Spirulina, food of past, present and future

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HBB. 3(4): 1-20
Copyright © 2020, Health Biotechnology and Biopharma. All rights reserved.
Health Biotechnology and Biopharma (2020), 3(4): 1-20
Review Article
Spirulina, food of past, present and future
Fatemeh Matufi 1, Ali Choopani 2, *
1Department of biology, Payame Noor University (PNU), Tehran, Iran
2Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biologic Science, Payame Noor University, Tehran,
Iran
*Corresponding author:. Ali Choopani,. Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biologic Science, Payame Noor
University, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: choopani.ali3266@gmail.com
DOI: 10.22034/HBB.2020.26
Received: December 28, 2019; Accepted: February 15, 2020
ABSTRACT
Spirulina is a multicellular and filamentous blue-green microalgae. Its contains large amounts of
protein (70 % dry weight), carotenoid (4000 mg/kg),omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids, Gamma Linoleic Acid (GLA), sulfolipids, glycolipids, polysaccharides, provitamins;
vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamins B, mineral such as magnesium, iron, calcium, manganese,
potassium, selenium and zinc. Due to its cost-effective and high nutritional value, it has used as
protein-rich food and animal feed for improving meat production. This product commercially
produced in large outdoor pools under controlled conditions. This microalga has soft cell walls
that easily digested. New experimental supports the immunomodulation and antiviral effects of
Spirulina. After that, it is used for astronauts on space missions. Although Spirulina might
symbolize a functional food with potential helpful effects on human health. Therefore, the effect
of food containing should evaluate in the future.
Keywords: Spirulina, cyanobacterium, provitamin, supplementation, new foods
INTRODUCTION
Spirulina that microscopic photosynthetic
and filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae) that have along the past of use as
food. Cyanobacteria are the first group of
evolved bacteria 3.5 billion years ago that
can convert atmospheric carbon dioxide
using water, carbon and oxygen compounds.

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Spirulina name derives from the helical or
spiral form of its filaments as is shown in
figure 1.
Arthrospira is the technical name of a
cyanobacteria genus comprising a total
group of edible cyanobacteria sold
underneath the name Spirulina. The cell
organization of Spirulina is classic of a
prokaryote gram-negative bacterium with a
lack of membrane-bound organelles. The
cell wall constitutes a weak cover that is
composed of several layers, mostly of a
peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide
nature. The Spirulina cells have various
considerations, for example, thylakoid layers
with carboxysomes, phycobilisomes,
ribosomes, gas vacuoles, and DNA, just as
polyglycan, cyanophycin, polyphosphate [2-
6]. Spirulina is a Superfood. It is the most
nutritious, concentrated whole food to
humankind. It a rich exciting history, a
fascinating biological and ecological niche
in the plant kingdom. Spirulina is actually
an astonishing food, full of nutritional
wonders [7]. Spirulina has an extraordinary
capacity to survive under conditions that are
much too harsh for other algae [8]. Habitats
with wide Spirulina growth comprise the
Pacific Ocean near Japan and Hawaii, large
freshwater lakes in Africa, North America,
Mexico, and South America. Two species of
Spirulina that most normally used in
nutritional supplements are Spirulina
platensis and Spirulina maxima [8].
Spirulina, contains (70 % dry weight)
protein, Gamma Linoleic Acid (GLA),
omega-3 and 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids,
carotenoid (4000mg/kg), polysaccharides,
sulfolipids, glycolipids, vitamin A, vitamin
E, vitamins B, provitamins, and minerals,
including calcium, manganese, potassium,
selenium, iron, magnesium, and zinc [7]. It
is a potential drug therapy for treatment
oxidative stress-induced diseases [9].
Moreover, Spirulina pills and capsules, there
are also pastries, blocks, and Spirulina
containing chocolate bars, marketed as
health food. Other Spirulina products
formulated for weight loss and as a support
for quitting drug-addictions [10]. The
environmentally Compatible Spirulina does
not need fertile ground, has a rapid growth,
and takes less energy input and less water
per kilogram than soya and corn proteins
[11]. Due to its cost-effective and high
nutritional value, Spirulina has used as a
protein-rich animal feed for improving meat
production and quality [12]. Also, has
projected as a sustainable move toward to
prevent Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM)
and Protein Energy Wasting (PEW) in
humans [11].

Choopani et al. Spirulina as food
HBB. 3(4): 1-20 2
Figure 1. Microscopic form of Spirulina [1].
History
In the sixteenth century, when the spanish
invaders dominated Mexico, they discovered
that the Aztecs living in the Valley of
Mexico in the capital Tenochtitlan were
collecting a new food from the lake [13].
Spanish chroniclers described fishermen
with fine nets collecting this blue colored
from the lagoons and making a blue-green
cake from it. Other myths say Aztec
messenger runners took Spirulina on their
marathons. Still, a living population of alga
Spirulina, the only remains of the Lake
Tuxococcus today. Inside the place that is
known for the Lake Chad, which is house to
the Kanembu populace, they get sodden alga
in mud pots, channel out the water through
packs of material and spread out the green
growth in the sand like the shore of the lake
for daylight drying. Semi-arid algae
harvested in small squares and taken to the
villages were to completely dry in the
sunlight [14]. In 1940, a French phycologist,
Dangeard, published a report on the
utilization of dihé by the Kanembupeople
near Lake Chad [15]. Dengard also
reminded that these algae were abundant
around the lakes in the Rift Valley of East
Africa that the main food was for flamingos
there. Then in 1964 to 1965 a botanist, Jean
Léonard, on a Belgian ship in the Red Sea
reported green and edible cakes sold at local
markets of Fort-Lamy (now N’Djamena) in
Chad [16]. When locals said the sold cakes
came close to Chad Lake, Leonard identified
the connection between these cakes and
algae blooms. In 1967, Spirulina introduced
as a fantastic food source for the future at
the International Society for Microbiology
[12]. Research on the nutritional properties

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of Spirulina showed a high protein content,
of the order of 60–70 percent of its dry
weight; it also showed the excellent quality
of its proteins (balanced essential amino acid
content). This primary information was
sufficient to begin many research projects
for industrial purposes in the 1970. Because
microorganisms (yeast, chlorella, Spirulina,
some bacteria and molds) seemed at that
time to be the most direct route to
inexpensive proteins, single-cell proteins. In
the same period when Léonard rediscovered
Spirulina in Africa, a demand expected from
a company named Sosa-Texcoco Ltd by the
"college français du petrol” to search for a
blooming of alga occurrence in the
evaporation ponds of their sodium
hydrogencarbonate output potency in a lake
near Mexico City. As a result, the first
accurate and systematic study done for
Spirulina growth and physiology. This study
was part of the Ph.D. thesis [17], based on
the creation of the first large-scale
production plant for Spirulina [12]. While
finally, no microorganism fulfilled its
promise of cheap protein, Spirulina
continued to give rise to investigate and
rising production, reflecting its perceived
nutritional assets [18].
Chemical
Structure and food potency
Analysis of Spirulina showed that it is an
important source of proteins, vitamins,
dietary minerals, and pigments.
The biochemical composition depends upon
the specific source, culture conditions, and
area of production [19-22]. The protein
content of Spirulina (50–70 % of the dry
weight) superior to meat, dried milk, eggs,
soybeans or grains. Spirulina proteins are
total, since all the essential amino acids. The
maximum values for the necessary amino
acids are those for leucine, valine, and
isoleucine. When compared to standard
nutritious proteins (from meat, eggs or
milk), it is somewhat lacking in methionine,
cysteine, and lysine, but is higher to all
plants including proteins [23]. Spirulina has
endorsed as “the food of the future” with
“excellent constituents” that contribute to
high energy. Some of these constituents,
such as polysaccharides (Rhamnose and
Glycogen) and essential fat (GLA), are
effectively absorbed by cells and help to
produce energy. Spirulina is requested for
the richest source of provitamin A (β-
carotene), with 20 g of Spirulina also
fulfilling of vitamins B1 (thiamine), B2
(riboflavin) and B3 (niacin) [5,19,20,15,24].
Its mineral content dependent on the culture
medium. Interesting minerals in Spirulina
are iron, calcium, phosphorus, and
potassium [5,19]. Spirulina increases healthy

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lactobacillus in the intestine, enabling the
production of Vitamin B6 that also helps in
energy production [25]. Spirulina is a
resource of chlorophyll, Phycocyanin, and
Carotenoids. Both the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) and the
European Space Agency (ESA), as one of
the main foods recommended Spirulina
during long-term space missions [26]. Since
many of the obtainable blue-green algae
species are known to produce a toxin
(microcystins, in particular, MCYST-LR), it
is very essential to elucidate the specific
species used for human use as in all
probability there is a danger of species
substitution or contamination of Spirulina
with other cyanobacteria. It is particularly
important in countries where no such
regulation exists on this type of product.
When the algal cells or filaments of
Spirulina transformed into powder, it can
grant the basis for a variety of food
products, such as soups, sauces, pasta, snack
foods, instant drinks and other recipes [27].
Spirulina also used to prepare food with
other ingredients. For example, instant
noodles, stylish noodles, nutritious blocks,
beverages, and cookies [27]. Also,
microalgal biomass has studied in several
food products oil-in-water emulsions,
vegetable puddings, biscuits and kinds of
pasta as is shown in figure 2.
The effect of microalga concentration on the
product color parameters investigated, as
well as its stability through the processing
conditions and along storage time [28].
Many foods aimed at the juvenile market
advertised as containing the delicious
Spirulina with its blue-green color. Add it to
milkshakes, jellies, biscuits or cakes [28,29].
The enrichment of Spirulina platensis has
studied in wheat flour to prepare fresh pasta
to estimate the green color and dietary
enrichment in addition to practical
properties due to the existence of the
bioactive compounds in the cyanobacterium
[30]. Besides, Sharma and Dunkwal have
been enriched biscuits by Spirulina [31].

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Figure 2. Use of Spirulina in foods [1].
Genetically information
Whole-genome sequences of several
Spirulina strains have already appeared in
the literature. Arthrospira. platensis NIES-
39 genome structure estimated to be a
single circular chromosome of 6.8 Mb,
yielding 6,630 protein-coding genes, two
sets of rRNA genes and 40 tRNA genes
[32]. Whole-genome sequencing of the
Spirulina Arthrospira PCC 8005 strain,
which selected by the European Space
Agency (ESA) as a nutritional product and
an oxygen producer of the Micro-
Ecological Life Support System
Alternative (MELISSA) for long term,
operated space missions. Showed the
presence of 6,279,260 bases with an
average GC content of 44.7 %, 5.856
protein-coding sequences and 176 genes
encoding RNA were also predicted [33].
The draft genome was approximately 6.0
Mb in total, with 5,690 protein-coding
sequences [34].
Spirulina Main Applications
Approximately one-third of the world
complex feed manufacturing is for
chickens and this new industrial market
has challenged producers to formalize
feeds to use higher quality elements [35].
Spirulina is one of the high-quality natural
feed additives that can be used in animal
and poultry nutrition. In this respect, Ross
and Dominy and Nikodémusz et al.

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reported that hens that had Spirulina in
their diet had higher levels of production
and fertility than the control group.
Moreover, Sakaida Takashi, found that
egg yolk color was considerably superior
by the addition of Spirulina to laying hen
diets [36]. Spirulina is cheaper than other
animal foods. China is using Spirulina as a
partial substitute of imported feed to
encourage the growth, immunity, and
viability of prawns (example Penaeus
monodon). Spirulina containing feed found
to reduce the cultivation time and
mortality, and increase shell thickness of
scallop. The survival rate of abalone
(Haliotismidae) improved by 37.4 percent.
Feeding with Spirulina helped to improve
disease resistance of high-value fish
resulting in an improvement in their
survival rate from 15 to 30 percent [4].
Ghaeni in 2010 has been used Spirulina as
a supplement in the green tiger prawn
larvae diet [37]. Also, the effect of the
Spirulina platensis meal has evaluated as a
feed additive on the growth and survival of
Litopenaeusschmitti shrimp larva [38].
Safety and Acceptability
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
has categorized Arthrospira harvest as
Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS)
for human using up and the Dietary
Supplements. Information Expert
Committee (DSI-EC) fulfilled that there is
not a serious risk to health with using up
of Spirulina [39]. Reported side effects
associated with Spirulina eating are
sleeplessness and gastric problems with
uncertain or unlikely causality [39] and
only a few cases of severe side effects
have reported, including a case of
rhabdomyolysis after the consumption of 3
g in a day for 1 month [40]. Two cases of
anaphylaxis from tablets with spirulina
have been reported [41,42]. One in a 17-
year-old man accused of dermatitis,
allergies, rhinitis, and a possible syndrome
of pollen-food (oral tomato and cucumber
allergies) [42]. Three cases of
autoimmune-mediated skin damage have
been reported, one in an 82-year-old
woman [43]. Whereas the other two cases
were seen in subjects eating Spirulina as a
multi-component nutrient component
(organic cayenne pepper,
ethylsulfonylmethane, and algae
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Spirulina
or Ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, and Spirulina)
[44]. In this regard, it is well known that
plant-food and herbal supplements could
have adverse effects, such as
hepatotoxicity and autoimmune hepatitis
[45]. Besides, the two cases described by
Lee and Werth [43] involved a 57-year-old

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man with known pemphigus vulgar is and
a 45-year-old woman with a history of
hypertension, chronic migraines, and
fibromyalgia. Furthermore, a case report
of hepatotoxicity occupied a 52-year-old
Japanese man who had a history of
hypertension, hyperlipidemia and Type 2
Diabetes (T2D) and taking medications
(amlodipinebesilate, simvastatin, and
acarbose) [46]. In this context, potential
food-drug interactions have hypothesized
for Spirulina [47] and phenolic
phytochemicals [48-50]. Spirulina should,
therefore, be carefully ingested in patients
with diseases, particularly in patients with
cytochrome P450 enzyme substrates, such
as immunosuppressants, antihypertensive,
and lipid reduction drugs [46-50].
Although Spirulina can be considered safe
in healthy subjects, sensory characteristics
of practical food are important in the
consumer getting of the product. Baby
food formulations with Spirulina have a
high acceptance rating in the range of 82.7
to 96.3 and the trained panelists assigned
the high scores to products with Spirulina
5 % [51]. No huge contrasts were seen by
semi-prepared specialists between the
pomegranate squeezes and figure
pomegranate refreshment with Spirulina (4
%) and Echinacea (6 %) extricates
(improved by sativoside 5 %) in
appearance, shading, scents, and
consistency [52]. Trained panelists gave a
higher score to a snack with 2.5 % of
Spirulina, but the addition of 7.5 % or
more decreased the acceptability [53].
The level of Spirulina in pasta considered
adequate is diverse in prepared and
undeveloped specialists. Specifically,
pasta with a level of Spirulina maxima up
to 2 % lean toward by undeveloped
specialists contrasted with control pasta
[53], while the best one-via prepared
specialists [54], whereas the most
preferable one-by trained panelists [55]
was the pasta enriched with 10 %
Spirulina platensis. The latter was not
satisfactory for consumers [56] who
considered less acceptable also, pasta
produced with integral wheat flour. The
percentage of Spirulina that did not reduce
the acceptability is lower for ice cream
compared with supplemented pasta. A
board of judges considered ice cream with
0.15 % of Spirulina a qualified production
when compared to 0 % and 0.075 % ice
creams, due to the light green (pistachio)
color, but the sharp green color reduced
overall acceptableness of the ice cream
with 0.23 % and 0.3 % of Spirulina [57].
On the contrary, yogurt with Spirulina 0.3
% had a higher degree compared to 0.1
%, 0.2 %, and 0.5 % of Spirulina [58].

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Malik et al. suggested that the lower score
eat 0.1% level when compared to control
might attribute to dull color, appearance
and less acidic flavor that is necessary for
satisfactoriness of yogurt, whereas the low
satisfactoriness of the 0.5 % can be due to
increased acidity and intense green color
[57]. It is well known that Spirulina causes
a decline in pH yogurts, due to its effect
on Lactobacilli growth and viability
[41,59,60]. Guldas and Irkin with trained
panelists who did not assign excessive
sour taste to acidophilic yogurt, reported
that 0.5 % of Spirulina powder addition
was more acceptable than 1 % [61]. It is
actually because of that slightly greenish
color and algal flavor of the latter
compared to the former. Therefore,
dissimilar sensory expectations,
experiences, knowledge, learning, and
approach to eat affect the overall
satisfactoriness [62, 63].
Aspects of Health
Although historically Spirulina used as a
food component, it has carefully
investigated using in vitro and in vivo
experiments, including cell and tissue
culture, animal testing as well as human
clinical trials, for its role in human health
management. Recent analysis indicates
that Spirulina, a unicellular blue-green
alga may have a variety of health benefits
and therapeutic properties and it has
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory role
[64]. Spirulina also used for health food,
feed, and biochemical products since the
1980s. It is almost nutritious wholly food
known to science, furthermore, Spirulina
has no side effects and is non-toxic [65-
67]. A huge number of publications in
peer-reviewed scientific journals and book
chapters covering the health aspects of
Spirulina have appeared during the last
three decades. These articles described
experimental approaches involving whole-
cell Spirulina provision, various cell
extracts, and purified biomolecules,
aiming at elucidating the potential health
benefits of the consumption of this
microalga, so far with thrilling results.
Potentiality health personal effects
included immunomodulation, antioxidant,
antineoplastic, antiviral agent and
bactericide activities, as well as certain
effects for malnutrition, hyperlipaemia,
diabetes, obesity, inflammatory allergic
reactions, heavy metal/chemical-induced
toxicity, radiation harm and anemia
[6,20,21,68-73]. In this respect, the most
promising active Spirulina constituents
appeared to be the protein phycocyanin,30
sulfated polysaccharide fractions [74]
GLA [75] and certain sulfolipids [76].

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While these medicinal claims may base on
experimental observations, more research
needed. Randomized studies in humans
seen to rate the effectiveness of Spirulina
as potential pharmaceuticals, understand
the mechanisms of action specific
Spirulina biomolecules, their short-term
and long-term effects and the safety of
their use in practical foods.
DISCUSSION
Effects against Hyperlipidemia
The antioxidant activity of Spirulina
maxima has evaluated against lead acetate-
induced hyperlipidemia and oxidative
damage in the liver and kidney of male
rats. The outcomes indicated that
Spirulina maxima forestalled the lead
acetic acid derivation actuated significant
changes in plasma and liver lipid levels
and on the cancer prevention agent status
of the liver and kidney. On the other hand,
Spirulina maxima successfully improved
the biochemical parameters of the liver
and kidneys relative to the normal values
of the control group [77]. Decreases in
blood pressure and plasma lipid
concentrations, particularly
triacylglycerol, lipoprotein-cholesterol
demonstrated because of oral using up of
Spirulina. It has also shown to Indirectly,
Cholesterol changes and high-density
lipoprotein cholesterol values. A water
extract from Spirulina may inhibit the
intestinal absorption of dietetic fat by
inhibiting pancreatic lipase activity [78].
Radiation Protective Effects
Radiation protection offered by Spirulina
might be because of the phytopigments
(carotenoids, chlorophyll, and
phycocyanin) just as polysaccharides.
Spirulina can elevate the activity of all the
antioxidant related enzymes viz.,
superoxide dismutase, catalase,
glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione
reductase considerably. The effect may be
due to the high phytopigments
(carotenoids, chlorophyll, and
phycocyanin) in Spirulina [64,75,79].
Effects against Nephrotoxicity
The hepatoprotective action of Spirulina
fusiform is against Gal-N induced
hepatotoxicity in mice. The defensive
viability of Spirulina fusiformis is
exceptionally encouraging as prove by the
inversion of the adjusted qualities
consequent organization potentially by
advancing the recovery of hepatocytes that
reestablish honesty and it affirmed by the
histopathological considers. The
hepatoprotective property of the extract
may be attributed to the presence of
various constituents that are present in

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Spirulina fusiformis [79]. Still a broad
study needed to understand the mechanism
of use of Spirulina fusiformis for
protecting against galactosamine-induced
hepatotoxicity [80].
Effects against Diabetes, Obesity, and
Hypertension
According to Takai et al., a water-soluble
fraction of Spirulina was found effective
in reducing the serum glucose levels in
starvation while the water-insoluble
portion suppressed glucose level at
glucose loading [81]. Similar results found
in other studies. In a human clinical study
involving 15 diabetics, a significant
decline in the fasting blood sugar level of
patients observed after 21 days of 2 g in a
day Spirulina supplementation. Becker et
al. in1989 have discovered that a valuable
eating routine of 2.8g of Spirulina more
than about a month brought about a
factually huge decrease of body weight in
large outpatients [82]. Spirulina has also
found to suppress high blood pressure in
rats. A vasodilation property of rat aortic
rings by Spirulina possibly dependent
upon a cyclooxygenase-dependent product
of arachidonic acid and nitric oxide has
been reported by Paredes-Carbajal et al.
Cheng-Wu Z et al. did a preliminary study
on the effect of polysaccharides and
phycocyanin on peripheral blood and
hematopoietic system of bone marrow in
mice [83,84]. Their studies showed that C-
phycocyanin and polysaccharides from
Spirulina had a high Erythropoietin (EPO)
activity [85].
Probiotic Effects
Probiotic microorganisms are live
microbial food consumed as human food
supplement for century supplement which
usefully affects the host animal because of
its best-known nutritional value. Spirulina
contains improving its microbial balance.
The probiotic efficiency of Spirulina
platensis is for lactic acid bacteria and a
potent antibacterial activity against human
pathogenic bacteria [86].
Other Effects
Spirulina contains phenolic acids,
tocopherols, and ß-carotene that known to
display antioxidant properties. Miranda et
al., evaluated the antioxidant capacity of a
Spirulina extract [87]. The antioxidant
activity of a methanolic extract of
Spirulina checked out in vitro and in vivo.
Results obtained show that Spirulina
provides most antioxidant protection
facing both in vitro and in vivo systems. It
was shown to avert cataract [88] , acute
allergic rhinitis [89], cerebral ischemia
[90] and vascular reactivity [91] and has
been exposed to be effective against

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cadmium [92] and arsenic induced-
toxicities [64,93]. In recent years, some of
its properties have confirmed during
studies while additional pharmacological
properties require proving. Spirulina
platensis is effectively suppressed
peripheral sensitization via modulation of
glial activation, improved motor mending
in collagen-induced arthritic rats [94].
The Side Effects
Upset stomach, feeling a bit sick, hiccups,
and mild diarrhea. Nausea and
constipation could come from gastric over-
acidity and poor digestion. Feeling hungry,
dizzy and low on energy could be side
effects in people who suffer from
hypoglycemia and anemia Slight fever
could be a response to the body
metabolism. Spirulina a concentrated
protein and could raise the internal heat
level. Enthusiasm and sleeping problems
could come from the fact that the body
burns excessive fats. It is advisable in
these cases to take Spirulina only in the
morning. Headaches could come from
poor digestion and normally only a very
brief and rare healing crisis. Sweat
Detoxification the lung, the skin, and the
stools. During the period of detoxification,
depending on the toxicity, the period of
change can change [95].
CONCLUSION
According to researches, Spirulina is one
of nature's most potent superfoods. Now,
what is clear is that Spirulina is a healthy
and safe food supplement significant side
effects for healthy people. Because of the
unique features and richness of vitamins
and minerals, it recommended as the best
supplement.
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