Content uploaded by Md. Aminul Islam
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Md. Aminul Islam on May 15, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
International Journal of Surgery Open 58 (2023) 100672
Available online 31 August 2023
2405-8572/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Surgical Associates Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Correspondence
Nanoencapsulated bioinks: The silver lining to safe tattoos and laser-assisted tattoo removal
1. Introduction
The practice of obtaining tattoos on the body has been a widely
embraced aspect of human culture for a long time. The tattoo industry is
expected to have a market value of approximately 1.75 billion dollars,
with an average annual growth rate of 10%. On the contrary, it has been
forecasted that there would be a substantial increase in the tattoo
removal business, with projected growth from over $500 million in 2019
to roughly $800 million by 2027 [1]. Indeed, approximately 8% of in-
dividuals experience remorse regarding the tattoo they have built up.
Traditionally, the removal of tattoos has been carried out by the
implementation of destructive methods, including surgical excision,
electrosurgery, chemical removal, and dermabrasion, among others.
Due to a number of benets, such as minimal pain and suffering, less
scarring, and no dyspigmentation, laser-assisted tattoo removal is
becoming more popular nowadays. Therefore, the demand for
laser-assisted tattoo removal surgery is likewise on the rise in response
to the growing prevalence of tattoos. Tattoo removal is a costly opera-
tion that necessitates numerous laser treatment sessions. Additionally,
tattooing is a signicant concern as it can lead to unpleasant responses
caused by the ink used in the process. The absence of comprehensive
legislation pertaining to tattoo inks has resulted in the indiscriminate
use of potentially dangerous inks, often accompanied by inaccurate
labelling information. In the year 2022, the European Union (EU) has
implemented limits on specic tattoo inks, accompanied by the intro-
duction of fresh laws pertaining to tattoo artists. The European Union
(EU) organization known as REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Autho-
rization, and Restriction of Chemicals) has implemented prohibitions on
pigments that possess potential carcinogenic, mutagenic, and repro-
ductive toxicity properties. Included in this category are pigments such
as Blue 15:3 and Green 7, which are responsible for providing tattoos
with shades of blue, green, red, purple, yellow, and white [2]. A
considerable number of compounds, estimated to be about 4,000, that
are often present in inks have been subjected to prohibition measures.
Consequently, this regulatory action has sparked a signicant public
response, with an estimated population of approximately 54 million
individuals in the European Union who bear tattoos expressing their
concerns and discontent. Furthermore, the Food and Drug Administra-
tion (FDA) has placed signicant stress on the imperative of averting
microbiological contamination of tattoo inks, which can potentially
result in serious infections and detrimental dermatologic disorders, as
highlighted in the most recent guidelines published in 2023. Stringent
recommendations have been proposed in order to assure the safety of
tattoo ink. These recommendations encompass several measures such as
the thorough testing of ink components, the regulation of the production
process, and the careful monitoring of the inclusion of harmful sub-
stances for the purpose of sterilize. In such a situation, substitutes for
tattoo inks in the form of microbial biopigments are necessary to ll this
empty space. These substitutes must be acceptable from the standpoints
of health and safety as well as be able to compete with the market share
that these chemical inks have been able to secure for years.
2. The tattoo industry needs an ink makeover
The absence of regulatory measures pertaining to inks has led to
cutaneous responses emerging as the predominant health issue linked
with the practice of tattooing. Exogenous pigments become retained
inside the dermis during the procedure and produce a permanent
pattern. The inks commonly employed in traditional tattooing, such as
carbon black and azo pigments, are composed of heavy metals and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are known to be detrimental to
human health. Red, blue, black, and green inks commonly incorporate
mercury sulphide, ferric oxide, cobalt, and chromium, respectively, so
rendering them potentially harmful to the skin
1
. The growing popularity
of body art enthusiasts has led to a temporary increase in the occurrence
of skin problems. From a clinical perspective, the primary issues
encompass pruritus, focal edoema, papules, nodules, and plaques that
are localised inside the tattooed region. The occurrence of anaphylactic
reactions, albeit less frequent, has been reported in connection with the
use of coloured tattoo pigments, and there have even been observations
suggesting a potential link to carcinogenesis. In certain instances, the
relationship between tattoo inks and cancer is not one of direct causa-
tion, but rather one of potential harm when tattoo ink undergoes
degradation as a result of exposure to UV radiation or laser therapy. One
of the prevailing long-term concerns associated with tattoos pertains to
the occurrence of allergy and acute inammatory reactions. There have
been documented cases of burns occurring during magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) procedures, which can be attributed to the induction of
electric currents inside tattoo ink containing iron oxide. The anticipation
of the European Union’s ban on these pigments was foreseeable due to
the examination of their associated dangers [3]. The growing popularity
of body art enthusiasts has led to a temporary increase in the occurrence
of skin problems. From a clinical perspective, the primary issues
encompass pruritus, focal edoema, papules, nodules, and plaques that
are localised inside the tattooed region. The occurrence of anaphylactic
reactions, albeit less frequent, has been reported in connection with the
use of coloured tattoo pigments, and there have even been observations
suggesting a potential link to carcinogenesis. In certain instances, the
relationship between tattoo inks and cancer is not one of direct causa-
tion, but rather one of potential harm when tattoo ink undergoes
degradation as a result of exposure to UV radiation or laser therapy. One
of the prevailing long-term concerns associated with tattoos pertains to
the occurrence of allergy and acute inammatory reactions. There have
been documented cases of burns occurring during magnetic resonance
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Surgery Open
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijso
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijso.2023.100672
Received 17 August 2023; Accepted 19 August 2023
International Journal of Surgery Open 58 (2023) 100672
2
imaging (MRI) procedures, which can be attributed to the induction of
electric currents inside tattoo ink containing iron oxide. The anticipation
of the European Union’s ban on these pigments was foreseeable due to
the examination of their associated dangers.
3. Microbial pigments as a potential alternative to tattoo inks
In today’s society, proclivities towards health and safety are going
up, and non-hazardous resources have replaced conventional counter-
parts in various industrial elds. The tattoo industry cannot lag, and the
replacement of toxic inks with natural colours is of the utmost need. In
this situation, microbial pigments can come up as a colourful palette to
explore and reconsider. Interestingly, various microorganisms,
including bacteria, fungi, and algae, produce a wide range of pigments
due to their interaction with the ecosystem. The major groups of mi-
crobial pigments include carotenoids (Yellow-orange), prodigiosin (red-
pink), melanin (brown-black), pyocyanin (blue-green), indigoidine
(blue), and violacein (violet). Microbial pigments have not only gained
much attention as antioxidants, anticancer agents, and antimicrobial
agents in the pharmaceutical industry but also as lucrative colouring
agents in the food and textile industries. The United States Food and
Drug Administration (USFDA) and European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) have approved microbial pigments like riboavin, β-carotene,
lycopene, and astaxanthin, making them safer options for the human
system [4].
Furthermore, the utilisation of microorganisms as potential sources
of tattoo colours is favourable owing to their year-round availability and
the ease of downstream processing. Furthermore, the production is of
superior quality and has the potential for further enhancement through
genetic alterations. The use of microbial pigments as tattoo ink remains
mostly untapped; nonetheless, it presents signicant potential due to the
diverse range of colours available and their non-toxic nature. Further-
more, the appealing characteristics of these substances, such as their
ability to combat cancer, provide antioxidant effects, exhibit antibac-
terial qualities, and possess antiviral capabilities, have the potential to
reduce the reliance on additives in tattoo inks. This, in turn, can
contribute to their economic viability and promote their safety for use
on the skin.
In this context, it is necessary to address challenges such as elevated
production expenses, reduced stability, and variations in colour caused
by pH modications. The application of biotechnological developments
in fermentation technologies and strain enhancement has largely
addressed challenges such as high costs and has also contributed to the
attainment of improved output. One signicant problem that must be
addressed pertains to the implementation of an appropriate delivery
system for pigments into the skin. This system should facilitate improved
absorption by skin cells and promote stability inside the skin during UV
radiation exposure. Micro- and nano-carriers are the predominant de-
livery techniques utilised for the encapsulation of microbial pigments.
Nanocarriers has numerous advantages, mostly attributable to their
reduced dimensions and enhanced ability to permeate tissue interstices.
4. Nanocarrier-based microbial pigments for tattooing
Nanocarriers provide advantageous properties as delivery systems
due to their diminutive dimensions and their capacity to modify the
physical characteristics of a substance within biological tissues. Nano-
carriers encompass a diverse array of forms, such as nanoparticles, li-
posomes, and polymeric carriers. Many methods of delivering microbial
pigments using nanoencapsulation techniques are gaining popularity,
but liposomes are one such approach that has drawn a lot of attention for
encapsulating microbial pigment. Microbial pigments, such as prodi-
giosin, violacein, and carotenoids, have been effectively encapsulated
within liposomes, demonstrating signicant potential in the eld of
medicinal applications [5]. One example of such nanostructures is
polymeric materials with a high molecular weight that can be readily
synthesised using ionic gelation procedures in the presence of a
cross-linking agent within a straightforward laboratory conguration.
The utilisation of cost-effective biocompatible biopolymers such as
chitosan, sodium alginate, starch, and zein proteins can enable the
encapsulation of these colours into affordable, non-hazardous polymeric
nanocarriers. Bacteria have been trapped in polymeric nanoparticles,
including prodigiosin from Serratia marcescens NITDPER1, violacein
recovered from Chromobacterium violaceum CCT 3468, and -carotene
generated by Planococcus sp. TRC1. These microorganisms showed
preservation of activity and improved stability. Furthermore, extensive
toxicity tests on human RBCs, Zebrash, and vertebrate model organ-
isms like HEK-293 found no detectable toxicity, opening the door to the
safe use of such nanocarriers. There are several notable benets asso-
ciated with the utilisation of nanocarrier-based microbial pigments as
tattoo bioinks. These advantages encompass enhanced skin cell uptake,
non-toxic properties, heightened stability in the face of UV light, tem-
perature, and pH uctuations in comparison to free-form pigments.
Additionally, these bioinks have the potential to occupy the anticipated
void in the tattoo industry as next-generation inks. The diagram depic-
ted in Fig. 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of utilising
nanocarrier-based microbial pigments as viable alternatives for tattoo
pigments, with the intention of mitigating the risks associated with
traditional ink formulations.
5. Nanocarrier-based microbial pigments for tattoo-removal
Non-invasive therapies utilising laser technology, specically
Quality-Switched lasers, have emerged as the predominant methods
employed for the purpose of tattoo removal. The mechanism underlying
this process is based on the concept of selective photothermolysis,
whereby the chromophore constituent of the tattoo pigment is selec-
tively destroyed through exposure to laser light that exceeds its thermal
relaxation time. In a previous investigation, the efcacy of micro-
encapsulated tattoo ink removal was observed to be over 80% after a
single laser treatment, in contrast to a mere 20% removal rate for
traditional ink. In the era of nanocosmeceuticals, the use of nano-
encapsulation exhibits more advantages compared to microencapsula-
tion. The nanoencapsulated tattoo ink demonstrates the ability to
release the pigment particle when the nanocapsules are exposed to laser
light. This process induces the liberation of non-hazardous microbial
biopigments, subsequently leading to phagocytosis and the attenuation
of tattoo pigmentation.
6. Challenges and prospects
The successful introduction of microbial pigments as next-generation
tattoo bioinks necessitates overcoming specic challenges prior to their
commercialization. In order to ensure the safety of tattoo ink applica-
tions, it is imperative that pigments are obtained from non-toxic sources.
To address the increasing demand for these pigments, it is necessary to
implement alternative strategies that can enhance their production and
processing. This may involve improved screening methods, innovative
fermentation techniques, cost-effective downstream processing, and
more efcient genetic alterations. Most microbial pigments that exhibit
favourable colour hues are not soluble in water and have lower stability.
They need a proper delivery system to enhance stability and need high-
end skin tissue persistence to come up as tattoo inks. Methods of
nanoencapsulation can help to overcome the major constraints in this
regard [6]. The use of cheaper biocompatible polymers like chitosan,
sodium-alginate, zein protein, starch, and solid and liquid lipid mole-
cules can further make the prospect of these pigments as tattoo inks
feasible. Looking at the passion for body art and paralleled tattoo
removal needs more intense research into the design of delivery systems
for safe microbial pigments is needed.
Correspondence
International Journal of Surgery Open 58 (2023) 100672
3
Funding
None.
Ethical approval
Not Applicable.
Data statement
The data in this article is accessible to the public and is not sensitive
in nature.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Please state any sources of funding for your research
Not applicable.
Author contribution
ArunSundar MohanaSundaram: Writing the paper, Review and edit,
supervision.
Yashoda Pokharel: Review and edit.
Dionisio Lorenzo Lorenzo-Villegas: Review and edit.
Md Ariful Haque: Study concept, data collection, writing the paper.
Md. Aminul Islam: Data analysis, writing the paper, review, and
editing.
Please state any conicts of interest
Authors declare no conict of interest.
Research registration unique identifying number (UIN)
Not applicable.
Guarantor
Md. Aminul Islam.
COVID-19 Diagnostic Lab, Department of Microbiology, Noakhali
Science and Technology University, Noakhali-3814, Bangladesh;
Advanced Molecular Lab, Department of Microbiology, President Abdul
Hamid Medical College, Karimganj, Kishoreganj- 834,001, Bangladesh.
Email: aminulmbg@gmail.com; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1091-
9726.
Consent
Not applicable.
Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned, externally peer-reviewed.
Data availability statement
No data sets generated during current study.
Fig. 1. Health hazards of conventional tattoo inks and merits of nanoformulated microbial pigments-based tattoo inks.
Correspondence
International Journal of Surgery Open 58 (2023) 100672
4
Declaration of competing interest
All the authors have no conict of interest.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge Advanced Molecular Lab, President Abdul
Hamid Medical College and Hospital.
References
[1] Busby Mattha. ‘Like being burned with cooking oil’: how tattoo removal became a
booming business. The Guardian; 25 October 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/
fashion/2022/oct/24/tattoo-removal-popularity-ink-regret. [Accessed 1 August
2023].
[2] Maarouf M, Saberian C, Segal RJ, Shi VY. A new era for tattoos, with new potential
complications. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 2019;12:37.
[3] Mu˜
noz-Ortiz J, G´
omez-L´
opez MT, Echeverry-Hern´
andez P, Ramos-
Santodomingo MF, de-la-Torre A. Dermatological and ophthalmological inamma-
tory, infectious, and tumoral tattoo-related reactions: a systematic review. Perm J
2021;25.
[4] Venil CK, Dufoss´
e L, Renuka Devi P. Bacterial pigments: sustainable compounds
with market potential for pharma and food industry. Front Sustain Food Syst 2020;4:
100.
[5] Mandal DD, Majumdar S. Bacteria as biofactory of pigments: evolution beyond
therapeutics and biotechnological advancements. J Biosci Bioeng 2023;135:349–58.
[6] Majumdar S, Mandal T, Mandal DD. Chitosan based micro and nano-particulate
delivery systems for bacterial prodigiosin: optimization and toxicity in animal model
system. Int J Biol Macromol 2022;222:2966–76.
ArunSundar MohanaSundaram
*
,
a
School of Pharmacy, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Yashoda Pokharel
Transcultural Psychosocial Organization, 612 Baluwatar, Kathmandu,
Nepal
E-mail address: sweetsharla@gmail.com.
Dionisio Lorenzo Lorenzo-Villegas
Faculty of Health Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa-Canarias, Santa
Maria de Guia, 35450, Spain
E-mail address: dlorenzo@ufpcanarias.es.
Md Ariful Haque
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Yan’an Hospital Afliated to Kunming
Medical University, 245 Renmin East Road, Panlong District, Kunming,
Yunnan, China
School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology,
Tangshan, Hebei, China
Department of Public Health, Atish Dipankar University of Science and
Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
E-mail address: arifulhaque58@gmail.com.
Md Aminul Islam
**
,
b
,
1
COVID-19 Diagnostic Lab, Department of Microbiology, Noakhali Science
and Technology University, Noakhali-3814, Bangladesh
Advanced Molecular Lab, Department of Microbiology, President Abdul
Hamid Medical College, Karimganj, Kishoreganj, Bangladesh
*
Corresponding author. School of Pharmacy, Sathyabama Institute of
Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Chennai -
600 119. Tamilnadu, India;
**
Corresponding author. Department of Microbiology President Abdul
Hamid Medical College Hospital, Kishoreganj (PAHMCH) Senior
Research Assistant, NSTU Covid-19 Lab, Department of Microbiology,
NSTU Lab Incharge, Advance Molecular Lab, PAHMCH Data Assistant,
MIS, DGSH, ERP Project, COVID-19, Bangladesh Lab Consultant, DGSH
(ERP Project), Bangladesh, .
E-mail addresses: arun.laureate@gmail.com, arunsundar.
pharmacy@sathyabama.ac.in (A. MohanaSundaram).
E-mail addresses: aminulmbg@gmail.com, aminul@pahmc.edu.bd (M.A.
Islam).
a
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?us
er=IqBEKVkAAAAJ&hl=en.
b
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?us
er=GFDJ70oAAAAJ&hl=en.
1
Research Gate:https://www.researchgate.net/prole/Md-Islam-1376.
Correspondence
