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Citation: Yousuf, S.; Shafigh, P.;
Muda, Z.C.; Katman, H.Y.B.; Latif, A.
Alternatives for Fresh Water in
Cement-Based Materials: A Review.
Water 2023,15, 2828. https://
doi.org/10.3390/w15152828
Academic Editors: Daniela Mesquita
and Cristina Quintelas
Received: 25 October 2022
Revised: 9 January 2023
Accepted: 10 January 2023
Published: 4 August 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
water
Review
Alternatives for Fresh Water in Cement-Based
Materials: A Review
Sumra Yousuf 1, Payam Shafigh 2,* , Zakaria Che Muda 3, *, Herda Yati Binti Katman 4and Abid Latif 5
1Department of Building and Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Bahauddin
Zakariya University, Multan 60000, Pakistan
2
Centre for Building, Construction & Tropical Architecture (BuCTA), Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia
3Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Quantity Surveying, INTI International
University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia
4Institute of Energy Infrastructure, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Putrajaya Campus, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN,
Kajang 43000, Malaysia
5Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan 60000, Pakistan
*Correspondence: pshafigh@gmail.com (P.S.); zakaria.chemuda@newinti.edu.my (Z.C.M.)
Abstract:
Huge amounts of fresh water are used in the concrete industry every day. The quantity and
quality of water play important roles in determining the quality, strength, setting time, and durability
of cement-based materials (CBMs), such as paste, mortar, and concrete. Freshwater systems are
under pressure due to climate changes, industrialisation, population growth, urbanisation, and the
lack of proper water resource management. The lack of potable water has resulted in the search for
possible alternatives, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage wastewater,
carwash service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete plants, and wastewater
from the stone-cutting industry. All of these water resources can be used in concrete to achieve
adequate industry standards for the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete. This study is a
comprehensive review of the existing information regarding the effects of alternate water resources on
the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs. The review shows that the research
on the utilisation of wastewater in CBMs is limited. The development of different procedures and
methods is urgently needed to utilise various wastewaters in concrete production. The usage of
various wastewaters in concrete construction overcomes their adverse impacts on the environment
and human health.
Keywords:
cement-based material; durability; industrial wastewater; mechanical property; seawater
1. Introduction
Water has prime importance in the production of cement-based materials (CBMs),
such as paste, mortar, and concrete [
1
]. Concrete is produced by mixing binding mate-
rials (Portland cement or asphalt) and inert materials (coarse and fine aggregates) with
water [
2
]. Globally, concrete requires around 1 trillion gallons of water yearly [
3
]. Less
water produces better concrete; however, concrete needs an adequate amount of water to
provide a workable mixture that can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished without
complications [
4
]. Water is used for the production and processing of concrete, washing of
concrete aggregates, concrete batching plant, and washing of a concrete truck mixer [5].
The water-to-cement ratio (w/c) is the key factor in controlling most of the properties
of fresh and hardened concrete, as well as its strength, durability, and sustainability [
6
].
Water causes the hardening of CBM through a process called hydration [
7
]. Thus, its
quality and quantity play important physical and chemical roles in determining the quality,
strength, setting time, and durability of CBMs [8].
Water 2023,15, 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152828 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2023,15, 2828 2 of 15
Any potable water is suitable to be used in the production of CBMs [
9
]. The water
should be clean and free from injurious amounts of acids, salts, alkalis, oils, sugar, and
organic materials [
10
]. Highly acidic or alkaline water [
11
], water mixed with algae [
12
],
and water containing large amounts of chlorides [
13
] should be avoided because they may
have adverse effects on the setting, hardening, and strength development of concrete.
Suitable water for concrete should not change its setting time (about 30 min) and
strength reduction (greater than 20%) compared to the specimens prepared using potable
water. The compressive strength of concrete cubes made with unknown suitable water
should not be less than 90% of the cubes made using potable water [
14
]. The pH value of
this water should be greater than 6 and preferably slightly basic between 7.2 and 7.6 [
10
,
15
].
However, appropriate steps should be taken when only nonpotable water is available to
encompass the possible adverse effects on the final product of CBMs [16].
A concrete mix is around 10–15% cement, 60–75% aggregate, and 15–20% water [
17
].
Estimations show that the annual demand for concrete for construction will increase by up
to 18 billion tons by the year 2050 [
18
]. By 2050, approximately 75% of the water demand
for concrete production will probably occur in regions that will likely experience water
stress. This is a substantial amount of water, especially in water-scarce areas [19].
Freshwater systems are under pressure due to climate changes, industrialisation,
population growth, urbanisation, and the lack of proper water resource management [20].
Water consumption is growing at twice the rate of the global population [
21
]. Some
researchers have described the chances of water war occurring at a range from 75 to 95% in
the next 50–100 years due to water conflicts between various regions, such as the Middle
East, the east coast of Canada, Bazile, Thailand, Bolivia, the Nile River basin, and Cauvery
basin countries [22].
The lack of potable water has resulted in the search for possible alternatives [
23
].
Other water resources, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage
wastewater, carwash service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete
plants, and wastewater from the stone-cutting industry have higher levels of dissolved
chemicals and suspended solids [
24
]. However, all of these water resources can be used in
concrete production with acceptable strength and durability [5].
In the construction industry, the rate of consumption of concrete is almost the same as
that of consumption of water [
10
]. Therefore, various types of partially and fully treated
wastewaters may help in the production of concrete and prevent the high costs of its
treatment [
25
]. The usage of wastewater in concrete construction overcomes its adverse
impacts on the environment and human health.
Each alternative source of water must be subjected to a series of tests and meet accept-
able industry standards regarding the physical and chemical characteristics of concrete to
avoid detrimental effects [
26
]. This study reviews existing information about the reported
alternatives for fresh water in CBMs and their effects on the fresh, physical, mechanical, and
durability properties. This study helps researchers understand the status and possibility of
using alternatives for fresh water and its technical advantages and disadvantages.
2. Using Seawater in CBMs
Natural seawater has negative and positive effects on CBMs, such as mortar and
concrete. Currently, the use of seawater in concrete has expanded predominantly due to the
freshwater deficiency and vast economic development worldwide. Therefore, the effects of
seawater on the properties of concrete must be examined [27].
Seawater is a complex mixture consisting of 96.5% water, 2.5% salts, traces of dissolved
inorganic and organic materials, and a few atmospheric gases [
28
]. Salt in seawater can
weaken the durability and strength of the concrete exposed to it by affecting it physically,
chemically, and mechanically [
29
]. The physical actions of seawater include sea waves,
freeze–thaw cycles, ocean currents, temperature gradients, and tides. Chemical damages
include the deterioration of the cement matrix and corrosion of steel reinforcement. Me-
chanical damages include the loss of strength, cyclic drag, and abrasions [
27
]. The overall
Water 2023,15, 2828 3 of 15
damages to the concrete exposed to seawater are shown in Figure 1[
28
]. The effects of
seawater on the fresh, hardened, and durable properties of CBMs, such as paste, mortar,
and concrete, are listed in Table 1.
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
2. Using Seawater in CBMs
Natural seawater has negative and positive effects on CBMs, such as mortar and con-
crete. Currently, the use of seawater in concrete has expanded predominantly due to the
freshwater deficiency and vast economic development worldwide. Therefore, the effects
of seawater on the properties of concrete must be examined [27].
Seawater is a complex mixture consisting of 96.5% water, 2.5% salts, traces of dis-
solved inorganic and organic materials, and a few atmospheric gases [28]. Salt in seawater
can weaken the durability and strength of the concrete exposed to it by affecting it physi-
cally, chemically, and mechanically [29]. The physical actions of seawater include sea
waves, freeze–thaw cycles, ocean currents, temperature gradients, and tides. Chemical
damages include the deterioration of the cement matrix and corrosion of steel reinforce-
ment. Mechanical damages include the loss of strength, cyclic drag, and abrasions [27].
The overall damages to the concrete exposed to seawater are shown in Figure 1 [28]. The
effects of seawater on the fresh, hardened, and durable properties of CBMs, such as paste,
mortar, and concrete, are listed in Table 1.
Figure 1. Damages to the concrete exposed to seawater.
Table 1. Effects of seawater on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs.
S. No. Main Findings References
Fresh properties of CBMs
1
The workability of concrete containing supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) and seawater decreased
compared to plain concrete.
[30,31]
2
The workability of concrete mixed with seawater was
unaffected compared with plain concrete prepared
with tap water.
[32]
3 The workability of concrete mixes can vary using sea-
water and sea sand from various regions. [32]
4 The workability of concrete reduces by using seawater
in its mixing. [33]
Physical properties of CBMs
1 The setting time of the cement paste was unaffected by
using seawater. [34]
2 The initial and final setting times of cement decreased
with the increase in the concentration of seawater. [32,35]
Figure 1. Damages to the concrete exposed to seawater.
Table 1. Effects of seawater on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability properties of CBMs.
S. No. Main Findings References
Fresh properties of CBMs
1
The workability of concrete containing
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
and seawater decreased compared to
plain concrete.
[30,31]
2
The workability of concrete mixed with seawater
was unaffected compared with plain concrete
prepared with tap water.
[32]
3
The workability of concrete mixes can vary using
seawater and sea sand from various regions. [32]
4The workability of concrete reduces by using
seawater in its mixing. [33]
Physical properties of CBMs
1The setting time of the cement paste was
unaffected by using seawater. [34]
2
The initial and final setting times of cement
decreased with the increase in the concentration
of seawater.
[32,35]
Water 2023,15, 2828 4 of 15
Table 1. Cont.
S. No. Main Findings References
3
Setting time of cement paste with seawater
decreased by about 30% compared to that with
normal potable water due to the fast hydration
process of cement.
[33]
4
The weight of the concrete with seawater
increased by around 2% after 28 days. It can be
controlled by using SCMs, such as coal bottom
ash because it decays the penetration of harmful
salts and reduces the setting time of CBMs.
[31]
5
Concrete mixed and cured with seawater had a
minimum water penetration depth of 25 mm due
to the crystallisation of salts.
[36]
6
The density and modulus of the elasticity of
concrete mixed and cured with seawater were
unaffected compared with normal concrete.
[36]
7
Seawater does not affect the air content and
density of CBMs because the density of seawater
is 2%–3% higher than that of fresh tap water.
[33]
8
Concrete specimens (1.7% volume) exposed to
the freeze–thaw action in the marine
environment decreased by the effect of seawater,
and their colours changed from dark grey to
light grey.
[28]
Strength properties of CBMs
1
The early strength-gaining rate of concrete made
and cured with seawater increased rapidly at 7
days due to chlorides in the seawater that
accelerated the setting of cement and improved
the strength.
[30,37]
2
The strength-gaining rate was observed to be
reduced at 14, 28, and 90 days due to leaching
out of soft hydration products or sulphates in
seawater that retarded the setting of cement.
[38–40]
3
The strength of concrete containing seawater
was observed to be reduced by around 15%
compared to similar concrete specimens made
and cured with fresh water at 90 days.
[38,41]
4
Concrete mixed and cured in seawater had
higher compressive, tensile, flexural, and bond
strengths than concrete mixed and cured in fresh
water at the early ages of 7 and 14 days. The
strengths after 28 and 90 days for concrete mixes
mixed and cured in fresh water increased slowly.
[24,42]
5
The tensile properties of concrete were weakened
by the sulphate salts present in the seawater. [43]
6The seawater and sea sand concretes were
slightly more brittle than ordinary concrete. [44]
7Seawater had an enhanced effect on the early
strength development of sea sand concrete. [44]
Water 2023,15, 2828 5 of 15
Table 1. Cont.
S. No. Main Findings References
Durability properties of CBMs
1
The usage of fly ash with a low w/c ratio made
the concrete more chloride-resistant
against seawater.
[45]
2
Chloride salts in the seawater caused the
deterioration of concrete due to the
chloride-induced corrosion of steel.
[43]
3
No effect was observed on the stress–strain
performance of seawater-cured concrete
compared with the freshwater-cured concrete.
[28]
4Seawater was responsible for the corrosion of
concrete reinforcement. [46]
5
The usage of corrosion inhibitors, such as
fibre-reinforced polymers, was suggested to
overcome the negative effects of seawater.
[47]
6A negligible effect of seawater was observed on
the carbonation process of concrete. [32]
7
Concretes with seawater had more resistance
against drying shrinkage and less against the
freeze–thaw action due to the presence
of chlorides.
[32]
8The permeability of concrete produced through
seawater mixing was not influenced. [33]
9
Shrinkage was recorded to be 5% more than the
conventional concrete produced through normal
water mixing.
[33]
10
Chloride ingression resistance was unaffected by
seawater. A rapid chloride permeability test was
performed on freshwater and seawater concretes,
and the results were approximately the same for
the two concretes.
[33]
11
The same pore structure was found for
freshwater-cured concrete and seawater-
cured concrete.
[48]
12
The use of SCMs improved the serviceability and
life of concrete exposed to the
marine environment.
[31]
3. Using Treated Industrial Wastewater in CBMs
Industrial wastewater is a great difficulty to environmental progress in human civili-
sation. Carelessly discharging wastewater into water bodies affects the physical, chemical,
and biological changes to the environment. The typical steps for industrial wastewater
treatment are shown in Figure 2[49].
Water 2023,15, 2828 6 of 15
Water 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Figure 2. Steps in wastewater treatment.
Industrial wastewater, such as textile factory wastewater, fertiliser factory
wastewater, and sugar factory wastewater, affects the mechanical and durability proper-
ties of concrete, such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, water absorption,
and chloride migration [50]. The effects of treated industrial wastewater on the fresh,
hardened, and durable properties of CBMs, such as paste, mortar, and concrete, are listed
in Table 2.
Table 2. Effects of treated industrial wastewater on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability
properties of CBMs.
S. No. Main Findings References
Fresh properties of CBMs
1 The use of treated industrial wastewater has a minimal
effect on the air content of freshly mixed concrete. [5]
2
The workability of concrete decreased by using tertiary
and secondary-treated wastewaters; however, it can be
improved by adding plasticisers.
[51]
Physical properties of CBMs
1
The use of treated industrial wastewater has a minimal
effect on the normal consistency of hydraulic cement
and the density of concrete.
[5]
2 The use of treated industrial wastewater in the cement
paste postponed the final setting time to 17 min. [5]
3
Concrete with treated industrial wastewater has regular
and well-formed crystals compared with concrete that
has drinking water in accordance with the scanning
electron microscopy images.
[5]
Strength properties of CBMs
1
Textile factory wastewater presented higher compres-
sive and split tensile strengths than concrete with pota-
ble water.
[50]
2
The compressive strengths of concrete samples made
with 100%
drinking water were higher than concrete samples mixed
with
[52]
Figure 2. Steps in wastewater treatment.
Industrial wastewater, such as textile factory wastewater, fertiliser factory wastewater,
and sugar factory wastewater, affects the mechanical and durability properties of concrete,
such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, water absorption, and chloride
migration [
50
]. The effects of treated industrial wastewater on the fresh, hardened, and
durable properties of CBMs, such as paste, mortar, and concrete, are listed in Table 2.
Table 2.
Effects of treated industrial wastewater on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability
properties of CBMs.
S. No. Main Findings References
Fresh properties of CBMs
1
The use of treated industrial wastewater has a
minimal effect on the air content of freshly
mixed concrete.
[5]
2
The workability of concrete decreased by using
tertiary and secondary-treated wastewaters;
however, it can be improved by
adding plasticisers.
[51]
Physical properties of CBMs
1
The use of treated industrial wastewater has a
minimal effect on the normal consistency of
hydraulic cement and the density of concrete.
[5]
2
The use of treated industrial wastewater in the
cement paste postponed the final setting time to
17 min.
[5]
3
Concrete with treated industrial wastewater has
regular and well-formed crystals compared with
concrete that has drinking water in accordance
with the scanning electron microscopy images.
[5]
Water 2023,15, 2828 7 of 15
Table 2. Cont.
S. No. Main Findings References
Strength properties of CBMs
1
Textile factory wastewater presented higher
compressive and split tensile strengths than
concrete with potable water.
[50]
2
The compressive strengths of concrete samples
made with 100%drinking water were higher
than concrete samples mixed withwater
containing 25 to 100% of treated wastewater.
[52]
3
The compressive strength of concrete with
treated industrial wastewater decreased by an
average of 6.9% than the compressive strength of
cement mortar with drinking water.
[5]
4
The use of treated industrial wastewater in
concrete production decreased the tensile
strength of concrete by 11.8% at 90 days.
[5]
5
The compressive strengths of concrete ranged
from 85% to 94% ofnormal concrete by replacing
100% tap water with tertiary-treated wastewater
and curing in tap water with tertiary wastewater.
[51]
6The use of industrial wastewater had a minor
effect on the strength properties of concrete. [53]
Durability properties of CBMs
1
Amongst the five various types of wastewaters
separately used for the mixing of concrete (textile
factory wastewater, fertiliserfactory wastewater,
domestic sewerage wastewater, service station
wastewater, and sugar factory wastewater),
fertiliser factory wastewater showed the highest
mass loss and chloride penetration.
[50]
2
An increase of about 7.7% was observed in the
electrical resistivity of concrete with treated
industrial wastewater than using drinking water
in concrete production.
[5]
3
The carbonation resistance of concrete decreased
by using tertiary-treated water as a replacement
for tap water.
[51]
4
The use of tertiary wastewater with tap water for
curing or only tertiary wastewater for the curing
of concrete increased the abrasion resistance.
[51]
4. Using Treated Sewage Wastewater in CBMs
Treated sewage wastewater involves domestic, municipal, or some industrial wastew-
ater in which all the contaminants and suspended solids are removed before their disposal
in the environment [
54
]. Various physical, chemical, and biological processes are involved
to remove the contaminants for producing treated effluent that is safe to release into the
environment [
55
]. A by-product of sewage treatment is a semi-solid waste called sewage
sludge that undergoes further treatment before being suitable for disposal on the land [
54
].
Preliminary, secondary, and tertiary-treated sewage wastewaters can be used as mixing
waters in concrete [
56
,
57
]. The effects of treated sewage wastewater on the fresh, hardened,
and durable properties of CBMs, such as paste, mortar, and concrete, are listed in Table 3.
Water 2023,15, 2828 8 of 15
Table 3.
Effects of treated sewage wastewater on the fresh, physical, strength, and durability proper-
ties of CBMs.
S. No. Main Findings References
Fresh properties of CBMs
1
The slump of concrete was unaffected by the
type of mixing water, such as preliminary-,
secondary-, and tertiary-treated
sewage wastewaters.
[56]
2
For primary, secondary, and domestic
wastewaters and potable water, the slump value
of concrete changed between 90 and 100 mm.
[58]
3
The initial and final setting times of cement paste
were the same for potable water and
secondary-treated wastewater, whereas they
decreased for primary-
treated wastewater.
[58]
4
A reduction in concrete workability was
observed using domestic primary-
treated wastewater.
[59]
5
The use of treated domestic wastewater
increased the setting time of cement related to
using drinking water in concrete.
[60]
6
The use of domestic wastewater in concrete did
not cause any remarkable deterioration in its
fresh and hardened properties.
[61]
7
The use of wastewaters from small-scale water
treatment plants in residential buildings did not
affect the initial setting time of OPC; however, a
considerable change was observed in its final
setting time.
[10]
Physical properties of CBMs
1
The density of concrete was unaffected by the
type of mixing water, such as preliminary,
secondary, and tertiary-treated
sewage wastewaters.
[56]
2
Initial and final setting times of concrete were
found to increase with deteriorating water
quality. Preliminary and secondary-treated
wastewaters had more effects on retarding the
setting times.
[56]
3
A considerable increase in the initial setting time
of up to 16.7% was observed in the concrete
using domestic primary-treated wastewater
compared with potable wastewater.
[59]
4
No considerable effect was observed on the use
of domestic primary- or secondary-treated
wastewater on the soundness value of mortar.
[59]
Water 2023,15, 2828 9 of 15
Table 3. Cont.
S. No. Main Findings References
Strength properties of CBMs
1
Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater
showed a reduction of about 50% in compressive
strength due to the water absorption property of
mixed organic waste than that of the
compressive strength of concrete made by using
potable water.
[50]
2
Concrete mixes with domestic sewerage
wastewater showed a maximum split tensile
strength of 92.3% compared with that of concrete
having potable water.
[50]
3
Concrete with preliminary and secondary
sewage-treated wastewaters showed lower
strengths for ages of up to 1 year than concrete
made with potable water.
[56]
4
The compressive strength of mortar and concrete
improved at 28 and 60 days by mixing
secondary-treated wastewater, respectively.
However, no improvement was observed in the
tensile and flexural strengths of mortar and
concrete by mixing secondary-treated
wastewater compared with potable water.
[58]
5
No negative effect was observed on the
compressive strength of mortar made with
domestic secondary-treated wastewater at a
curing age of 200 days. However, a reduction of
about 16.2% was found in the compressive
strength of mortar using domestic
primary-treated wastewater.
[59]
6
The type of mixing water, such as domestic
primary- and secondary-treated wastewater,
distilled water, and fresh water did not affect the
continuous increase in the concrete and mortar’s
compressive strength. However, the compressive
strength growth rate is dependent on the type of
mixing water.
[59]
7
Concrete cast with treated sewage wastewater
obtained higher compressive strength compared
with concrete treated with potable water for up
to 28 days.
[62]
8
The compressive strength of concrete under
rapid freezing and thawing decreased by about
10% by using treated domestic wastewater in
place of using drinking water.
[60]
9
The use of secondary-treated sewage wastewater
had a negligible effect on the strength properties
of concrete.
[53]
Water 2023,15, 2828 10 of 15
Table 3. Cont.
S. No. Main Findings References
10
The compressive and flexural strengths of OPC
pastes made with wastewaters from small-scale
water treatment plants in residential buildings
were less than the samples made with distilled
water. However, they were within the limits as
per code IS: 456-2000 and BS: 3148-1980.
[10]
Durability properties of CBMs
1
Water absorption of the concrete with domestic
sewerage wastewater was about 114.05% at 28
days and 120.65% at 90 days than that of
concrete with potable water.
[50]
2
Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater
showed the highest mass loss of about 103.3%
due to the acid attack at the testing age of 120
days compared with that of the concrete with
potable water.
[50]
3
Concrete with domestic sewerage wastewater
showed a maximum chloride penetration of
101.7% compared with that of concrete having
potable water at 120 days.
[50]
4The possibility of steel corrosion increased by
using sewage-treated wastewater. [56]
5
The effects of domestic primary- and
secondary-treated wastewater on concrete water
absorption and durability were insignificant.
[59]
6
Concrete samples produced and cured with
treated domestic wastewater did not have
remarkable effects on water absorption and
surface electrical resistivity compared to concrete
samples using drinking water.
[60]
7
Chloride permeability was high for
sewage-treated wastewater concrete compared
to potable water concrete at 14 and 28 days.
[62]
5. Using Carwash Service Station Wastewater in CBMs
Carwash wastewater may contain many pollutants, such as detergents, oil, grease,
sand, dust, chemicals, solvent-based solutions, heavy metals, and volatile organic mat-
ter [
63
,
64
]. Therefore, it can be harmful to humans and the environment if released un-
treated to the surface water bodies. Reusing carwash wastewater in concrete mixes aims to
create a sustainable environment and a means to recover a substantial amount of wastewa-
ter directly discharged into rivers and oceans [65].
The authors [
52
] used carwash wastewater to manufacture concrete and found that the
characteristics of this wastewater are within the American Society for Testing and Materials
standard limits. They used carwash wastewater in the concrete mix ranging from 25 to
100%. Their experimental results show that the compressive strength of concrete increases
with curing age regardless of the amount of carwash service station wastewater used. The
use of carwash service station wastewater can raise the possibility of corrosion and sulphate
attacks in reinforced concrete structures. All concrete mixtures with various amounts of
carwash service station wastewaters (up to 100% in the replacement of potable tap water)
showed similar water absorption rates to the control mixture.
The authors [50] noted that the concrete that had carwash service station wastewater
showed a mass loss of about 115.32% due to acid attack and maximum chloride penetration
Water 2023,15, 2828 11 of 15
of 110.61% at the testing age of 120 days compared with the concrete with potable water.
The maximum compressive strength of a concrete mixed with carwash service station
wastewater is about 4% less than that of concrete with potable water. The authors [
66
] stated
that concrete with 20% carwash wastewater achieves the highest compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity compared with other compositions of wastewater.
6. Using Wastewater from Ready-Mix Concrete Plants in CBMs
Global concrete production is about 11 billion tons annually, which needs around
1.87 billion m
3
of fresh water as mixing water and generates 748 million m
3
of wastewater
from its ready-mix plants [
67
]. Each cubic meter of ready-mix concrete requires approxi-
mately 175 L of mixing water and approximately 70 L of water to wash the mixer trucks,
concrete pumps, and equipment at later stages [
68
]. Wastewater from ready-mix concrete
plants contains heavy metals, high dissolved solids
≥
9000 mg/L, and pH
≥
12. Its dis-
charge into the environment is a great problem for sustainability, water pollution, and
human health [69].
From a ready-mix concrete plant, most water samples are hazardous due to the pH
value of 11.5. Therefore, they should not be disposed directly to the environment in
accordance with European and US legislation [
70
]. Although a recycling water system is
used in the specific ready-mixed concrete plant, extremely small portions of water (0–20%)
are used only after overflowing and neutralisation.
Ready-mix concrete plants are facing great challenges due to the water shortage, high
cost of fresh water, and wastewater disposal. Therefore, a new revolution to produce zero
waste from the ready-mix concrete industry by filtering and treating its wastewater for
reuse as mixing water in ready-mix concrete plants will have a positive impact on the
environment worldwide [
68
]. The separated solid powder can be collected and recycled
in cement clinker or asphalt mixtures. The filtered wash water after pre-treatment for the
removal of metals and reduction of pH can be reused for several applications or delivered
to a municipal wastewater network [71].
The recycling of ready-mixed concrete wastewater in various ratios with fresh water
can be utilised for concrete production [
72
,
73
]. The authors [
74
] reported that the use of
recycled wastewater from a concrete plant as a partial replacement of mixing water (from
20 to 50% for mortar production) did not affect the mechanical properties of mortar but
reduced its setting time by 15 min. The authors [
75
] described that the use of concrete wash
water to produce concrete samples had no remarkable effect on their compressive strength,
flexural strength, specific gravity, and air content.
The authors [
70
] stated that the mortars prepared using treated waste wash water
from a ready-mix concrete plant at the curing ages of 7, 28, 120, and 200 days showed no
negative effects on the compressive strength. However, the use of raw waste wash water
from a ready-mix concrete plant (i.e., used as mixing water in mortars) led to a reduction in
compressive strength (up to 10% at 28 days). Concrete made with raw waste wash water
from a ready-mix concrete plant showed a reduction in compressive strength of up to 13.9%
at 120 days. In accordance with the research report by authors [
70
], wastewater samples
from ready-mix concrete plants used in concrete specimens with and without admixtures
did not lower the concrete’s workability and slump value. No remarkable differences
were observed in the setting times of cement pastes with and without wastewater from
ready-mix concrete plants.
The authors [
76
] noted that a partial or full replacement of ready-mix concrete plant
wastewater with municipal water as mixing water in mortar and concrete showed a re-
duction of up to 10 mm in the workability. However, the hydration heat output and air
permeability were unaffected. The initial and final setting times of plain concrete were
reduced by 20 and 35 min, respectively, and the compressive strength increased by 8%
using 100% ready-mix concrete plant wastewater as mixing water.
Water 2023,15, 2828 12 of 15
7. Using Wastewater from the Stone-Cutting Industry in CBMs
The cutting, moulding, and finishing of stones release dust and slurry sludge. This
slurry sludge is prohibited from being discharged into the public sanitary system [
77
]. The
slurry sludge contains high amounts of water; therefore, its reuse decreases the cost of
production and cleans the environment [
78
]. Currently, this slurry sludge is recycled and
used as a source of water in the concrete production. The authors [
77
] reported that the use
of a stone slurry sludge as a water source in concrete production reduced its slump value
by 58% and increased its compressive and flexural strengths by 21 and 18%.
In accordance with the research report by authors [
66
], the compressive strength of
concrete mixed with stone slurry water was in the range of 81–98% of the control mix with
fresh water. The authors [
79
] stated that the replacement of tap water with stone slurry
wastewater caused a considerable slump reduction at the w/cs of 0.6 and 0.7, but a minor
effect on the slump was noticed at the w/c of 0.5. The use of wastewater from stone slurry
waste at the w/c of 0.7 in concrete mixtures had no remarkable effect on their compressive
strength at 28 days. However, the comprehensive strengths of concrete mixtures at w/cs of
0.5 and 0.6 were reduced in 28 days.
8. Conclusions
This study presents a detailed literature review regarding the effects of various water
types, such as seawater, treated industrial wastewater, treated sewage wastewater, carwash
service station wastewater, wastewater from ready-mix concrete plants, and wastewater
from the stone-cutting industry on the fresh, physical, mechanical, and durability properties
of CBMs. The conclusions are summarised as follows:
1.
Seawater does not considerably affect the air content, density, chloride ingression,
pore structure, permeability, and carbonation of CBMs; however, it reduces the
setting time.
2.
Industrial wastewater can be used (up to 100%) as a replacement for normal water
in CBMs after treatment. However, the compressive and tensile strengths can be
decreased by up to 15 and 7% by using it as a full replacement for normal water,
respectively, and by postponing the setting time. Industrial wastewater decreases
workability but has a negligible effect on the air content of fresh concrete.
3.
The secondary-treated domestic sewerage wastewater is suitable for producing ce-
ment mortars and concretes in accordance with the allowable limits of mixing water
for concrete compared with primary-treated domestic sewerage wastewater.
4.
The use of carwash service wastewater in CBMs may have adverse effects on their
mechanical and durability properties, such as compressive strength, corrosion, chlo-
ride penetration, acid attack, sulphate attack, and water absorption, because they may
contain many pollutants. Carwash service wastewater should be used partially as a
replacement for potable water in CBMs for its safe usage.
5.
The use of raw waste wash water from a ready-mix concrete plant reduces the com-
pressive strength of concrete by about 10%, and the use of recycled ready-mixed
concrete wastewater for mortars and concrete does not have harmful effects on their
properties. However, it reduces the setting times.
6.
Wastewater from the stone-cutting industry used in concrete production reduces the
slump value by about 58% and increases its compressive and flexural strengths by 21
and 18% at 28 days, respectively.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization: S.Y. and P.S.; methodology: S.Y. and P.S.; data curation:
S.Y. and A.L.; writing—original draft preparation: S.Y. and A.L.; writing—review and editing: S.Y.,
P.S., Z.C.M., H.Y.B.K. and A.L.; visualization: S.Y., P.S., Z.C.M. and H.Y.B.K.; supervision: P.S. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research is supported by Universiti Malaya Internal Research Grant, Grant Number
RMF0196-2021.
Water 2023,15, 2828 13 of 15
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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