ArticlePDF Available

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

August 2023

DOI:10.25215/1103.194

Authors:

Zaiba A Kulsum

Kristu Jayanti College

Dr Anjana Sinha

Kristu Jayanti College Autonomous reaccredited with grade 'A++'

Men used to be taught to suppress their feelings and refrain from talking about their emotions. So, Men today find it difficult to communicate their feelings in a healthy way, which negatively affects their mental health. The aim of the study was to understand why men find it difficult to express their emotions. Participants in this study were from 18-60 years old and were from India. There were 167 male participants. Depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional expressivity were assessed using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS Scale-21) and the Emotional Expressivity Scale. The results of the study show that emotional expressivity and stress, depression, and anxiety are significantly correlated. The results also indicate that there was no statistically significant difference between the various relationship status groups in terms of emotional expressivity, stress, or depression. en have been taught to suppress their emotions and prioritize stoicism, self-reliance, and toughness. From an early age, boys are often discouraged from expressing their feelings and are taught to "man up" or "be a man" when faced with difficult situations. This societal expectation often leads, men struggling to articulate their emotions or even understand them. Additionally, there are cultural and societal expectations for men to exhibit traditionally masculine traits such as strength, control, and independence, and the expression of vulnerability or sensitivity is often viewed as a sign of weakness, which can lead to feelings of shame or inadequacy. Furthermore, men may also fear that expressing their emotions will make them appear less competent or incapable in their personal or professional lives. This fear can be especially prevalent in male-dominated fields or environments where there is a perceived need to constantly display strength and control. Socialization: Men are taught to suppress their emotions from an early age, as they are taught that expressing vulnerability is a sign of weakness. This conditioning is reinforced by societal expectations of what it means to be a "real man." According to a study by Addis and 1 Student, Kristu Jayanti College,

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Research Paper

The International Journal of Indian Psychology

ISSN 2348-5396 (Online) | ISSN: 2349-3429 (Print)

Volume 11, Issue 3, July- September, 2023

DIP: 18.01.194.20231103, DOI: 10.25215/1103.194

https://www.ijip.in

the Creative Commons Attribution License (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any Medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression

among Men

Zaiba Kulsum. A.

*, Dr. Anjana Sinha

ABSTRACT

Men used to be taught to suppress their feelings and refrain from talking about their

emotions. So, Men today find it difficult to communicate their feelings in a healthy way,

which negatively affects their mental health. The aim of the study was to understand why

men find it difficult to express their emotions. Participants in this study were from 18- 60

years old and were from India. There were 167 male participants. Depression, anxiety, stress,

and emotional expressivity were assessed using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale - 21

(DASS Scale -21) and the Emotional Expressivity Scale. The results of the study show that

emotional expressivity and stress, depression, and anxiety are significantly correlated. The

results also indicate that there was no statistically significant difference between the various

relationship status groups in terms of emotional expressivity, stress, or depression.

Keywords: Cultural Expectation, Emotional Expression Emotional Repression, Men, Mental

Health

en have been taught to suppress their emotions and prioritize stoicism, self-

reliance, and toughness. From an early age, boys are often discouraged from

expressing their feelings and are taught to "man up" or "be a man" when faced

with difficult situations. This societal expectation often leads, men struggling to articulate

their emotions or even understand them. Additionally, there are cultural and societal

expectations for men to exhibit traditionally masculine traits such as strength, control, and

independence, and the expression of vulnerability or sensitivity is often viewed as a sign of

weakness, which can lead to feelings of shame or inadequacy. Furthermore, men may also

fear that expressing their emotions will make them appear less competent or incapable in

their personal or professional lives. This fear can be especially prevalent in male-dominated

fields or environments where there is a perceived need to constantly display strength and

control.

Socialization: Men are taught to suppress their emotions from an early age, as they are

taught that expressing vulnerability is a sign of weakness. This conditioning is reinforced by

societal expectations of what it means to be a "real man." According to a study by Addis and

Student, Kristu Jayanti College, Banglore, India

Professor, Kristu Jayanti College, Banglore, India

*Corresponding Author

Received: April 26, 2023; Revision Received: August 08, 2023; Accepted: August 13, 2023

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

Mahalik (2003), men may view expressing their emotions as unmanly and may worry that it

could threaten their status as a man.

Fear of Discrimination: Men are worried that expressing their emotions will lead to bias. If

they show vulnerability, they may be afraid of appearing weak, unsuccessful, or unmanly.

Men who have experienced emotional distress may have felled ashamed and rejected,

according to Wong and Rochlen's findings, which can prevent them from seeking help or

addressing their issues. (2005).

Lack of emotional intelligence: Some men may struggle with expressing their emotions

because they lack emotional intelligence skills. Emotional intelligence involves the ability to

recognize and regulate one's own emotions, as well as the ability to understand and

empathize with others' emotions. According to a study by Brackett and Mayer (2003),

emotional intelligence is essential for effective emotional expression.

Relationship dynamics: Men's ability to express emotions can also be influenced by their

relationships. For example, if a man grew up in a family where emotions were not discussed

openly, he may struggle to express his emotions in his romantic relationships. According to

a study by Birditt and Fingerman (2005), men who have close, supportive relationships with

their partners are more likely to express their emotions.

Brain and Emotions: Men and Women

Men and women's brains express emotions identically, however there are some slight

distinctions in how the brain interprets and reacts to emotions. The amygdala, prefrontal

cortex, and insula are the parts of the brain that both men and women use to process

emotions, according to research. In contrast to men, women typically have more limbic

system activation, which is involved in processing emotions. According to studies, women

often have more connections between their left and right hemispheres than men do, which

may help explain why they are able to experience emotions more fully and nuancedly than

males.

Overall, there may be some differences in how these processes are mediated by the brain,

even though the fundamental neurological processes underlying emotional expression are

comparable in men and women.

METHOD

This study used a survey research design. A survey is a technique for gathering information

from a sample of people using uniform questionnaires. 167 male volunteers make up the

sample for this study. Participants were found through social media, mailing lists, and other

appropriate places. Age and relationship status diversity in the sample are both important. A

standardised questionnaire is used to gather the data. The DASS Scale and the Emotional

Expressivity Scale are used for the questionnaire. All participants are asked for their

informed consent. By eliminating all identifying information from the data gathered,

confidentiality and anonymity would be guaranteed.

Objective

• To study the relationship between emotional expressivity and depression, anxiety,

and stress

• To find the difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among different

relationship statuses.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

• To find the difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among different

age.

Hypothesis

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between emotional expressivity, depression,

anxiety, and stress

Ho2: There is no significant difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among

different relationship statuses.

Ho3: There is no significant difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among

different age.

Variables

The variables that will be measured in this study are:

1. Dependent Variable: Levels of Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and emotional

expressivity

2. Independent Variable: Demographic variables (i.e., Age and Relationship Status)

Sample and Techniques

Non-probability convenient sampling technique was incorporated in the study

Sample Distribution

N= 167

Males

Young Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Age

18 -39 years

40 – 65 years

Relationship Status

Single, Committed, Married,

Divorced and Separated

Single, Committed, Married,

Divorced and Separated

Tools for study

• Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale - 21 (DASS Scale-21): Three self-report

scales are combined to form the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale - 21 Items

(DASS-21), which is used to measure depression, anxiety, and stress. The seven

items on each of the three DASS21 scales are further broken down into

corresponding subscales. The dysphoria, hopelessness, life-value downgrading, self-

deprecation, lack of interest or involvement, anhedonia, and inertia scales are

currently used to assess depression. The anxiety scale measures situational anxiety,

situational arousal, skeletal muscle effects, and subjective anxious affect. Arousal

levels over the long term are impacted by the stress scale. It evaluates one's mental

acuity, jitteriness, and propensity for becoming quickly agitated or irritated. It

evaluates impatience and irritability as well.

• Emotional expressivity scale: The Emotional Expressivity Scale (EES), a self-

report instrument, was created and validated by Kring et al. (1994). Regardless of the

type of emotion being expressed or how it is being expressed, this scale defines

emotional expressiveness as the overall outward expression of emotion. (i.e., verbal,

or facial). The EES, which is based on the general idea of emotional expressiveness,

measures the intensity of expressed emotions across a range of channels. A higher

score on the EES, a 17-item checklist graded on a 6-point Likert scale, indicates a

higher level of emotional expression.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

Analysis of the Data

Correlation and Anova was incorporated using SPSS software.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between emotional expressivity and depression,

anxiety, and stress

Table 1: Pearson Correlation Table between Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and emotional

expressivity

Variable

1.Emotional

Expressivity

166

3.583407

0.870923

2.Stress

166

7.65

3.640

.001**

3.Depression

166

7.67

4.325

.001**

4.Anxitey

166

7.25

3.614

.001**

P<0.01**.

According to Table 1, The provided correlation Matrix, Emotional Expressivity has a

significant positive correlation with stress (r =.219, p =.001) and a significant negative

correlation with depression and anxiety (r = -.274, p =.001).

Therefore, the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between emotional

expressiveness and depression, anxiety, or stress can be rejected. Instead, we can draw the

conclusion that Emotional Expressivity is strongly linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among

different relationship statuses.

Table 2 Anova test between the level of depression, anxiety, and stress among different

Relationship status

Sum of

Squares

Mean

Square

Sig.

Emotional

Expressivity

Between Groups

1.249

.312

.406

.804

Within Groups

123.904

161

.770

Total

125.154

165

Stress

Between Groups

112.245

28.061

2.179

.074

Within Groups

2073.489

161

12.879

Total

2185.735

165

Depression

Between Groups

44.935

11.234

.595

.667

Within Groups

3041.842

161

18.893

Total

3086.777

165

Anxiety

Between Groups

156.882

39.220

3.160

.016

Within Groups

1997.992

161

12.410

Total

2154.873

165

From the above table 2 that is, Anova table, the null hypothesis is that there is no significant

difference between the means of the groups being compared. To determine whether to reject

or accept the null hypothesis, we need to look at the F-statistic and its associated p-value.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

For the variable "Emotional Expressivity," the F-statistic is 0.406 with a p-value of 0.804.

Since the p-value is greater than the conventional alpha level of 0.05, we fail to reject the

null hypothesis, which means that there is no significant difference in emotional expressivity

scores between the different relationship status groups.

For the variable "Stress," the F-statistic is 2.179 with a p-value of 0.074. Since the p-value is

greater than the conventional alpha level of 0.05, we fail to reject the null hypothesis, which

means that there is no significant difference in stress scores between the different

relationship status groups.

For the variable "Depression," the F-statistic is 0.595 with a p-value of 0.667. Since the p-

value is greater than the conventional alpha level of 0.05, we fail to reject the null

hypothesis, which means that there is no significant difference in depression scores between

the different relationship status groups.

For the variable "Anxiety," the F-statistic is 3.160 with a p-value of 0.016. Since the p-value

is less than the conventional alpha level of 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis, which means

that there is a significant difference in anxiety scores between the different relationship

status groups.

Ho3: There is no significant difference in levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among

different age.

Table 3 Anova test between the level of depression, anxiety, and stress among different

age

Variable

Source

Sum of

Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Emotional

Expressivity

Between Groups

19.225

.601

.754

.822

Within Groups

105.929

133

.796

Total

125.154

165

Stress

Between Groups

344.043

10.751

.776

.795

Within Groups

1841.692

133

13.847

Total

2185.735

165

Depression

Between Groups

475.762

14.868

.757

.818

Within Groups

2611.015

133

19.632

Total

3086.777

165

Anxiety

Between Groups

437.243

13.664

1.058

.397

Within Groups

1717.630

133

12.915

Total

2154.873

165

From the above table 3, we interpret the results regarding the hypothesis, we can focus on

the F-value and significance level for each variable in the "Between Groups" row.

For the variable “Emotional Expressivity,” the F-value is 0.754, and the significant level is

0.822. This means that there is no significant difference in levels of emotional expressivity

among different age groups.

For the variable “Stress,” the F-value is 0.776, and the significance level is 0.795. This

means that there is no significant difference in levels of stress among different age groups.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

For the variable “Depression,” the F-value is 0.757, and the significance level is 0.818. This

means that there is no significant difference in levels of depression among different age

groups.

For the variable “Anxiety,” the F-value is 1.058, and the significance level is 0.397. This

means that there is no significant difference in levels of anxiety among different age groups.

Therefore, based on the reported results, we can conclude that there is no significant

difference in levels of stress, depression, and anxiety among different age groups, which

supports the hypothesis.

DISCUSSION

The results of the correlation analysis suggest that emotional expressivity is positively

correlated with stress, depression, and anxiety, and that these three variables are highly

related to each other. This finding is consistent with previous research that has found a

relationship between emotional expression and mental health outcomes. However, it's

important to note that correlation does not imply causation, and further research is needed to

determine the directionality and underlying mechanisms of these relationships. The results

of the ANOVA analysis indicate that there is no significant difference in emotional

expressivity, stress, or depression scores between different relationship status groups.

However, there is a significant difference in anxiety scores between these groups. These

findings suggest that being in a relationship may not necessarily have a direct effect on

emotional expressivity or mental health outcomes, but may be related to anxiety levels.

Further research could explore the specific factors related to relationship status that may

contribute to anxiety.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of the correlation analysis, it can be concluded that emotional

expressivity is positively correlated with stress, depression, and anxiety, indicating a

moderate positive relationship. Additionally, stress, depression, and anxiety are positively

correlated with each other, suggesting a strong relationship among these variables. However,

it is important to note that correlation does not imply causation, and further research is

needed to establish causal relationships between these variables. Regarding the ANOVA

results, there was no significant difference in emotional expressivity, stress, and depression

scores between the different relationship status groups. However, there was a significant

difference in anxiety scores between the groups. These findings suggest that relationship

status may not play a significant role in emotional expressivity, stress, and depression, but

may have an impact on anxiety levels. Overall, these results highlight the importance of

addressing emotional expressivity, stress, depression, and anxiety in individuals, regardless

of their relationship status, and developing strategies to manage anxiety levels in individuals

who may be impacted by their relationship status.

Finding

According to the study, there is a moderately positive correlation between emotional

expressivity, stress, depression, and anxiety. Additionally, there is a strong positive

correlation between stress, depression, and anxiety, indicating a positive relationship

between these variables. It is crucial to keep in mind that correlation does not necessarily

imply causation and that more investigation is required to establish causal links between

these variables. The study found no statistically significant difference in the emotional

expressivity, stress, or depression scores between the various relationship status groups,

which raises questions about the influence of relationship status on emotional openness and

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

mental health outcomes. However, there was a significant difference in anxiety scores

between the groups, indicating that relationship status may have an impact on anxiety levels

but not on emotional expressivity, stress, or depression.

Implication of the Study

The study first draws attention to the pressure that society places on men to repress their

emotions and adhere to stereotypically masculine ideals, which can make it challenging for

them to express their emotions and seek emotional support when necessary. This indicates a

need for greater knowledge and instruction about emotional expression and the expectations

that society has of men.

Then the study contends that emotional expression is associated with stress, depression, and

anxiety in a positive way, which emphasises the significance of emotional control and the

need for assistance when dealing with emotional distress. This finding also points to a need

for those experiencing emotional difficulties to have greater access to mental health

resources and support.

Finally, the finding of the study is that the relationship dynamics can affect emotional

expression emphasises how crucial healthy connections and transparent communication are

for encouraging emotional expression and support.

Suggestion for Further Studies

Online communication platforms have grown in popularity, men may now have more ways

to express their emotions and look for social support. Future research may examine how

men's emotional expression and mental health outcomes are impacted by online

communication.

Cultural expectations surrounding masculinity, it can be difficult for men to express their

emotions in the workplace. Future studies could examine how men's emotional expression

and mental health outcomes are impacted by workplace culture and suggest methods for

fostering more supportive work environments.

Most of the research on men and emotional expression has been cross-sectional, which

means that variables are assessed at a single point in time. Studies that track men over time

may be able to shed light on how emotional expression develops and how it affects mental

health outcomes.

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Acknowledgement

The author(s) appreciates all those who participated in the study and helped to facilitate the

research process.

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) declared no conflict of interest.

How to cite this article: Zaiba, K.A. & Sinha, A. (2023). Gender Stereotypes, Societal

Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men. International Journal of Indian Psychology,

11(3), 2078-2085. DIP:18.01.194.20231103, DOI:10.25215/1103.194

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Article

Oct 2003

This study investigated the convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of one ability test of emotional intelligence (EI)--the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso-Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)--and two self-report measures of EI--the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) and the self-report EI test (SREIT). The MSCEIT showed minimal relations to the EQ-i and SREIT, whereas the latter two measures were moderately interrelated. Among EI measures, the MSCEIT was discriminable from well-studied personality and well-being measures, whereas the EQ-i and SREIT shared considerable variance with these measures. After personality and verbal intelligence were held constant, the MSCEIT was predictive of social deviance, the EQ-i was predictive of alcohol use, and the SREIT was inversely related to academic achievement. In general, results showed that ability EI and self-report EI are weakly related and yield different measurements of the same person.

Do We Get Better at Picking Our Battles? Age Group Differences in Descriptions of Behavioral Reactions to Interpersonal Tensions

Article

Jun 2005

Individuals of various ages may react in different ways when they are upset with their social partners. This study examines age group differences in descriptions of behavioral reactions to interpersonal tensions. Participants ages 13 to 99 (84 men, 100 women) described interpersonal tensions that occurred with close and problematic social network members. Descriptions were coded with Rusbult's typology of conflict strategies (voice, loyalty, neglect, exit). Multilevel models revealed that older adults were more likely to report loyalty strategies (e.g., doing nothing) while younger people were more likely to report exit (e.g., yelling) strategies in response to interpersonal problems. These age differences were not accounted for by intensity of distress, relationship quality, contact frequency, or type of social partner. It appears that individuals are better able to regulate their behavioral responses to interpersonal problems as they age.

Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men

Abstract

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