level was 44%, which is higher than the
expected percentage in a normal distribution. This
information allowed the researcher to conclude that
the overall level of spontaneous cognitive exibility
among the research sample is at a good level.
We can also determine the general framework
for the remaining levels. The average level and the
weak level were found in the second and third levels
based on T scores and their repetitions. The second
level had a range of (40-50) with 14 repetitions,
while the third level had a range of (30-40) with 7
repetitions. Additionally, the percentage of students
in the second level was 28% and in the third level
was 14%. These percentages were lower than what
would be expected in a natural distribution, which is
34.13% and 13.59% respectively.
For the other levels they were in this order
(very good, excellent, acceptable) which represents
these repetitions (4, 2, 1) respectively, and for their

158
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
OF STUDENTS
percentage supposed in natural distribution it was
dissimilar between those levels.
Based on this, comparisons were made between
the levels to determine the nal level of spontaneous
cognitive exibility within the research sample
(tabl. 3). This nal level represents the actual eld of
research sample levels and helps in making decisions
related to a statistical variable, considering the
natural distribution of the data.
According to the table N3 we note that (P
=0.33> 0.05), P value was 0.33 and its greater
than signication level which was 0.05 in Df
48 that’s what interprets the lack of statistical
signicance in spontaneous cognitive exibility
between educational specialization and training
specialization.
Discussion
As a results of this research where the Students
of sciences and techniques of physical and sports
activities have a good level in spontaneous
cognitive exibility which plays a big role in raising
performance.
Sports and exercise seem to play an important
role in contributing to brain health and function
[23].
This aligns with the ndings of the study by
Hilal Kazu and Serkan Pullu [24], where preservice
teachers showed high levels of cognitive exibility.
Both studies indicate that individuals in educational
contexts possess a certain level of cognitive
exibility, which is benecial for their adaptability
and problem-solving skills
However, a notable difference arises regarding the
impact of gender and specialization background. In
the study by Hilal Kazu and Serkan Pullu [24], female
preservice teachers exhibited higher cognitive
exibility levels compared to males. Conversely,
my study did not nd any signicant differences
in cognitive exibility based on specialization
background (educational and training). This
suggests that the relationship between cognitive
exibility and these variables may vary across
different educational domains and populations.
Additionally, my study focused on spontaneous
cognitive exibility and its standar levels among
students of sciences and techniques of physical and
sports activies, while the other studies examined
cognitive exibility in broader terms. This highlights
the importance of understanding different facets of
cognitive exibility and their relevance to specic
educational contexts.
It is interesting to note that my study, along
with the study by Ayşem Seda Önen and Canan
Koçak [25], both found signicant relationships
between cognitive exibility and other constructs.
my study revealed a positive association between
cognitive exibility and study attitudes, while the
study by Ayşem Seda Önen and Canan Koçak [25]
found a signicant relationship between cognitive
exibility and teaching self-efcacy perception.
These ndings reinforce the idea that cognitive
exibility is intertwined with various aspects of
educational experiences, inuencing attitudes, self-
efcacy, and adaptive functioning.
Moreover, the study by Orly Harel, Alla Hemi,
and Einat Levy-Gigi [26] highlighted the role of
cognitive exibility as a protective factor against
stress in school environments. This nding aligns
with the broader understanding of cognitive
exibility as a valuable skill that supports adaptive
functioning and well-being, as demonstrated in the
previous studies.
In a study conducted by Salem Ali Salem
Algharaibeh [27], statistically signicant differences
were found in alternative exibility based on
specialization background. Literary background
students showed a greater level of alternative
exibility compared to students from scientic
Table 2. The standard level of spontaneous cognitive exibility of sport students:
Levels T scores Raw grade Percentage, % Percentage supposed in
natural distribution Repetitions
Excellent 70-80 34.505- 39.308 42.14 2
Very good 60-70 29.701- 34.504 8 13.59 4
Good 50-60 24.897- 29.700 44 34.13 22
Average 40-50 20.093- 24.896 28 34.13 14
Weak 30-40 15.289- 20.092 14 13.59 7
Acceptable 20-30 10.485- 15.288 2 2.14 1
Table 3. The results of spontaneous cognitive exibility among students of sciences and techniques of
physical and sports activities according to their specialization (Educational/ Training)
Signicant Differences Mean Std deviation Df Signication level P-Value Statistic decision
Educational 30.36 3.83 48 0.05 0.33 There is no statistical
signicance
Training 29.04 5.60

2023
0404
159
backgrounds. The differences in alternative exibility
favoring literary disciplines can be attributed to the
nature of the courses taught in the literary branch,
which emphasize principles and scientic facts
that are less open to change or substitution [27].
This contrasts with my study where no signicant
differences in cognitive exibility were observed
based on specialization background. This suggests
that the educational background or eld of study
may inuence certain aspects of cognitive exibility,
specically alternative exibility.
In conclusion, while there are some similarities
and differences between my study and the previous
studies, they collectively emphasize the importance
of cognitive exibility in educational contexts.
The ndings underscore its positive associations
with various constructs, including study attitudes,
teaching self-efcacy, and well-being. It is crucial
to consider these ndings together to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the role of
cognitive exibility in education and its potential
implications for educators and students
Conclusions
As in the current studies, in this study
spontaneous cognitive exibility emerged at a good
level among students of sciences and techiniques
of physical and sports activieties, additionally
there were no differences in this cognitive between
educational students and training students.
To obtain more comprehensive ndings,
conducting new research using different
questionnaires to measure spontaneous cognitive
exibility would be benecial. Additionally, it
is recommended to propose programs aimed at
developing this ability.
Suggestions
The study makes the following recommendations:
• Encourage students or people to engage in
diverse sports exercises to improve their tness
levels and enhance their competence in the
nervous system.
• Create supportive environments for physical
activities that motivate individuals to participate
in sports; these environments should contribute
to the rejuvenation of the nervous, physiological,
physical, and psychological functions.
• Prioritize the importance of health and
emphasize the relationship between sports and
brain function; this understanding can guide
individuals towards practicing sports that have
a positive impact on various body functional
systems, particularly the nervous system.
These recommendations are based on the ndings
of the study and aim to enhance the understanding
and application of spontaneous cognitive exibility
in the context of sports and physical activities.
Acknowledgement
We thank all students who agreed to participate
in our study.
Conict of interest
The authors declare no conict of interest.
References
1. Hergüner G, Önal A, Berisha M, Yaman MS. The
Comparison of Physical Education and Sports
Lessons Applied in Education Systems of Turkey and
Kosovo. Universal Journal of Educational Research,
2016;4(9): 1985–1993. https://doi.org/10.13189/
ujer.2016.040908
2. Bailey R. Sport, physical activity and educational
achievement – towards an explanatory model. Sport
in Society, 2017;20(7): 768–788. https://doi.org/10.1
080/17430437.2016.1207756
3. Jaiyeoba O.M. Psychological consequences of sport
injury on mental well-being of elite athletes in
Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Positive Psychology and
Counselling, 2021; 8:166-180.
4. Angba T. Health benets of sports and physical
activity. National Open University of Nigeria; 2022.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18575.46244
5. Knöbel S, Lautenbach F. An assist for cognitive
diagnostics in soccer (Part II): Development and
validation of a task to measure working memory
in a soccer-specic setting. Frontiers in Psychology,
2023;13: 1026017. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2022.1026017
6. Keiko O, Sawako N, Eiji S. Development and
validation of the Japanese version of cognitive
exibility scale. BMC Research Notes, 2016; 9:275.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-016-2070-y
7. Ahmet Yesilyurt, Kemal Goral. Comparative
evaluation of physical education and sports teacher
training Curriculums in Turkey and Czechia.
Mediterranean Journal of Sport Science, 2022; 5(3):
398-407. https://doi.org/10.38021asbid.1141363
8. Carson V, Hunter S, Kuzik N, Wiebe SA, Spence JC,
Friedman A, et al. Systematic review of physical
activity and cognitive development in early
childhood. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,
2016;19(7): 573–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jsams.2015.07.011
9. Rydzik Ł, Wąsacz W, Ambroży T, Javdaneh N,
Brydak K, Kopańska M. The Use of Neurofeedback
in Sports Training: Systematic Review. Brain
Sciences, 2023;13(4): 660. https://doi.org/10.3390/
brainsci13040660
10. Cañas JJ. Cognitive Flexibility. 2006. https://doi.
org/10.13140/2.1.4439.6326
11. Tobias H, Reto I, Susanne W, Daniel B, Silvia
B. Cognitive exibility in adolescence: Neural
and behavioral mechanisms of reward prediction

160
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
OF STUDENTS
error processing in adaptive decision making
during development. Journal Neurolmage,
2015; 104:347–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
neuroimage.2014.09.018
12. Hilal K, Serkan P. Cognitive exibility levels and
self-efcacy perceptions of preservice teachers.
Journal of Discourse and communication for
Sustainable Education, 2023; 14 (1): 36-47. https://
doi.org/10.2478/dcse-2023-0004
13. Vu Minh Chieu. Constructivist learning: An
operational approach for designing adaptive learning
environments supporting cognitive exibility. [PhD
Thesis]. Catholic University of Louvain; 2005.
14. Gunduz B. The contributions of attachment styles
irrational beliefs and psychological symptoms
to the prediction of cognitive exibility. Journal
of Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 2013;
13 (4): 2079-2085. https://doi.org/10.12738/
estp.2013.4.1702
15. Zhiwei C, Bing Q. Cognitive exibility as a
protective factor for empathy. Journal of Frontier
in Psychology, 2023; 13: 1064494. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1064494
16. Xe Mc Kevin B. Analyzing the Cognitive and Non-
Cognitive skills, and mathematics performance of
stem students. International Journal of Innovative
Science and Research Technology, 2023; 8(4):4-11.
17. Mohammadkhani S, Foroutan A, Akbari
M, Shahbahrami M. Emotional Schemas and
Psychological Distress: Mediating Role of
Resilience and Cognitive Flexibility. Iranian Journal
of Psychiatry, 2022;17 (3): 284-293. https://doi.
org/10.18502/ijps.v17i3.9728
18. Aysem O, Canan K. The Effect of cognitive
exibility on higher school students’ study strategies,
Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014;
191 (2015): 2346 – 2350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sbspro.2015.04.680
19. Yermakova TS, Podolski A. Pedagogical approach
to the development of art therapy – A review. Arch
Budo, 2019;15:171-179.
20. Martin N, Elisabeth W, Lisa M, Martin B. Martin K.
Acute effects of a short bout of physical activity on
cognitive function in sport students. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 2020; 17:3678. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph17103678
21. Boudaoued Abd Elyamine, Attallah Ahmed. The
Guide to Scientic Research for Physical Education and
Sports Students. The publication number 4.13.4983,
Algeria: University Publications Department; 2009.
22. Ghada Moueid CH, Roa Mohamed DJ. The effect
of problem-centered, cognitive exibility-based
teaching method on learning the arabic jump skill on
the gymnastics mat in women’s artistic gymnastics.
The Journal of College of Physical Education, 2018; 30
(3):45-52.
23. Filipe Manuel Clemente, Ana Filipa Silva. Brain
Function and Health, Sports, and Exercise. MDPI; 2022.
https://doi.org/10.3390/books978-3-0365-3865-5
24. Hilal K, Serkan P. Cognitive exibility levels and
self-efcacy perceptions of preservice teachers.
Journal of Discourse and Communication for
Sustainable Education, 2023; 14 (1): 36-47. https://
doi.org/10.2478/dcse-2023-0004
25. Aysem O, Canan K. The Effect of cognitive
exibility on higher school students’ study strategies.
Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014; 191
(2015): 2346 – 2350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sbspro.2015.04.680
26. Orly H, Alla H, Einat L-G. The role of cognitive
exibility in moderating the effect of school-related
stress exposure. Scientifc Reports, 2023; 13: 5241.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31743-0
27. Algharaibeh SAS. Cognitive exibility as a
predictor of subjective vitality among university
students. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences,
2020;15(5): 923–936. https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.
v15i5.5122

2023
0404
161
Information about the authors:
Amina Bougherra; (Corresponding author); https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3119-7141; amina.bougherra@
univ-msila.dz; Institute of Sciences and Techniques of Physical and Sports Activities, Mohamed Boudiaf
University; Msila, Algeria.
Ameur Hamlaoui; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2985-8970; ameur.hamlaoui@univ-msila.dz; Institute of
Sciences and Techniques of Physical and Sports Activities, Mohamed Boudiaf University; Msila, Algeria.
Ahmed Lebchiri; https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0859-0502; ahmed.lebchiri@univ-msila.dz; Institute of
Sciences and Techniques of Physical and Sports Activities, Mohamed Boudiaf University; Msila, Algeria.
Cite this article as:
Bougherra A, Hamlaoui A, Lebchiri A. Dening the standard levels of spontaneous cognitive exibility among
master’s students. Physical Education of Students, 2023;27(4):156–161.
https://doi.org/10.15561/20755279.2023.0402
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
Received: 09.06.2023
Accepted: 15.07.2023; Published: 30.08.2023