No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Gender Ideology and Gender Role Ideology
Abstract
Both gender ideology and gender role ideology refer to attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society. The concept can reflect these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, and/or social domain. Most gender ideology constructs are unidimensional and range from traditional, conservative, or anti‐feminist to egalitarian, liberal, or feminist. Traditional gender ideologies emphasize the value of distinctive roles for women and men. According to a traditional gender ideology about the family, for example, men fulfill their family roles through instrumental, breadwinning activities and women fulfill their roles through nurturant, homemaker, and parenting activities. Egalitarian ideologies regarding the family, by contrast, endorse and value men's and women's equal and shared breadwinning and nurturant family roles.
... Gender ideology refers to the beliefs, norms, and values that influence how a society defines masculinity, femininity, and gender relations in general [3][4][5]. It is opposed to the politicized use that has emerged in several Western countries as a criticism of transgender rights, gender fluidity, and other evolutions of gender politics and identity. ...
... Although gender ideology is more appropriately defined as an aspect of cultural structures rather than merely an ideological superstructure, it nonetheless strongly influences individual views and behaviors [3][4][5]. This research focuses on the educational dimension of gender ideology, rigid and hierarchical notions of gender contribute to the widespread ...
... Studies solely focus on gender ideology, which refers to societal beliefs and attitudes regarding gender-specific roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women, and it reflects these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as economic, familial, legal, political, or social [5]. It is constructed and expressed in various ways and reflects thoughts on women's and men's proper roles, privileges, and obligations [5,25]. ...
The nexus between education and gender ideology is a debated issue worldwide, including in Bangladesh. This study aims to understand the educational influences on gender ideology. Authors have reviewed electronic databases, including Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, to collect published material from 2014 to 2023. Based on the research objectives, 20 studies were reviewed among 1438. The study found various theories and models, such as human capital theory, gender role theory, patriarchy theory, intersectionality theory, empowerment theory, gender identity theory, behavioral theory, and socialization and reproduction model, exploring the link between education and gender ideologies. This study also found that the quantitative methods dominate the research landscape, while qualitative and mixed-method approaches offer profound insights into the contextual factors that influence gender ideology. Additionally, findings from the studies indicate that education is positively associated with liberal gender ideology. This study suggests an insight for future researchers on the educational impact of gender ideology, its theoretical frameworks, methodologies, and the current knowledge gap.
... Gender ideology has largely been discussed in the explanation of family and societal well-being in diff erent societies (Zhang & Liu, 2022;Dey et al., 2018). It is defi ned as a set of beliefs about socially appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women (Cheung & Choi, 2016;Dasgupta et al., 2018;Kroska, 2007). Based on their gender ideologies, there may have diff erent types of people in a particular society, some may uphold traditional gender ideology while others may maintain liberal gender ideology (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2016). ...
... However, this concept is often defi ned as a system of beliefs/opinions that peoples use for initiating social action, integrations, and social stability (Henning, 2007). From this view, gender ideology refers to societal beliefs and attitudes regarding gender-specifi c roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women, and it may refl ect these attitudes generally or in a specifi c domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, or social (Kroska, 2007). It is also defi ned as people's views toward gender-divided roles, privileges, and obligations in family and societal life ( Cheung & Choi 2016;Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2016;Davis & Greenstein, 2009;Kroska, 2007). ...
... From this view, gender ideology refers to societal beliefs and attitudes regarding gender-specifi c roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women, and it may refl ect these attitudes generally or in a specifi c domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, or social (Kroska, 2007). It is also defi ned as people's views toward gender-divided roles, privileges, and obligations in family and societal life ( Cheung & Choi 2016;Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2016;Davis & Greenstein, 2009;Kroska, 2007). ...
Gender ideology has long been a discussed issue in the field of social science, particularly gender studies. This study aims to explore the category of people's gender ideology toward their family and societal responsibilities in rural Bangladesh. Following a mixed-methods approach, this study interviewed 400 rural people (200 men and 200 women, between 18 and 50 years) and conducted two FGDs from eight cluster villages at Paba Upazila of Rajshahi District in Bangladesh. The result shows that people were liberal in the context of household chores and decisions (strongly agreed to share taking care of an infant, housekeeping/cooking, and freedom of choice in taking matrimonial decisions) but traditional and transitional in acceptance of male privilege and preferences for female privilege respectively. This study argues that patriarchal adherence is reflected in people's gender ideology. Our study results suggest better awareness of rural people to transform their traditional gender ideology in the family and societal responsibilities in Bangladesh. These findings add new knowledge about the gender ideology of rural people and contribute as a prior field to promote liberal attitudes among both men and women in Bangladesh.
... Ideology, in general, refers to a person's belief system or attitude (Kroska 2000). Hence, gender ideology implies a belief system and attitude toward men's and women's appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities in society (Kite and Whitley Jr 2003;Kroska 2007). However, most gender ideology constructs, according to Kroska (2007), are unidimensional, ranging from traditional or conservative to egalitarian or liberal. ...
... Hence, gender ideology implies a belief system and attitude toward men's and women's appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities in society (Kite and Whitley Jr 2003;Kroska 2007). However, most gender ideology constructs, according to Kroska (2007), are unidimensional, ranging from traditional or conservative to egalitarian or liberal. Conservative gender ideologies assert distinct responsibilities for male and female, such as males' household roles on breadwinning activities and females' roles as homemakers and parenting. ...
... Conservative gender ideologies assert distinct responsibilities for male and female, such as males' household roles on breadwinning activities and females' roles as homemakers and parenting. On the contrary, egalitarian gender ideologies emphasize on equal or shared breadwinning and nurturing roles for males and females within the household, community, and society (Kite and Whitley Jr 2003;Kroska 2007). ...
Male–female power dynamics within the household can be examined in a variety of ways. However, one significant shortcoming in extant research on the association between resources and gendered power relations is that scholars sometimes overlooked the influence of societal norms. Therefore, based on Rodman’s approach to theory of resources in cultural context, the study examined the role of wives’ gender ideology on the association between spousal age difference and household male dominance. A cross-sectional study design with a structured questionnaire in face-to-face interview settings was employed among a random sample (n = 1110) of rural married women in Bangladesh. The result identified a positive association between spousal age difference and household male dominance, which indicated that a large age difference between spouses was associated with higher household male dominance. Additionally, wives’ gender ideology moderated the association between spousal age difference and household male dominance. Accordingly, the study further found that the egalitarian married women who had low age differences with their husbands experienced lower male dominance than the women with higher spousal age differences. However, conservative married women did not influence the association between spousal age difference and household male dominance. Therefore, the present study suggests that large spousal age differences and women’s gender ideology are important elements that affect gendered power relations and influence male dominance within the household. Thus, the findings of this investigation have significant implications for national and international development organizations, which are involved with gender-based interventions aimed to achieve sustainable development goals by empowering women and promoting gender equality.
... Gender ideologies-social norms concerning the proper roles and fundamental natures of women and men in human societies-have long been of interest to sociologists (Eagly, Wood, and Diekman 2000;Kroska 2007). Scholars have presumed that egalitarian gender ideologies that endorse men and women taking equal responsibility for family tasks and paid work will promote a better quality of life and greater well-being for both women and men (Audette et al. 2019;Kroska 2007;Walter 2018;World Bank 2013), while gender inequality will harm individual wellbeing (Boerma et al. 2016;Read and Gorman 2010;Yu 2018). ...
... Gender ideologies-social norms concerning the proper roles and fundamental natures of women and men in human societies-have long been of interest to sociologists (Eagly, Wood, and Diekman 2000;Kroska 2007). Scholars have presumed that egalitarian gender ideologies that endorse men and women taking equal responsibility for family tasks and paid work will promote a better quality of life and greater well-being for both women and men (Audette et al. 2019;Kroska 2007;Walter 2018;World Bank 2013), while gender inequality will harm individual wellbeing (Boerma et al. 2016;Read and Gorman 2010;Yu 2018). Although there is substantial empirical evidence supporting this proposition in Western populations (Audette et al. 2019;Boerma et al. 2016;Kroska 2007;Walter 2018), few studies have tested it in the context of China. ...
... Scholars have presumed that egalitarian gender ideologies that endorse men and women taking equal responsibility for family tasks and paid work will promote a better quality of life and greater well-being for both women and men (Audette et al. 2019;Kroska 2007;Walter 2018;World Bank 2013), while gender inequality will harm individual wellbeing (Boerma et al. 2016;Read and Gorman 2010;Yu 2018). Although there is substantial empirical evidence supporting this proposition in Western populations (Audette et al. 2019;Boerma et al. 2016;Kroska 2007;Walter 2018), few studies have tested it in the context of China. ...
Gender ideologies encompass normative beliefs about how men and women should behave in certain contexts. Although many studies have examined factors predicting individuals’ gender ideologies, little research has focused on the implications of gender ideology on individuals’ subjective well-being, especially in Asian contexts. Using the pooled cross-sectional data from the China General Social Survey (CGSS, 2010/12/13/15), we explore the association between individual-level gender ideology and happiness in rural and urban China, paying special attention to potential variations in this association by gender and education level. Results suggest that an egalitarian gender ideology is positively associated with happiness in both rural and urban China. The association is stronger for urban men than for urban women and stronger for higher educated people than for lower educated people. The study highlights the importance of gender equality on individual subjective well-being and extends the literature by contextualizing individual-level gender ideology in China.
... A nemi szerepek megítélése a nők és a férfi ak számára megfelelőnek tartott szerepeket, jogokat és kötelességeket jelenti (Kroska 2007). Gyakran egydimenziós konstrukcióként kezelik, amely a tradicionális, konzervatív vagy antifeminista pólustól az egalitárius, liberális vagy feminista pólusig terjed. ...
... Eszerint a családban a férfi instrumentális, kenyérkereső szerepet tölt be, míg a nő a gondozó, a nevelő és a háziasszonyi teendőkért felelős. Az egalitárius attitűd a nők és férfi ak egyenlőségét hirdeti a fi zetett munka és a családi kötelezettségek területén, és a kenyérkereső és a gondoskodó szerepek nemek közötti egyenlő megosztását támogatja (Kroska 2007;Davis és Greenstein 2009). 2 A nemi szerepek átalakulásának és a családformákra gyakorolt hatásának magyarázatában fontos szerep jut a második demográfi ai átmenet elméletének, amely az 1960-as évek közepétől a fejlett országokban jelentkező demográfi ai változások elterjedt -bár nem mindenki által egyformán elfogadott -értelmezési kerete. Az elmélet szerint a családdal, a párkapcsolatokkal és a termékenységgel kapcsolatos viselkedés átalakulása mögött alapvetően értékrendbeli változások állnak. ...
... A kiválasztott kérdések a férfi kenyérkereső szerepére, a nemi specializáció és a férfi ak előnyösebb helyzetének elfogadására, a dolgozó nő szerepének, az anyaságnak és az apaságnak a megítélésére vonatkoznak. A kérdések jól lefedik a nemi ideológiák mérésére használt eszközök témaköreit, csak a háztartási munkamegosztással kapcsolatos elvárások maradtak ki a GGS kérdőívének kérdései közül (Kroska 2007;Davis és Greenstein 2009). Gyakori, hogy a nemi szerepeket, a családdal kapcsolatos véleményeket mérő kérdésekből egy összevont indexet készítenek. ...
The paper examines attitudes towards gender roles and family and their relationship with the gendered distribution of child care in six European countries (Germany, France, Norway, Poland, Romania and Hungary) using data from the Generations and Gender Survey. Tree sets of attitudes were identifed with the help of factor analysis: the importance of children and the two–parent family, the acceptance of gender inequalities, and the preference of domestic labour and childrearing over paid work. The examined countries are characterized by diferent combinations of the three factors. In Hungary childbearing and the ideal of the two–parent family and the interests of children over paid work are seen as very important, and gender inequalities are generally accepted. Mothers do the majority of childcare tasks in each country; the childcare burden of Hungarian women is average. There is a positive relationship between the acceptance of gender inequalities and the uneven distribution of child care in all the examined countries and for both sexes. © 2014, Hungarian Sociological Association. All rights reserved.
... The term 'ideology' bears a variety of meanings within specific literatures. In this study, gender ideology is defined as people's attitudes toward gender-specific roles, rights, and responsibilities (Kroska 2007). Kroska (2007) argues that the construct of gender ideology is one-dimensional and ranges from conservative to liberal. ...
... In this study, gender ideology is defined as people's attitudes toward gender-specific roles, rights, and responsibilities (Kroska 2007). Kroska (2007) argues that the construct of gender ideology is one-dimensional and ranges from conservative to liberal. She (Kroska 2007) exemplifies that, in conservative/ traditional gender ideology, men are expected to fulfil their family roles through bread-winning and decision-making activities and women are expected to fulfil their roles through homemaking and care-taking activities; while in liberal ideology both women and men are expected to perform bread-winning, decision-making and care-taking activities. ...
... Kroska (2007) argues that the construct of gender ideology is one-dimensional and ranges from conservative to liberal. She (Kroska 2007) exemplifies that, in conservative/ traditional gender ideology, men are expected to fulfil their family roles through bread-winning and decision-making activities and women are expected to fulfil their roles through homemaking and care-taking activities; while in liberal ideology both women and men are expected to perform bread-winning, decision-making and care-taking activities. ...
This study examines the influences of gender ideology on women’s microcredit participation mediated through household male dominance in rural Bangladesh. Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from 342 randomly selected married men in five northwest villages. Almost 52 % of married women were microcredit-participants (loan-borrowers). However, in 81 % of the cases, the loans were fully controlled by their husbands. The study indicates that low socioeconomic status influences women’s nominal microcredit participation while patriarchal gender ideology constrains them from active microcredit participation (using the loans). It appears that the negative influence of patriarchal ideology on women’s active microcredit participation is mediated through high household male dominance. It is suggested that microcredit intervention should address patriarchal ideology by creating an environment where people may have a chance to rethink the importance of women’s socioeconomic roles and rights.
... Gender inequality in academia is an international issue that spans scientists' lifetime, derives from socio-cultural and institutional antecedents, and has harmful consequences for women's professional and personal lives [17][18][19]. Literature identifies three key social and environmental factors that harm women's careers in STEM: cultural socialization processes and stereotypes, chilly academic environments, and socially constructed gender roles [18,20,21]. We briefly describe these barriers and how COVID-19 policies have exacerbated them. ...
... These higher service and teaching loads take time away from research, impairing career advancement. Moreover, women, especially mothers, are expected to take care of domestic activities and to be responsible for the family [20,33]. At the same time, female faculty experience strong pressures to be exclusively devoted to their jobs [8]. ...
Stay-at-home-orders, online learning, and work from home policies are some of the responses governments, universities, and other institutions adopted to slow the spread of COVID-19. However, research shows these measures have increased pre-existing gender disparities in the workplace. The working conditions for women during the pandemic worsened due to increased family care responsibilities and unequal distribution of domestic labor. In the academy, working from home has resulted in reduced research time and increased teaching and family care responsibilities, with a larger proportion of that burden falling to women. We investigate the persistence of gender inequity among academic scientists resulting from university COVID-19 responses over time. We draw on two surveys administered in May 2020 and May 2021 to university-based biologists, biochemists, and civil and environmental engineers, to analyze how the pandemic response has disproportionately impacted women in academia and the endurance of those inequities. Results show significantly greater negative impacts from the pandemic on women’s research activities and work-life balance, compared to men. We conclude by discussing the implications of our results, and the need for the academy to better predict and adjust to the gender disparities its policies create.
... High scores were associated with an increase in homophobic attitudes. The total score was calculated by reversing the items 5, 6,8,10,11,13,17,18,23, and 24 of the scale, and the median value of the total score was calculated, and based on this median score, the participants were divided into two groups according to the low and high levels of homophobia. ...
... Contrary to many conducted studies, it was observed in our study that there was no association between the levels of homophobia and parameters such as gender and professional commitment, whereas studies conducted in our country and other countries have shown that women have lower levels of homophobic attitudes than men [2,4,6,[15][16][17][18][19][20]. ...
INTRODUCTION: Homophobia can be defined as fear, hatred, discrimination, and even violent feelings and behaviors developed towards individuals with sexual orientations different to other individuals of the same sex. Our study was conducted to assess the levels of homophobia among emergency medicine specialists, practitioners, nurses, and other health care professionals working in the emergency department (ED). MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study was carried out as a descriptive survey study in Gaziantep, Turkey, between July 7, 2018 and August 30, 2018. The data was collected using a Google survey form link sent to volunteers via mobile phone. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 30.85 ± 7 (20–53) years. While 77.5% (n = 117) of the volunteers who participated in the study worked in state hospitals, 11.3% (n = 17) worked in a private hospital. The Cronbach’s Alpha value was calculated as 92.3 and the scale average score as 85.42 ± 12.33 as a result of the evaluation of the Likert-type scale. While 69 (45.7%) people were lower in homophobia, 82 (54.3%) were higher in homophobia. A difference in attitudes towards homosexuals was only observed between those who had a homosexual friend or acquaintance and those who did not (p = 0.009). Accordingly, those with homosexual friends were determined to be less homophobic. On the other hand, it was observed that those with a homosexual acquaintance and those with no homosexual acquaintances were more homophobic. CONCLUSION: In our study, it was shown that emergency medicine specialists and other health professionals working in the ED exhibit high levels of homophobic attitudes and behaviors. Including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex (LGBT-I) health problems in in-service trainings may contribute to the improvement of homophobic attitudes.
... Their findings showed that women's microcredit participation allows a redefinition of women's typical gender roles in rural Bangladesh since it proposes women to be cobreadwinners of the households, thus reversing the traditional patterns and the common mentality. On the same subject, Kroska (2000Kroska ( , 2007 defines gender ideology and its role in the process of empowerment, as people's attitudes toward gender specific roles, rights, and responsibilities (Kroska, 2000(Kroska, , 2007. She therefore highlighted that, in a conservative gender ideology, men are expected to fulfill their family roles through bread-winning activities and women instead are expected to fulfill their roles through homemaking and care-taking activities; while in a liberal ideology both women and men are expected to share bread-winning and caretaking activities. ...
... Their findings showed that women's microcredit participation allows a redefinition of women's typical gender roles in rural Bangladesh since it proposes women to be cobreadwinners of the households, thus reversing the traditional patterns and the common mentality. On the same subject, Kroska (2000Kroska ( , 2007 defines gender ideology and its role in the process of empowerment, as people's attitudes toward gender specific roles, rights, and responsibilities (Kroska, 2000(Kroska, , 2007. She therefore highlighted that, in a conservative gender ideology, men are expected to fulfill their family roles through bread-winning activities and women instead are expected to fulfill their roles through homemaking and care-taking activities; while in a liberal ideology both women and men are expected to share bread-winning and caretaking activities. ...
The present paper provides a review of the literature on women’s empowerment. In particular, it explains women’s empowerment and how it has been defined by various authors over time. It also aims at showing studies conducted on empowerment within microfinance and it reports research on the relevance of context. Finally, it reports research on the relevance of context as well as the negative aspects of women’s empowerment. Further, this work points out some gaps in the literature and provides suggestions for future research. The authors advance two hypotheses that could be verified in the future, assuming that there are two levers, “additional resources/services availability” and “national patriarchal society”, which act as mediating factors between the outreach of microfinance, or women and the actual impact on empowerment.
... Para além de suas diferenças, esses discursos operam com base na redução do gênero ao sexo (binário) a partir de uma representação simplificada e distorcida da própria biologia: "desde que a capacidade da religião para justificar a ideologia de gênero entrou em colapso, a biologia foi solicitada a ocupar seu lugar" (Connell ,2005(Connell , [1995: 46). Com isso, o discurso religioso da Igreja Católica modernizou-se a partir de uma uma antropologia da complementaridade segundo a qual os seres humanos são concebidos como biologicamente sexuados e, os sexos, como essencialmente diferentes (dualismo biológico), "ainda que não desiguais" (Case, 2017: 155 (Kroska, 2007(Kroska, : 1867. ...
Resumo: O discurso sobre "ideologia de genero" como "arma de guerra cultural" vem sendo analisado em uma seŕie de estudos genealógicos relativos aos processos históricos recentes que possibilitaram sua emergencia. Como esses estudos mostram, trata-se de um projeto alternativo de produção do que conta como conhecimento e como verdade. Contudo, pouca ou nenhuma atenção vem sendo dada aos sentidos que o termo assume nas teorias feministas e de genero. Ao negar que a ideologia de gênero pode ser reduzida a um mero espantalho produzido pela agenda conservadora, proponho uma espécie de história das ideias associadas ao termo, com ênfase no trabalho da socióloga Viola Klein, cujas reflexões em sociologia do conhecimento constituem uma das primeiras explorações teóricas do tema. Ao ilustrar a pluralidade de sentidos dos estudos academicos sobre ideologia de genero, argumento que, embora por vias distintas, eles convergem numa negação radical do discurso antigênero da direita global. Palavras-chave: ideologia de gênero, direita global, sociologia do conhecimento, Viola Klein, agnotologia. Abstract: The discourse on "gender ideology" as a "weapon of cultural war" has been the object of a number of genealogical studies on recent historical processes that allowed for its emergency. As these studies show, what is at stake is an alternative project of knowledge and truth production. However, there has been little or no attention to the meanings of gender ideology internal to feminist and gender theories. In denying that gender ideology can be reduced to a straw man produced by a conservative agenda, I propose a kind of history of ideas associated with the concept, with an emphasis on the work of sociologist Viola Klein, whose reflections, on the sociology of knowledge, represent one of the first theoretical investigations on gender ideology. In illustrating the plethora of meanings associated with the concept, I argue that they converge towards a radical negation of the anti-gender discourse of the global right.
... La ideología de género de un individuo o grupo condiciona sus actitudes hacia tales roles, de forma general o en áreas societales específicas (como el empleo o la familia). El contenido u orientación de estas actitudes no está definido, y puede hacer referencia tanto a argumentos conservadores y de naturalización de las desigualdades, como progresistas y de liberación femenina (Kroska, 2007). En diálogo con la aproximación de Dubet (2010) y el concepto de agencia (Bourdieu, 1997), el ideal tradicional del rol femenino limita la capacidad de las mujeres para actuar reflexiva y autónomamente dentro y fuera del espacio privado. ...
El presente artículo analiza las percepciones de género entre las mujeres de la iglesia cristiana Agua Viva en Lima Metropolitana y Callao (Perú), basándose en la sociología de la experiencia de Francois Dubet. La investigación utiliza un enfoque cualitativo mediante entrevistas a siete miembros de la Iglesia. Los hallazgos muestran convergencias entre las creencias religiosas de las mujeres y sus percepciones sobre roles de género en la familia, educación, trabajo y participación comunitaria. Aunque hay consenso entre las entrevistadas sobre la importancia de la participación femenina en la vida pública, también hay tensiones entre sus experiencias y visiones sobre roles de género en la esfera privada, especialmente en torno al matrimonio y la maternidad. Las mujeres justifican e interpretan sus percepciones basándose, entre otros elementos, en sus principios religiosos, expresando creencias conservadoras y otras adoptando perspectivas más progresistas. El estudio resalta la diversidad de interpretaciones y actitudes entre las participantes, desafiando el estereotipo de conservadurismo extremo en iglesias evangélicas y revelando matices en las perspectivas de las mujeres dentro de estas comunidades religiosas.
... L'ideologia di genere rappresenta un insieme di idee sui ruoli sociali appropriati assegnati alle persone sulla base del loro sesso. La funzione dell'ideologia di genere è quella di riprodurre e giustificare la gerarchia tradizionale, facendo sì che le relazioni di potere asimmetriche fra donne e uomini, instauratesi attraverso una storia di discriminazione, vengano interiorizzate e accettate come se fossero naturali (Lorber, 1994;Kroska, 2007). ...
This paper aims to analyse the elements of gender ideology and neo-liberal ideology in a corpus composed of three Italian and two Serbian as a foreign language textbooks. The focus of the study is centered on the representation of activities related to the purchase of clothes and accessories, analysed from the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis. The results indicate that neoliberal values are sustained through the idea that women are naturally predisposed to be clothes and fashion consumers. On a broader scale, the results implicate that the educational materials taken into examination lack a critical pedagogy approach, and that they do not employ the critical and the transformative potential of education, instead they are limited to the reproduction of dominant ideologies.
... L'ideologia di genere rappresenta un insieme di idee sui ruoli sociali appropriati assegnati alle persone sulla base del loro sesso. La funzione dell'ideologia di genere è quella di riprodurre e giustificare la gerarchia tradizionale, facendo sì che le relazioni di potere asimmetriche fra donne e uomini, instauratesi attraverso una storia di discriminazione, vengano interiorizzate e accettate come se fossero naturali (Lorber, 1994;Kroska, 2007). ...
This paper aims to analyse the elements of gender ideology and neo-liberal ideology in a corpus composed of three Italian and two Serbian as a foreign language textbooks. The focus of the study is centered on the representation of activities related to the purchase of clothes and accessories, analysed from the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis. The results indicate that neoliberal values are sustained through the idea that women are naturally predisposed to be clothes and fashion consumers. On a broader scale, the results implicate that the educational materials taken into examination lack a critical pedagogy approach, and that they do not employ the critical and the transformative potential of education, instead they are limited to the reproduction of dominant ideologies.
... It was also found that traditional views on gender roles influenced peoples' attitudes toward not only the victim but also the perpetrator of an abusive relationship (Taylor & Sorensen, 2005). Traditional gender role ideology emphasizes the value of distinctive roles for women and men; for example, men fulfill their family roles through instrumental, breadwinning occupations and women fulfill their roles through homemaking and parenting activities (Kroska, 2007). This specific ideology often provides men with a sense of entitlement to social dominance over women (Levant, 2011). ...
... The term "gender ideology" refers to a set of beliefs regarding the rights, responsibilities, and roles that should be assigned to men and women within a community (Ungaretti &Etchezahar, 2013). The term "gender ideology" can also refer to the views held by society that justify the inequality of the sexes, a definite sort of mindset that supports gender stratification (Kroska, 2007). This idea can be reflected in more broad senses or specific contexts, such as family, economic, legal, political, or social. ...
The context of the study is the ongoing protests and demonstrations by women in many places in Iran. The aim of this study is to examine gender ideology and power in Sahebjam’s Stoning of Soraya M. Qualitative descriptive method is used to investigate the relationship between gender ideology and power relations and how it creates power imbalance between men and women in Iranian society. The primary data source for this research is a novel, Stoning of Soraya M by Freidoune Sahebjam, which was first published in September 12, 1990. Data are analyzed through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis approach, more specifically, Lazar’s Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis (2007). The findings of the study suggest that the country's laws, including the Constitution, the Civil Code, and the Criminal Code create a complicated legal environment for women. While the Constitution guarantees equal civil rights for men and women, religious law superseds other laws and is frequently abused by individuals to commit crimes against women. This study reveals how gender ideology and power relations regarding women reflected through discourse can demonstrate how women are treated in different parts of the world.Keywords: Gender Ideology, Power, Novel, Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis
... Gender role ideologies generally refer to normative sociocultural beliefs about what constitutes a particular gender and its role in society (Thompson and Pleck, 1995), usually being classified on a continuum from more traditional or conservative to more egalitarian or liberal (Kroska, 2007). Thus, traditional beliefs about the male gender role -so called traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) -are beliefs about how men should be and behave that predate the deconstruction of gender by second-wave feminism in the 1960s (Pleck, 1981(Pleck, , 1995. ...
Purpose of review
Societal, cultural, and contextual norms about how men should be and behave (so called traditional masculinity ideologies; TMI) affect men’s presentation of depressive disorders, psychotherapy use, and treatment engagement. Only recently, however, male-tailored psychotherapy approaches for depressive disorders have been developed, which aim to systematically soften dysfunctional TMI. In this review, we outline the necessary groundwork as well as recent advances in research on TMI, men’s help-seeking, male depression, and their interrelatedness. Subsequently, we discuss the potential value of these findings for male-tailored psychotherapy for depressive disorders.
Recent findings
A preliminary evaluation of a male-specific psychoeducation program found that a male-specific psychoeducation text could reduce negative affect as well as state shame and potentially elicit a shift from externalizing depression symptoms toward more prototypical depression symptoms. The James’ Place program, a male-tailored community-based service, improved suicidal men’s overall well-being, problems, functioning, and suicide risk. The Heads Up Guys! program, an eHealth resource aimed at depressed men, reported a high and increasing global interest in their website, with considerable visitor engagement. The Man Therapy online resource improved depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and help-seeking behavior. Finally, the Men in Mind program, an online training program for clinical practitioners, increased practitioners’ capacity to engage and support men in therapy.
Summary
Male-tailored psychotherapy programs for depressive disorders, which are informed by recent advances in TMI research, may potentially increase therapeutic effectiveness, engagement, and adherence. While recent preliminary analyses of individual male-tailored treatment programs show promising results, extensive and systematic primary studies evaluating these programs are pending but greatly needed.
... În acest proces de socializare, copiilor le sunt prezentate anumite roluri care sunt, de obicei, legate de sexul lor biologic (de exemplu, albastru pentru băieți și roz pentru fete, după 1940). Termenul rol de gen se referă la modul în care societatea se așteaptă ca cineva să arate și să se comporte pe baza normelor create de societate pentru masculinitate (agresivitate, dominație, putere, mai multe locuri de muncă în armată, justiție, politică) și feminitate (îngrijire, pasivitate, subordonare, mai multe locuri de muncă în domenii ca asistență socială, îngrijirea copilului, sănătate) (Kroska, 2011). ...
Lucrarea de față reprezintă o invitație și totodată
o provocare pentru cei care doresc să facă primii pași în
domeniul sociologiei, fie sub rigoarea unui parcurs
curricular, fie din dorința unei dezvoltări profesionale
sau, pur și simplu, din curiozitate. Autorul, un erudit
cadru didactic, teolog si asistent social, propune o
structură cu 14 capitole care acoperă temele majore ale
domeniului: de la devenirea omului ca ființă socială
(socializare, educație) până la integrarea sa în diverse
forme asociative (grupuri, familie, comunități), cu
asumarea unor repere identitare (religie, gen, cultură) în
cadrul unor procese și manifestări sociale definitorii:
guvernanță, muncă, urbanizare, mișcări sociale, control
social șamd.
Fiecare capitol în parte realizează o sinteză foarte
consistentă a principalelor teorii și paradigme aferente,
cu evidențierea celor mai relevante contribuții pentru
tema respectivă și, foarte important, cu o bibliografie
proprie, extrem de utilă pentru cei care doresc să
aprofundeze subiectul abordat. Dacă este să facem un
scurt exercițiu sociologic sub forma unei analize de
conținut, cele peste 150 de pagini conțin peste 32.000 de
cuvinte (cele mai frecvente fiind societate și derivatele
sale, urmată de exemplu și teoria).
... Inadequacy of traditional/egalitarian framework In the international scholarship, gender ideology is most commonly framed as a unidimensional concept ranging from traditional to egalitarian (Kroska 2007;Davis & Greenstein 2009). Traditional ideology refers to a belief in gendered separate spheres in the family and employment domains, with the sphere of earning defined as male, and care and domestic work defined as female. ...
Previous studies on individual-level gender ideologies in Russia have produced conflicting results, with some suggesting re-traditionalisation and others noting increasing egalitarianism. This research explores changes in the Russian population’s views on gender division of labour between 1994 and 2012, moving beyond unidimensional conceptualisations of gender ideology that juxtapose traditionalism with egalitarianism. The findings evidence highly class-specific gender-ideology trajectories. Only lower classes increased their support for separate spheres. Amongst the more educated and affluent, ‘re-traditionalisation’ instead entailed increased endorsement of both joint breadwinning and gender-essentialist views of women’s caring roles at the expense of support for the housewife/male-breadwinner model and for egalitarianism.
... Podle míry jejich podpory pro rozdělení výdělečné a pečovatelské práce 146 se pak genderové ideologie pohybují od tradičních, konzervativních až po rovnostářské, liberální, feministické či progresivní. 147 Progresivní genderové ideologie přitom vycházejí ze sdílené výdělečné a pečovatelské sféry s tím, že oba partneři mají rovnocenné schopnosti a obě tyto sféry mají stejnou hodnotu, přičemž je důraz kladen na právo volby a individuální přístup. Konzervativní genderové ideologie zdůrazňují naopak hodnotu odlišných rolí pro ženy a muže, daných zejména biologicky, přičemž muži plní roli živitelů a ženy plní své role v domácnosti a rodičovských aktivitách; v tomto pojetí je legitimní i jistá genderová nerovnost a důraz je více kladen na stejnou důstojnost. ...
Česká veřejnost a média se zřídka zajímají o přijímání mezinárodních lidsko-právních smluv a samotní politici se k nim také obvykle nevyjadřují. Úmluva Rady Evropy o prevenci a potírání násilí vůči ženám a domácího násilí, tzv. Istanbulská úmluva, se v tomto ohledu stala výjimkou. Vedou se o ní velmi emotivní debaty, a to navzdory tomu, že ji většina veřejnosti a patrně ani většina zákonodárců a zákonodárkyň nikdy nečetla. Zatímco ČR bez problémů ratifikovala 111 úmluv Rady Evropy a mnoho dalších úmluv OSN, ratifikace Istanbulské úmluvy je nejistá. Co je na Istanbulské úmluvě jiného, komu a proč vadí její obsah, proč mají naši zákonodárci problém ratifikovat úmluvu, která chrání ženy před násilím? Na základě interdisciplinárního přístupu, se tento článek snaží objasnit funkci a význam úmluvy a důvody jejího problémového přijetí v ČR. Právní část je komparativní analýzou práva ČR, Istanbulské úmluvy a jiných mezinárodních lidskoprávních úmluv, které pojednávají o právech žen a násilí. Výsledkem právní analýzy je zjištění, že Istanbulská úmluva je standardní mezinárodní úmluvou a její ustanovení se neliší od mnoha jiných, které ČR v minulosti bez výhrad podepsala. Diskurzní analýza je provedena na základě prohlášení jednotlivých zákonodárců a představitelů různých zájmových skupin na jednáních Parlamentu, v médiích a na sociálních sítích od r. 2010. Diskurzní analýza potvrzuje, že v ČR, tak jako v řadě jiných zemí, patří k největším odpůrcům úmluvy římskokatolická církev a zástupci konzervativních stran. Tito kritici spatřují hlavní problém v ustanoveních poukazujících na historickou nerovnost žen a mužů, zavádění konstruktu genderu a genderového násilí a vzdělávání v této oblasti, které podle nich ohrožuje přirozený řád společnosti a tradiční rodinu a prosazuje nebezpečnou „genderovou ideologii“. Hlavním jádrem sporu tedy není technická formulace úmluvy, která je z pohledu práva v pořádku, ale její možný obecný dopad na společnost, zejména na roli mužů a žen ve společnosti a v rodině.
... Such segregation of spheres and roles creates a power differential in which women hold a place of subordination and economic dependence on male family members (e.g., father, husband, or brother) by performing unpaid domestic labor (Leschyshyn and Minnotte, 2014). In contrast, egalitarian gender ideology suggests that roles and spheres should not be segregated by gender, and that men and women should have the ability to participate in both outside work and family domains (Kroska, 2007). Undeniably, there exists considerable multidimensionality within each sphere; both political influence and care labor can occur in the private and public spheres. ...
Despite a growing focus on processes to promote gender equity, women remain significantly underrepresented in leadership positions in the Global South. In the present study we focus on the role of familial experiences in shaping and contesting gender ideologies of Pakistani women in the workplace. We specifically examine the reciprocal ways in which women leaders and their family members shape each other’s gender ideologies regarding the workplace. Data collected and analyzed for this study were semi-structured interviews with eight women in positions of leadership in Lahore, Pakistan, and interviews with one family members of each of the women leaders (thus 16 interviews total). Using thematic narrative analysis, we identified three thematic phases: learning gender expectations, resistance, and familial transformation. These phases reflect the progression of developing, resisting, and influencing individual and familial gender ideologies. We document the manifestation of these phases in three specific domains: education, marriage and motherhood, and the workplace. We then discuss how these findings contribute to understanding the experiences of women leaders and perceptions of their family members regarding women’s role in the workplace. Findings from our research provide novel insights into the ways globalization and capitalism continue to shape the socio-cultural context for women leaders in the Global South.
... As occurs in the anti-gender discourse, studies of gender ideology also present an ample terminological variation: 6 gender ideology, sexual role ideology, gender role ideology, attitudes about gender, attitudes relating to gender, gender equality, and beliefs about gender are expressions that have been used with a similar meaning in a series of research studies in areas like sociology, anthropology, psychology, administration, literary studies and so on (Davis & Greenstein, 2009). The use of one term over another is generally due to conceptual distinctions within the field, 7 but Kroska (2007Kroska ( : 1867Kroska ( -1868 summarizes the issue adroitly: ...
In the last few years, a number of genealogical studies have
been published about recent historical processes that enabled
the emergence of the discourse on “gender ideology”
as a “weapon in the culture war.” As some of these studies
suggest, what is at stake is an alternative project of knowledge
and truth production. Little or no attention, however,
has been given to the meanings of gender ideology internal
to feminist and gender theories. Rejecting the idea that
gender ideology can be reduced to a straw man produced
by a conservative agenda, I propose a brief history of ideas
associated with the concept, foregrounding the work of
sociologist Viola Klein, whose reflections on the sociology
of knowledge represent one of the first academic investigations
of gender ideology. In illustrating the plethora of
meanings associated with the concept, I argue that they
converge towards a radical negation of the anti-gender
discourse of the global right.
O discurso sobre “ideologia de gênero” como “arma de
guerra cultural” vem sendo analisado em uma série de estudos
genealógicos relativos aos processos históricos recentes
que possibilitaram sua emergência. Como esses
estudos mostram, trata-se de um projeto alternativo de
produção do que conta como conhecimento e como verdade.
Contudo, pouca ou nenhuma atenção vem sendo
dada aos sentidos que a expressão assume nas teorias
feministas e de gênero. Ao negar que a ideologia de gênero
pode ser reduzida a um mero espantalho produzido pela
agenda conservadora, proponho uma espécie de história
das ideias associadas à expressão, com ênfase no trabalho
da socióloga Viola Klein, cujas reflexões em sociologia do
conhecimento constituem uma das primeiras explorações
teóricas do tema. Ao ilustrar a pluralidade de sentidos dos
estudos acadêmicos sobre ideologia de gênero, argumento
que, embora por vias distintas, eles convergem numa negação
radical do discurso antigênero da direita global.
... Gender-role ideology refers to attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society (Davis and Greenstein, 2009;Kroska, 2007). Industrialization and increased educational opportunities for women have blurred the steadfast notion of the man being the breadwinner for families, continuously challenging traditional gender-role norms in modern societies. ...
This study used Taiwan’s Panel Study of Family Dynamics (PSFD) 2016 data to investigate the relationship between gender-role ideology and height preference in mate selection, finding that women prefer a tall partner much more than men prefer a short partner. However, when traditional gender norms prevail, men with a high levels of adherence to gender-role ideology cannot accept a female partner who is either too tall or too short. Men’s height preferences are more responsive to social norms than women’s, while women’s height preferences are more sensitive to their own demographic characteristics than men’s. The tallest and shortest female partners accepted by men with strong traditional gender-role ideology are 2.37 cm shorter and 2.21 cm taller, respectively, than men who disagree with gender norms. In marriage, gender-role ideology is not relevant to partner height, regardless of sex.
... According to a traditional gender ideology about the family, for example, men fulfill their family roles through instrumental, breadwinning activities and women fulfill their roles through caregiving activities. By contrast, egalitarian ideologies regarding the family endorse and value men's and women's equal and shared breadwinning and nurturing family roles (Kroska 2007). ...
The present study examined whether a mismatch between sex and gender in transgender women in Israel affects their internal worldview as expressed in gender role ideology (liberal-feminist vs. conservative-chauvinistic views), and their perception of body image. 40 cisgender men, 40 cisgender women, and 41 transgender women (total of 121). Both in relation to gender roles and body image, transgender women perceived their inner world as more compatible with that of cisgender women, and different from that of cisgender men. The inner world of transgender women is affected more by the gender they associated with than by the gender of birth, an important and relevant finding for professionals who treat this population or work with them.
... The concept can reflect these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, and/or social domain. Most gender ideology constructs are unidimensional and range from traditional, conservative, or anti-feminist to egalitarian, liberal, or feminist' (Kroska 2007). Hall (1997) also explains the relation between representation and advertising, of which identification is the bridge. ...
Edited by Dr Emsie Arnoldi, the diverse voices in this collection deliver a fascinating variety of research approaches, theoretical perspectives and research methodologies.
This thought-provoking compilation casts a critical eye over many topical themes including the role of news media in shaping views of voluntary assisted dying, the under-representation of working mothers in Australian feature films and the role of the influencer on social media platforms.
... One of the controversial issues that have gained academic attention in the field of media studies based on the MDA approach around the recent decades is gender ideology since it has been found that many gender ideology representations are concealed in various platforms of mass media (Tehseem, Sibtain, Obaid & Iqbal, 2019). According to Kroska (2007), the term "gender ideology" refers to a certain set of social idealistic perspectives toward appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men and these are subtly conveyed or represented in the society through the particular ways like political, social, or 1 MAY 2020 [1444] Proceedings of RSU International Research Conference (2020) Published online: Copyright © 2016-2020 Rangsit University economic system. Kroska also points out that gender ideology involves the misled or negative perspectives that legitimate gender inequality to be a common practice in society. ...
Television advertisements could be considered as one of the easily accessible mediums causing many problematic consequences on gender issues in Thai society. This is because not only the advertised content is delivered to the audience but some misleading or negative representations are also embedded in it (Paratasilpin, 2004). Also, the audience tends to unconsciously adopt these representations and practices regarding gender ideology because of the fast and short-lived dissemination nature and characteristic of the television advertisement (Jittayasotorn, 2013). The purpose of this research paper is to analyze television food advertisements in Thailand to explore linguistic and visual elements employed to convey gender ideologies in the advertisements. The approach of multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) seems perfectly fit for the data of this research study since it provides the covered method for analyzing the various kinds of modes found in a television advertisement. Under the MDA theory, the existing Thai advertising linguistic strategies applied from Rungruangying and Untaya (2017), Chairerk and Anunsiriwat (2016), and Kaewjungate (2010) based on Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) of Halliday (1994) were applied for linguistic analysis. Goffman (1976)'s Gender Advertisement together with Skorek and Schreier (2009)'s interpretative variable schemes were utilized as the visual analytical tool. The results revealed that there were some specific patterns of linguistic strategies and stereotypically visual representation consistently employed in the advertisements. In term of linguistic analysis, there were 7 strategies including (1) lexical selection, (2) figures of speech, (3) rhetorical questions, (4) inter-sentential cohesion, (5) casual style, (6) the use of medical or technological details, and (7) claiming. For the visual analysis, there were 3 visual strategies found including (1) function ranking, (2) feminine touch, and (3) ritualization of subordination. These linguistic and visual strategies have been cooperatively connoted some outstanding gender ideologies regarding the roles of food provider, spouse caretaker, and child caretaker between men and women in the domestic context. These show that cooperative communication between these two modes might not only help to promote the advertised products but could be also considered as the representations of gender ideology transmission through television food advertisements in Thai society.
... Nowadays, many cross-national survey programmes -such as the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), Gender Generation Programme (GGP), European Values Study (EVS) and Eurobarometer (EB) -include questions in their comprehensive questionnaires related to perceptions about gender equality and its related policies (EB), gender division of household work (ISSP, GGP) or gender-role attitudes (EVS, ISSP, GGP, EB). The latter often are used as indicators of gender ideology: a personal system of beliefs concerning appropriate roles for men and women in society (Harris and Firestone, 1998 ;Kroska, 2006 ;André et al, 201 3 ;Constantin and Voicu, 2015 ). ...
This chapter dealswith the complex task of measuring gender equality across European countriesby assuming two principal perspectives: the use of macro indicators, developed using gender statistics and describingthe country’s situation;and the employment of micro-level indicators, which are built on survey-population measurements, such as ISSP and Eurobarometer, and refer to individuals’ perspectives on gender issues. The critical overview provided on the international indicesspeaks to different conceptualisations of gender equality. This requires awareness not only among scholars interested in the study of gender equality, but also among policymakers and audit bodies that evaluate policies. The EIGE Gender Equality Index, developed in the gender-mainstreaming perspective’s framework by the European Institute for Gender Equality,appears particularly meaningful for evaluating gender equality according to the overall European strategy. The measurement of gender-equality issues through surveys needs better conceptualisations, which so farmainly refer to women’s double role as working mothers, thereby neglecting gender equality’s multidimensionality and the fact that it encompasses the status of both women and men.
... Nowadays, many cross-national survey programmes -such as the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), Gender Generation Programme (GGP), European Values Study (EVS) and Eurobarometer (EB) -include questions in their comprehensive questionnaires related to perceptions about gender equality and its related policies (EB), gender division of household work (ISSP, GGP) or gender-role attitudes (EVS, ISSP, GGP, EB). The latter often are used as indicators of gender ideology: a personal system of beliefs concerning appropriate roles for men and women in society (Harris and Firestone, 1998 ;Kroska, 2006 ;André et al, 201 3 ;Constantin and Voicu, 2015 ). ...
The book provides a systematic scientific overview of gender mainstreaming in Europe. It recalls the main steps of the origins and the development of the European gender mainstreaming (GM) strategy. The book also connects this framework with the current situation of gender equality and explores the strength and weak points of the strategy. To do so, it provides a critical evaluation of the instruments used to measure gender equality and explores how societal aspects, such as the opportunity structure defined by work-family balance policies and practices, affect the individual values of gender equality supporting the development of gender egalitarian cultures. Further, it develops an outline of the current and future challenges of the gender mainstreaming strategy, that run in parallel with the general European Union’s challenges, such as the integration process, economic crisis, migration and refugees crisis, and the rise of right-wing Euroscepticism. In addition, the old but always current problem of conceptualizing gender equality in different ways leading to jeopardized results. The book offers a critical review of the GM strategy in Europe and analyses whether and how gender equality in Europe is improving, with a specific interest in the cultural differences between the European countries where this common strategy is implemented.
... This legitimating ideology-gender ideology-justifies men's and women's specified social roles and expectations according to corresponding beliefs about each group. Although gender ideology can manifest in many forms (e.g., traditional, egalitarian, liberal, feminist) and by extension render various organizational outcomes based on gender (Kroska 2007), arguably the most fundamental and enduring gender ideology in modern society is traditional gender ideology. ...
Using a corpus of millions of digitized books, we document the presence and trajectory over time of stereotypical gender associations in the written English language from 1800 to 2000. We employ the novel methodology of word embeddings to quantify male gender bias: the tendency to associate a domain with the male gender. We measure male gender bias in four stereotypically gendered domains: career, family, science, and arts. We found that stereotypical gender associations in language have decreased over time but still remain, with career and science terms demonstrating positive male gender bias and family and arts terms demonstrating negative male gender bias. We also seek evidence of changing associations corresponding to the second shift and find partial support. Traditional gender ideology is latent within the text of published English-language books, yet the magnitude of traditionally gendered associations appears to be decreasing over time.
... Nowadays, many cross-national survey programmes -such as the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), Gender Generation Programme (GGP), European Values Study (EVS) and Eurobarometer (EB) -include questions in their comprehensive questionnaires related to perceptions about gender equality and its related policies (EB), gender division of household work (ISSP, GGP) or gender-role attitudes (EVS, ISSP, GGP, EB). The latter often are used as indicators of gender ideology: a personal system of beliefs concerning appropriate roles for men and women in society (Harris and Firestone, 1998 ;Kroska, 2006 ;André et al, 201 3 ;Constantin and Voicu, 2015 ). ...
With gender equality so prominent in public debate, this book reviews the impacts of gender mainstreaming on political, social and cultural issues around Europe.
It explores the origins and evolution of mainstreaming, the theory’s contribution to gender equality legislation so far and its potential to drive change in the future. Drawing on extensive data, the book compares and contrasts progress in various European countries, taking into account the multidimensionality of gender equality. Finally, the book considers the limits of gender mainstreaming amid economic, migration and political challenges.
Content:
Introduction
1. Gender equality and gender mainstreaming: the issue of equal opportunities in the European context
2. Gender mainstreaming in Europe: legislation and cultural changes
3. Gender mainstreaming and social policies in Europe
4. Gender equality in Europe: measures and indicators
5. European gender cultures
6. Current challenges to gender mainstreaming in Europe
Conclusions
... Another important approach focuses on the extent to which adolescents incorporate gender roles that relate to skills and aptitude into their identity (Akerlof and Kranton 2000;Sinclair and Carlsson 2013), for example, views that women should be caring and nurturing, and men should provide for their family (Kroska 2007). Although this does not include a hierarchical notion per se, it creates a narrative in which women are particularly suited for subject areas that lead to low-paying, low-social-status jobs and men are particularly suited for highly prestigious, highly paid jobs. ...
Individuals’ favorite subjects in school can predetermine their educational and occupational careers. If girls develop weaker preferences for science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), it can contribute to macrolevel gender inequalities in income and status. Relying on large-scale panel data on adolescents from Sweden (218 classrooms, 4,998 students), we observe a widening gender gap in preferring STEM subjects within a year (girls, 19 to 15 percent; boys, 21 to 20 percent). By applying newly developed random-coefficient multilevel stochastic actor-oriented models on social network data (27,428 friendships), we investigate how social context contributes to those changes. We find strong evidence that students adjust their preferences to those of their friends (friend influence). Moreover, girls tend to retain their STEM preferences when other girls in their classroom also like STEM (peer exposure). We conclude that these mechanisms amplify preexisting preferences and thereby contribute to the observed dramatic widening of the STEM gender gap.
... Egalitarian ideologies reflect a belief in men's and women's joint responsibility and capability for earning and caring and emphasize individual choice, not gendered traits, in regard to the arrangements adopted in practice (Davis & Greenstein, 2009;Orloff, 2008; see Table 1 for a stylized overview). Traditional gender ideologies, in contrast, generally refer to beliefs in gendered separate spheres in the employment and family domains (Davis & Greenstein, 2009;Kroska, 2007). Specifically, individuals holding traditional ideologies consider the sphere of earning as male and separate from the female domain of care and unpaid work at home. ...
The authors argue, in line with recent research, that operationalizing gender ideology as a unidimensional construct ranging from traditional to egalitarian is problematic and propose an alternative framework that takes the multidimensionality of gender ideologies into account. Using latent class analysis, they operationalize their gender ideology framework based on data from the 2008 European Values Study, of which eight European countries reflecting the spectrum of current work–family policies were selected. The authors examine the form in which gender ideologies cluster in the various countries. Five ideology profiles were identified: egalitarian, egalitarian essentialism, intensive parenting, moderate traditional, and traditional. The five ideology profiles were found in all countries, but with pronounced variation in size. Ideologies mixing gender essentialist and egalitarian views appear to have replaced traditional ideologies, even in countries offering some institutional support for gendered separate spheres.
... According to the gender ideology or the "doing gender" approach, the division of household work is determined by the attitudes toward gender equality and family roles (e.g., Aassve, Fuochi, & Mencarini, 2014;Coltrane, 2000;West & Zimmerman, 2009). In other terms, the effect of inequalities in the division of household labor on perceptions of fairness is moderated by gender ideology at the individual level, namely, attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society (Coltrane, 2000;Kroska, 2007;Lavee & Katz,2002;Neyer, Lappegård, & Vignoli, 2013;Mikula, Riederer, & Bodi, 2012). It also depends on the level of gender equality at the national level (Barstad, 2014;Mencarini & Sironi, 2012). ...
A new strand of studies has called into question standard microeconomic predictions of a positive association between women’s economic independence and marital union dissolution. We investigate whether and how the gender division of labor channels the impact of women’s employment on marital union disruption, utilizing data on heterosexual couples from the 2003 and 2007 waves of the Italian nationally representative “Family and Social Subject” survey (N = 2,871) and applying techniques of mediation analysis. We suggest that women’s employment does not have a negative effect per se on union stability, and that women’s paid work becomes detrimental to the stability of the union only if the men’s contribution to unpaid work is limited.
... In our study, gender role ideology was conceptualized as attitudes toward the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of men and women within core social institutions (Kroska 2006). Attitudes about gender role ideology can range on a continuum from traditional to egalitarian. ...
Scant research has been conducted on gender in the Arab world; one explanation is due to a lack of Arabic measures on gender-related issues. To advance scientific work on gender in the Arab world, we developed the Arab Adolescents Gender Roles Attitude Scale (AAGRAS), the first known reliable and valid Arabic measure of gender-role attitudes. To develop this measure, we conducted two studies based on data collected from 776 high school students 15–19 years-old from the state of Qatar. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis produced 12 items divided equally into two subscales. One subscale assesses traditional gender-role attitudes, whereas the other measures egalitarian gender-role attitudes. Our findings indicate that young men are more likely to resist gender equality than young women are. Moreover, those who hold traditional attitudes are more likely to disapprove of women occupying positions of authority. The AAGRAS is a useful assessment tool that policymakers, researchers, practitioners, and educators can use to study gender-role attitudes in the Arab world and to develop educational and intervention programs that encourage adolescents to identify, confront, and avoid prejudice and discrimination against women and ultimately adopt more egalitarian gender roles.
... Il significato di "ideologia di genere" è ampiamente condiviso nella letteratura internazionale di questo settore di studi, con cui si indica il "concetto soggiacente relativo al supporto di un individuo verso una divisione del lavoro retribuito e delle responsabilità domestiche e di cura basata sulla nozione di sfere separate"(Davis e Greenstein 2009). Più in generale, come descriveKroska (2006), l'ideologia di genere si riferisce agli atteggiamenti riguardanti l'appropriatezza di ruoli, diritti e responsabilità di donne e uomini in una certa società. ...
Sebbene molti passi siano stati fatti nel cammino verso la parità tra uomini e donne, le relazioni tra i generi e la legittimazione del ruolo della donna nella sfera pubblica restano ancora limitate da vincoli culturali che non permettono il pieno riconoscimento dei diritti e delle potenzialità che il contributo femminile può offrire alla società.
I paesi europei hanno sviluppato i propri percorsi verso la parità con ritmi e velocità differenti, portando ad esiti molto diversi, nonostante il comune percorso indirizzato dalla strategia transnazionale del gender mainstreaming. Esistono delle ragioni culturali che motivano questa diversità? Quali sono i fattori contestuali ed individuali che possono limitare o promuovere lo sviluppo di una cultura maggiormente paritaria? E perché alcuni paesi europei migliorano di anno in anno la propria situazione ed altri restano invece stazionari?
Assumendo le dinamiche di genere come un concetto situato e multilivello, il volume cerca di rispondere a questi interrogativi, mettendo in evidenza il legame esistente tra i valori individuali e il contesto culturale di riferimento proponendo un’analisi sincronica e diacronica degli atteggiamenti verso i ruoli femminili nella sfera pubblica. Basandosi sull’analisi secondaria di dati da survey internazionali ripetute nel tempo (European Values Study, World Values Survey, International Social Survey Programme, Eurobarometer), lo studio compara i valori degli europei in modo trasversale attraverso un’analisi multilivello che include 22 paesi. Un ulteriore approfondimento è dedicato all’analisi del cambiamento avvenuto nell’arco di venti anni nel supporto ai valori di parità in Italia, Germania, Paesi Bassi e Gran Bretagna, assumendo tale mutamento come parte di un cambiamento culturale più ampio, connesso ai processi di modernizzazione.
L’intreccio tra le opzioni teoriche di riferimento e le molteplici tecniche di analisi multivariata, debitamente illustrate, permettono di incontrare gli interessi di chi è attento alla questione della parità di genere così come quelli di coloro maggiormente orientati ai quesiti metodologici dell’analisi comparativa dei valori.
... Some treat gender theory primarily as part of social science and thus emphasize the influence of social realities (Barak 2010) as justification for men's superiority over women. Others implicitly view gender theory mainly as ideology (Kroska, 2007) perhaps with less policy utility. ...
The chapter is a philosophical examination of the impact of changing masculinities and femininities, particularly on Zimbabwe’s social, economic and political development. The chapter argues for positive and transformative masculinities and femininities based on the ethical values of Ubuntu in order to realize the development of Zimbabwe in the socio-economic and political spheres. In this chapter, qualitative content analysis was used to examine the impact of changing masculinities and femininities on the development of Zimbabwe from a philosophical standpoint. From this examination, it was shown that normative cultural and toxic masculinities and femininities have negatively impacted the development of the nation in the sense that they have left the country lagging behind in terms of its socio-economic and political development. The chapter has argued for the need to embrace values of justice, fairness, equity and equality in order to direct positive and transformative masculinities and femininities towards Zimbabwe’s social, economic and political development.
What does it mean to be in love while at war? This Element demonstrates that whether rebel groups commit themselves to marriage, bar it entirely, or reinterpret the ceremonies and practices associated with marriage, their decision has important implications for both the rebel organization and individual members. This Element contributes to the literature on gender and politics by demonstrating that rebel marriages are an under-appreciated driver of gendered conflict and post-conflict dynamics. This Element introduces frameworks for understanding how rebel groups approach the issue of marriage, suggesting that variation between and within rebel groups over time is related to not only the rebels' political project, but also the anticipated effect of marriage on cohesion and retention, and the rebels' logistical concerns. Furthermore, the Element unpacks how wartime rebel marriages can complicate or improve women's prospects for post-conflict reintegration by shaping whether rebel wives are depoliticized, distrusted, or reclaimed.
In line with critical approaches to foreign language education the paper examines the representation of diet in Italian as a foreign language textbooks in relation to gender stereotypes. In order to identify and interpret ideological mechanisms that shape body politics in textbooks we employ quantitative content analysis and critical discourse analysis. To illustrate how the power of ideologically shaped sociocultural norms produces gendered body politics we introduce the Foucauldian concept of «docile bodies». This concept is furthermore interpreted from the feminist perspective, according to which female bodies are culturally subject to a more intense discipline and surveillance. The results confirm that diet discourse is characterized by a pronounced contrast between the docile bodies of women and the free of constraints bodies of men-unlike the female body that is subject to continuous surveillance and control, the male body is accepted in its natural form and furthermore embraced as a symbol of hedonism. In linea con l'approccio critico all'insegnamento delle lingue straniere, questo contributo mira a esaminare l'im-patto degli stereotipi di genere sulla rappresentazione della dieta nei manuali di italiano LS. Al fine di individuare e interpretare i meccanismi ideologici che plasmano le dominanti politiche del corpo nel discorso dei manuali, verranno impiegate l'analisi quantitativa del contenuto e l'analisi critica del discorso. Per illustrare come le norme socioculturali che producono le politiche del corpo intersecano con genere e potere, ci avvarremo del concetto di «corpi docili» (docile bodies), elaborato da Foucault. Il suddetto concetto verrà reinterpretato se-condo un'ottica femminista, partendo dalla premessa che i corpi femminili sono sottoposti a un maggiore livello di disciplina e sorveglianza rispetto a quelli maschili. I risultati confermano che la rappresentazione della dieta è caratterizzata da un forte contrasto tra i corpi docili delle donne e i corpi degli uomini, liberi da ogni costrizione. Emerge che, a differenza del corpo femminile, sottoposto a costante controllo e sorveglianza, il corpo maschile è accettato nella sua forma naturale nonché esaltato come simbolo di edonismo. Parole chiave: Italian as a foreign language textbooks; gender; ideology; power; body politics
Contemporary gender norms and attitudes in Armenia have been shaped by a complex interplay of pre-Soviet traditional culture, the legacy of the Soviet socialist modernization project, and the post-Soviet spread of western ideas and values. The paper examines generational differences in gender norms and attitudes in Armenian society, by comparing three generational groups. The mixed-method analysis is based on quantitative and qualitative data, including the nationally-representative household-based Gender Barometer Survey conducted in 2014, as well as in-depth interviews and focus group discussions among members of different generational groups in Armenia during 2015-2020. The results of the factor analysis show considerable generational complexity in gender norms and attitudes. We find that the majority of Armenian society, regardless of gender and generation, strongly adheres to the core family values and the corresponding gendered family roles. At the same time, the analyses show that individuals who belong to the older generation, i.e., the generation whose socialization took place under Soviet rule, display the most conservative patriarchal gender attitudes. The middle generation, whose coming of age occurred during the period of the early radical post-Soviet transformation, demonstrate inconsistent gender attitudes: while adhering to conservative gender norms, they are also most dissatisfied with the state of gender equality and in some aspects, such as achievement of status and wealth, display considerable gender egalitarianism. Finally, the youngest generation generally subscribes to the most egalitarian attitudes, but this group is far from homogenous, demonstrating a sharp divide between urban dwellers, who are very egalitarian-minded, and rural ones, who are remarkably conservative. Notably, young women living in cities display by far the most egalitarian attitudes. Moreover, among men, the generation is not a significant predictor of the level of egalitarianism in gender attitudes, compared to education and area of residence (city/village). However, it has a more significant impact on women’s perception of the traditional gender scheme. We conclude with a discussion of the role of changes in gender norms and attitudes in a broader transformation of Armenian society.
Recent research has confirmed the positive role of effectuation in firm performance. We propose that bringing gender roles into the application of effectuation is important because of the alignment between gender expectations and effectual logics. Employing four samples collected with 990 entrepreneurs from emerging economies, we find that female entrepreneurs apply effectuation more effectively than male entrepreneurs, especially in countries with low gender inequality. Thus, this research suggests that investigating the adoption of effectuation through the lens of gender roles, along with gender power differences, provides an important window into understanding how female entrepreneurs can outperform male entrepreneurs.
Back in 2018 I witnessed an instance of verbal behaviour which—I believe—would be categorised as hate speech, for instance, in the UK, yet regrettably remains unpenalised in the Polish legal system. A social media group intended for teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Poland, I used to be a member of, featured a post asserting that non-heteronormative students should not be treated on a par with the heterosexual majority. It contained denigrating and devaluating claims about such students. What is more bewildering and saddening, it was authored by a teacher. Would you expect an instant reprimand on the part of the group community defending the rights of such student minority? I certainly did. For this reason, I was rather taken aback to read only a few moderately critical comments that were followed with somewhat vehement replies by the author becoming even more verbally aggressive. My reaction was instinctive: to label the behaviour appropriately, refute the ludicrous argumentation and direct the fellow group members to relevant research literature. If I recall correctly, I was supported by merely...
Este trabalho é resultado de uma pesquisa qualitativa (exploratória) que discute a “Ideologia de Gênero” e o “Movimento Escola sem Partido” enquanto elementos discursivos inseridos em um campo de articulação transnacional. Parte-se das reflexões acerca dos “embates hegemônicos” em torno das políticas de gênero e sexualidade e de uma revisão bibliográfica em torno das temáticas em questão. Busca-se analisar a partir da teoria do discurso os desafios enfrentados pela sociologia no atual cenário político brasileiro. Como resultados, o trabalho aponta que tais elementos discursivos estão associados aos avanços e pautas neoconservadoras e neoliberais somadas aos interesses de grupos religiosos na América Latina, sendo a educação um espaço de disputa entre os sentidos que defrontam por fixação e hegemonia. Conclui-se evidenciando o urgente contexto estrutural das demandas anti-intelectuais, fundamentando propostas político-pedagógicas contrastantes, como a pedagogia feminista, pedagogia queer e decolonial assim como suas respectivas concepções curriculares.
Este trabalho teórico-político discute a “ideologia de gênero” como um elemento discursivo de articulação transnacional. Nele, pretende-se abordar origem e constituição da mesma enquanto instrumento retórico que, desde 2014, tem causado um “pânico moral” nos segmentos sociais/políticos brasileiros. Ademais, procura-se apresentar outro sentido acerca do termo, em forma de conceito sociológico, ao mesmo tempo em que reitera uma perspectiva crítica. A partir da Teoria do Discurso, de Ernesto Laclau e Chantal Mouffe, pretende-se reflexionar a respeito dos significados e sentidos do referido elemento como uma ferramenta que põe em xeque o caráter democrático da educação, principalmente no que tange às ciências humanas. A metodologia de pesquisa utilizada é qualitativa, de caráter exploratório e aponta para a “ideologia de gênero” difundida em um momento agnotológico, na qual são institucionalizadas práticas de perseguição, censura e demonização dos sujeitos e grupos que trabalham com as teorias de gênero.
Wondering whethergender mainstreaming really supports the shift to a more gender-egalitarian Europe,this chapter explores the intertwined relation between individual gender role attitudes, gender regimes,and gender cultures in Europe. It investigates how structural aspects, which determine the opportunities available for men and women to achieve their goals, as well as cultural features, which establish socially constructed, predominant family models and legitimised gender roles, contribute to explaining individuals’ beliefs in gender equality. The chapter reports empirical evidence of the positive effect of work-family balance policies, which enshrines the gender mainstreaming principles, on the promotion of gender egalitarian beliefs. Thesepolicies and workplace practices allow working parents to combine their professional and personal responsibilities, directly affecting their opportunity structures. Because of such realistic opportunities, people tend to express more egalitarian views. At the same time, the implementation of work-family balance policies transmits a certain idea of a lifestyle model and family pattern, legitimising them through structural elements that contribute to changing current gender regimes.
Research Framework: In postmodern Western society, men have adopted behaviour that is traditionally labelled as being feminine, particularly when it comes to the distribution of child rearing roles. In Switzerland, the tangible investment of men is generally characterized, in comparison to women, by a lesser involvement in domestic and familial tasks, which is reduced further following the birth of a child.
Objectives: Using this statement as our starting point, this article explores the relationship between gender ideology and the investment of men and fathers in this area.
Methodology: Using multi-variate statistics models, our analysis attempts to determine whether attitudes to family life and equality have an influence on the domestic and familial involvement of men. We conducted over 25,000 telephone interviews between 2000 and 2011 as a part of the Swiss Household Panel (SHP).
Results: Our results showed four types of masculinity. The “Professional Man” essentially builds his masculinity through their professional implication in the employment and financial aspects of the household. The “Orthodox Man” remains the main financial provider though they do not eschew domestic tasks. Regardless, they tend to take care of tasks that are socially defined as being masculine. The “Traditional Manager” has a similar profile though they only take charge of tasks that are negotiable such as the administrative aspects of the home. The “Inclusive Man” shares more time between paid and unpaid work with their partner.
Conclusions: These different profiles are less explained by the practical application of a gender ideology than by institutional and pragmatic factors such as economic and human capital and the disposition of partners.
Contributions: By offering a typology for involvement in unpaid work for Swiss men and by empirically examining several explanations for the stated differences, this article provides an original contribution to the understanding of masculinity in a familial context.
This chapter examines gender and ideological differences in work-family balance expectations of adolescents and emerging adults. The chapter examines relevant research discussing such considerations, in addition to using data from two studies to further illustrate the chapter topic. In both studies (one using 15-year-olds, one using college undergraduates), individuals expected to balance work and family in a traditional, gendered way, with men expecting to work full-time before and after children, and women expecting to reduce/end working outside the home after children. Before children, both male and female emerging adults with traditional gender ideologies reported fewer hours of work than those who were more egalitarian. After children, gender ideology was important for female but not male work expectations: For young women, more traditional gender ideology predicted greater expectations of part-rather than full-time employment. Otherwise, gender ideology operated similarly for both genders. Idealized expectations were also evident, as both young men and women reported planning on sharing primary caregiving responsibilities, despite endorsing a traditional gendered employment pattern. Implications for gender inequality in the workforce and potential consequences for the next generation are also discussed.
Develops & tests a model based on relative deprivation theory which suggests that gender ideology functions as a moderator variable in a process through which inequalities in the division of household labor come to be seen as inequities. Using data from the 1987/88 National Survey of Families & Households, for 4,960 married US couples, 3 empirical tests of the model provide evidence that inequalities in the division of household labor are more strongly related to perceptions of inequity for egalitarian than for traditional wives, & that perceptions of inequity are more strongly related to perceived quality of the marital relationship for egalitarian than for traditional wives. The findings suggest that researchers studying the division of household labor need to shift their focus away from analyses of objective inequalities & toward the study of perceived inequity. 2 Tables, 27 References.
Women's low rate of participation at the highest levels of politics
is an enduring problem in gender stratification. Previous cross-national
research on women in national legislatures has stressed three explanations
for differences in women's political representation: social structure,
politics, and ideology. Despite strong theory suggesting the importance of
ideology, it has not found support in previous cross-national statistical
studies. But ideology has not been as well measured as structural and
political factors. In this article, we demonstrate that gender ideology
strongly affects the number of women in national legislatures. We do
so by introducing a newly available measure of national gender ideology
into a cross-national model of women in legislatures. We demonstrate that
ideology, when measured more precisely, strongly predicts differences
in women's political representation.
I investigate the relationship between gender ideology and the affective meanings (evaluation, potency, and activity) of married and cohabiting individuals' self-identities and partner-identities. Gender ideology is generally unrelated to self- and partner-meanings; this finding supports a "homogeneity hypothesis," which predicts that individuals' gender ideology will not significantly override the ongoing effects of socialization into gendered identities. The main exception to the homogeneity hypothesis is a relationship between gender ideology and individuals' view of their partners' activity as a mother or father. Specifically, liberal women consider their spouses and partners more active as parents than do conservative women, and liberal men consider their spouses and partners less active as parents than do conservative men.
Using the 1996 General Social Survey, the antecedents of feminist self-identification and their link to gender-related social attitudes are explored. Although most socio-demographic variables show either no relationship or a weak relationship with feminist self-identification, there are strong differences across cohorts. Males and females who were young adults during the "second wave" of feminism (birth years 1936 to 1955) are more likely to identify as feminists than are those younger or older. In addition, the link between feminist self-identification and some social attitudes is cohort specific: Seemingly profeminist positions distinguish self-identified feminists from nonfeminists only among members of the "second-wave" generation. These results reinforce the importance of political generation and suggest increasing heterogeneity in public conceptions of feminism.
American society has witnessed a clear ideological shift to less traditional, more egalitarian gender attitudes. In this paper we draw on Mannheim's theory of social change and examine forerunners of the change: Men and women who are much less traditional than their parents' generation and their own generation. Specifically we explore how forerunner parents and children's own contemporary experiences shape the probability that the children will become forerunners and agents of change. Drawing on interview data from a national longitudinal study of parents and their offspring, we find that contemporary experiential factors are more important for forerunner socialization of daughters, whereas parents' forerunner status underlies sons' becoming forerunners. We argue that these sex differences in socialization effects explain in part why men's gender ideology and behaviors lag behind those of women.
We use longitudinal survey data from a national sample of married persons to examine how changes in gender role attitudes over an eight-year period are related to reported changes in marital quality. Structural equation models are used to estimate reciprocal relations between these variables. Our analysis indicates that when wives adopt less traditional gender role attitudes, their perceived marital quality declines. On the other hand when husbands adopt less traditional attitudes, their perceived marital quality increases. We find no evidence that changes in reported marital quality affect the gender role attitudes of either husbands or wives.
Research on how gender-related attitudes vary across racial/ethnic groups has produced contradictory results, depending upon the type of attitudes addressed. In this chapter, I review the literature on racial and ethnic variations in three broadly defined types of gender attitudes: attitudes toward gender roles; beliefs about the origins and extent of gender inequality; and preferences for social action to reduce gender inequalities. I address three racial/ethnic groups in the United States: African Americans, whites, and Hispanic Americans. While research on attitudes toward gender roles has yielded mixed results, research addressing attitudes within the other two domains clearly indicates greater criticism of genderinequality among African Americans relative to whites; research on the various groups often combined under the label Hispanic is too limited to draw any clear conclusions. Along with addressing variations across these three types of gender-related attitudes, I also summarize several other pat...
This study examines the associations between husbands' and wives' experiences at work and their attitudes about and behaviors in marriage, using a framework informed by the ideas of Kohn (1969, 1977). Specifically, it was hypothesized that experiences of self-direction at work would be associated with greater endorsement of values associated with self-direction. Further, it was predicted that those who value self-direction more would both prefer and adopt more egalitarian arrangements in their marriages. These hypotheses were tested with a sample of 167 dual-earner couples. Results supported the hypotheses and suggested that values mediate the relationships between occupational self-direction and both attitudes about marital roles and the division of household labor. The pattern of results suggests that this framework is a useful perspective for examining the construct of marital equality.