Contemporary Moral Theories and Problems of Application: Moral Dilemmas and Decision-Making as a Model

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between ethics and decision-making through established theories of ethics that continue to be the richest source for solutions to political and social problems arising in democratic societies. The paper analyses patterns of political and social behaviour when making appropriate decisions in contexts of a particular ethical dilemma, exploring in particular the ontological status of moral dilemma. Then it delves into three streams of the legacy of the main philosophical thinkers from Aristotle to Charles Taylor (Utilitarianism, Deontological Ethics and Ethics of Virtue), and applies these to contemporary issues, such as political deception taken as an example providing linkage of thought and reality.

Full text

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(1)*Mohamed Ourya | ﺎﻳروأ ﺪﻤﺤﻣ
:ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
ﺎً
ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا
Contemporary Moral Theories and Problems of Application:
Moral Dilemmas and Decision–Making as a Model
^`-r/0Y`-)rWʙ(ʜlzXʙM`z`]84/,`q ɇ syx.`_5`ZaMy>)ae
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ʘe4/,`
 s`Wʙ(ʜzMUk`/0Y`-)zXʙ(ʜaAMf`zXʙ(ʜU5aU`z$Uefa\
0z)``,M`azAU`Wʙ(
Abstract: This paper explores the relationship between ethics and
decision–making through established theories of ethics that continue to be the
richest source for solutions to political and social problems arising in democratic
societies. The paper analyses patterns of political and social behaviour when
making appropriate decisions in contexts of a particular ethical dilemma,
exploring in particular the ontological status of moral dilemma. Then it delves
into three streams of the legacy of the main philosophical thinkers from Aristotle
to Charles Taylor (Utilitarianism, Deontological Ethics and Ethics of Virtue),
and applies these to contemporary issues, such as political deception taken as an
example providing linkage of thought and reality.
Keywords: Moral Philosophy, Moral Dilemma, Decision–making, Utilitarianism,
Deontological Ethics, Virtue Ethics, Justice, Good.
0EXMe!csaM`r+ʚza]z`r,`ir9`g5X{T{4z5`0]U`-4΅
Professor of Political Thought in the Department of International Affairs at the College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar
University.

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Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
ﺔﻣﺪﻘﻣ
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9
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
ﺎً
ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا :ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
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Aristotle
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,L5e`2kf{o{Xʙ(ʜi,zf`{TSs5azU`peɇ,Yyx.`"!%`ɇi^`-waLɈ+Ɇ1Ss5azU`
(2)ௐ0DUWLQ 0RQJLQ 5pIOH[LRQV VXU OH PpWLHU GH SKLORVRSKH Le Portique: Revue de philosophie et de sciences
humaines, 7/12/2007, accessed on 29/8/2020, at: https://bit.ly/37wyXX8
(3)ௐ'DQLHO0:HLQVWRFNProfession éthicien (Montréal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal, 2006), p. 15.
(4)ௐ,ELGS
(5)ௐ'DQLHO,QQHUDULW\The Transformation of Politics: Governing in the Age of Complex Societies (Brussels: Editions
scientifiques internationales, 2010), p. 118.

10
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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ﻻوأ
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bzjs\e6ky0z5%{or͸8͹Wʙ(ʜʙezaqzTNzE5yʘ/z(VXse{T>)9`
{Tr+,Me/z(ceq5Uj>)9`,!y,YTzXʙ(ʜaEf`lz/AwaLxsEk
qk]`͸pkeɃb]`{Xʙ(NT++s s`r͹^`.`{Xʙ(Njexc,Mjʘpke ɇb]czY`qj]e
qzaL?0Uy0(5$waLɀkzMeɀ0 qazAUiTglerFYT,$r0 ʘczY`NzE5yʘ
.͸9͹sM=`R`/z(ʙ`ɀM@r
.$QQH±&ODLUH+XVVHU/¶$XWRULWpLe Télémaque, vol. 1, no. 43 (January 2013), p. 4qɈɄ0Ʉ\Ʉ-͸6͹
:KDW ZDV 0zp9` p4/+{Tp5Uj0]U` bfM5 ͸1975–1906͹HannahArendt ,j/k$ ɇiw`/8ʞ/,!
{T/,<{`$XWKRULW\"
Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future: Six Exercises in Political Thought (New York: The Viking Press, 1961),
pp. 93–141.
zAXpjReginavDudleyandStephensCase1884k5`6kUz4r{`+r+zAXso,Yk`leKsk`.owaL_e0z(͸7͹
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0%`{Tp_sfMf`S0Lʜleqj^`-0y0rkzU4W0P_${Tx,Mssfyg`ly.`09`cs%`{a\`%zAY`
ɇiT6kUz4r{`+r+fy0!`m.o{Ʉ]0eNe{jEy0`K/9`VDMgP/r_!f`.o{TpzaLS/Mf`lzjsYa`ɀ,@
sYMfpzaLg]$rlzɄfɄpɇf`&`<{Ti\x.`cM`{Ya`{Xʙ(ʜ3,%a`6\Mf`m!ʘ{To-{jEy0`AY`
_f`bz4waL+,=`.o{T0Ikyf$0`z<sNec,Lʞ
Allan C. Hutchinson, Is Eating People Wrong? Great Legal Cases and how they Shaped the World (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 13–40; Michael J. Sandel, Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? (New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009), pp. 31–33.
(8)ௐ3HWHU9DOOHQW\QH7ZR7\SHVRI0RUDO'LOHPPDVErkenntnis, vol. 30, no. 3 (May 1989), p. 301.
{T^`-bz<U0Iky͸9͹
7HUUDQFH&0F&RQQHOO0RUDO'LOHPPDVThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.) (Palo Alto,
CA: Stanford University Press, 2018), accessed on 4/9/2020, at: https://stanford.io/3mBqoOQ

11
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%HUQDUG :LOOLDPV  :) $WNLQVRQ 6\PSRVLXP (WKLFDO &RQVLVWHQF\ Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society,
Supplementary Volumes, vol. 39 (1965), pp. 103–138.
(11)ௐ,ELGSS±
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zo//z(ʘɀ/=(yr0`iskL&<,Xr&z%<6]M`rUyaUE`/z(riybUE`/z(c,Mc,k`VLAe
{T/z(ʘ^`-bz<U0IkysM=`{Q`ly/z(lz0ɝe,Ʌer
:LOOLDP6W\URQSophie’s choice (New York: Rosetta Books, 2000), pp. 507–508.
qɇeL0erʙM`6y/{TY`lz/z(ʘ{5j0U`Ss5azU`.eʙ,$waLi\zj`zf`M`0%`iɇ͸13͹
sXͷ{T,zk!`r͸1940cL{T5j0TwaL{jf`ʜcs!p`{T0]`pk{Tsro0!o,Xi\migaM`Ne͹Ay0f`
{T^`-bz<U0Iky0a]jw`o.`rͶ0%`5j0T
Jean–Paul Sartre, L’existentialisme est un humanisme (Paris: Nagel, 1966), pp. 39–40.
waL34ʜ{T0YU`m.o,fM͸14͹
McConnell; Monique Canto–Sperber, Le Dictionnaire d’éthique et de philosophie morale (Paris: PUF, 1996),
pp. 443–448.
'DYLG/HZLV7KHWUDS¶VGLOHPPDAustralasian Journal of Philosophy, vol. 66, no. 2 (June 1988), pp. 220–223.
q\le{j`r_rʜiʙ=U`0Iky͸15͹
Richard Mervyn Hare, The Language of Morals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952), pp. 17–31.
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:LOOLDPV$WNLQVRQS

12
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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͸͹0 ʞ{Ujw`2e0͸͹ђ΃
(18)ௐ0F&RQQHOO

13
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
ﺎً
ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا :ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
ﻲﻗﻼﺧا ﻞﻌﻔﻟا سﺎﻘﻳ ﺎﻣﺪﻨﻋ وأ ،ﺔﻴﺒﻗاﻮﻌﻟا :ﺎًﻴﻧﺎﺛ
ةدﺎﻌﺴﻟا رﺎﻴﻌﻤﺑ
͸19͹UtilitarianismͶzMUk`ͷpLsj0p8rConsequentialismͶzXsM`ͷsor0p8ʜ/z`,k`
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is r͸1832–1748͹ck{fy0z oɇ+,$f\zMUk`Vy0Mlf]ykorp+M4le,y2yɇfL
-zXʙ(ʜz$k`leɀʘsYebMU`is]ypz54ezMUjw`0Ik`T͸1873–1806͹bze/sz4
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͸21͹ImpartialityͶ+z%`ͷsorbzerck,kLbMUa`ɀzXʙ(6ɝ4{`UtilityMUkf`F0z4
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BQ;)8ʜ+M4lzfw`{AUy+z%`.or
{T6z/Ɂ,eq-ɇ,${T.orbo!`rg`M`rcs]%f`rg\%`r0zYU`r{kQ`lzW0TʙT
waL{o3k`+M4ɇi_sY`l]fzT_r,`ts5ew`0]U`m.okaYj-ry,%`zD0Yfy,`
i,a`{T+0U`+M4xr50zYU`i,a`{T+0U`+M4ixg`M`{Tr, Ʌrfkys4ɇ,$
&`<{Ti\-ʘzMUka`ɀYTr{`r,`ts5f`waLɀzXʙ(ə{4z4bMTɇxis]yʘrzkQ`
ɝ
BQMUkf`qEɄɄ0T{MUk`/z`Z%`x.`gpU`s40pIykorg`M`i]4ley0\ʜ+M4
o0zPir+kzMeTwaLm/=Xrsa4ʜlL0Ik`
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0Ik`?0TZ$let0(54exr`r,`ɀ-+ɝ0!Ʌrly0(ʚwaLɀkɇzMeɀzXʙ(ɀ\sa4
_f`bz4waLɀAypkz,!j{`zXsM`y0Ik`lf@0p8ʜ/z`qU<szMUk`lLy,%`waL0=Yk4͸19͹
bz9ze/+l]fykorp`f!`bMU`"jgzzYx0!ye,kLAestheticConsequentialism z`f!`zXsM`0=%`ʘ
Ss5azU`F/Oɝs5yeɇl]`Tr0Mf`zXʙ(ʜ/z`lLVa)eq!pkeigP/͸1984–1926͹MichelFoucaults\sT
zj/sUz`\{T{a\0zMe {Tɀ01ɀ-4i\e,kL1983 by0Ϳi5zj{TqʙD_4lLqs so/z`.p{5j0U`
z8ʜFYTɀE0e&<kMf!e{TlU`iso{k Uyeͷ{ayf\m+/i\rͶcsz`pYzY%kk]fy{`Wʙ(ʜKsjeͷ
ɀzkT ɀ
ʙfL+0Tb\z$is]il]fyʘl]`isjkU`Ʌgo0(qMk<>=)e_!eɇlU`ɇiɀAyrz%`r+0Tʜ6z`r
{T^`-bz<U0IkyͶkz$6z`rɇzkTNz@se_2kf`r#=f`0ɄMɅy-f`
Michel Foucault, Dits et Ecrits (1980–1988), Tome IV (Paris: Gallimard, 1994), p. 392.
T0Mf`+y1waLq/,X5%bMU`XsLgzzYx0!ye,kLEpistemicConsequentialismzT0Mf`zXsM`ɀAy[kor
0Ikybz<U`le,y2f`
.ULVWRIIHU$KOVWURP±9LM-HIIUH\'XQQHGVEpistemic Consequentialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
(20)ௐ-HUHP\ %HQWKDP The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham: An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 11.
q\leͶMUkf`r`,M`lz_=ʘ{TͷiskM6e)`b=U`{T`,M`cspUffpE0yrly,f`ly.obze:Xky͸21͹
0IkyzMUk`
John Stuart Mill, On liberty: Utilitarianism and other essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 176–201.

14
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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bMU`zXʙ(waLg]%`&f5yx.`,z$s`beM`{o+M5`m.or.Ʉ)ɇf`/0Y`,k5ye
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͸23͹Ͷfpza\
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ʙe͸1827–1770͹BeethovenlTspz`M4`zjsUfz5a`Nf5y>)8+M4
b5a5eYa$t,$,o9ec͸1616–1564͹Shakespeare0z5]9`z$05e0X0\+M4k%kfye_s$J. Sandel
zMUk`q%z%=`r%e{TbzeZEke5%z`L+M4&ke{TbATʜso0z5]8-f`rTheSimpsonsl5fz4aL
.Sandel, pp. 54–57{T^`-bz<U0Ikyckz
(25)ௐ5LFKDUG0HUY\Q+DUH Moral Thinking. Its Levels, Method and Point (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981),
pp. 1–43.
+,=`.o{T0Iky&z%=`bMU`sor͸ɄaEɅyrɄP0Ʌy͹bɇAɄUɅyx.`bMU`so/o0Ij{TɀzXʙ(_sYf`bMU`͸26͹
Ibid., pp. 101–105.
.Ibid., p. 250IkysE4/risDʙT\ijsz`U4ʙTt,`ɀTr0Mei\2zzf`.oɇi/oɇ0YɅy͸27͹

15
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
ﺎً
ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا :ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
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ts5eɇe3k`le+,L0\+M5`,T0\ʜXsM`,`seɀ+Lpjʜz`rʜeM`+f`
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.͸30͹Ͷ{`f`V<s`ͷr
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JosephFletcher 09zaT Vy1s w` >)9` Vy0M {T 0!kz4 ,k5yr HumanBeing
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>)8sol]`.oiT>=)`m.oleɚy0pIɅyil]`i]e{Ti\-qɇjɀ,\ei5jʞ
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ZEkf`BT0yx.`͸1971–1877͹:LOOLDP'5RVV3r/gz`rq\e_f`bz4waL0IkyPrimaFaciecspUe_s$͸28͹
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gpzoT/rgp+M4r
kzoT/rk+M4rkkerkf]$rk%<lz5%`,p!{M5`s rSelf–improvement.`0ysE΃
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+,=`.o{T0Iky
:LOOLDP'5RVVThe Right and the Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 19–28.
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(30)ௐ+DUHMoral Thinking, p. 55.
(31)ௐ3HWHU6LQJHUPractical Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 73.

16
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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,0!`%U<{TqkLNT+rlysʜx0`ɀ,yeɀUXse0!kz4.),Xr2007k4y,.kely,yf`rlz@/Mf`lz{kDs`
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3HWHU6LQJHU$&RQYHQLHQW7UXWKThe New York Times, 26/1/2007, accessed on 2/10/2020, at: https://nyti.ms/38zJFvc
m,zl]yg`/0Y`ɇiʘs`q5UjZEkf`0fyo2`=ej\{`qɝez$pjbAUyi\0!kz4ɇiw`/8ʞ/,!͸36͹
{T^`-bz<U0Ikyj,k,jʞ,y0!`^`.#ɇ0<f\is0Yf`qaL+0Trq([kpTm,$r
-RKDQQ +DUL 3HWHU 6LQJHU 6RPH SHRSOH DUH PRUH HTXDO WKDQ RWKHUV The Independent, 10/10/2011, accessed on
15/9/2020, at: https://bit.ly/34AF8HA

17
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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Candida R. Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom: Diverse Practices, Theologies, and Traditions (New Heaven: Yale
University Press, 2012); Candida R. Moss, The Myth of Persecution: How Early Christians Invented a Story of
Martyrdom (New York: HarperCollins, 2013).
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+ʞ.zUk/0X.)yqzaLrzXʙ(ʜz$k`leɀ/ɇ0ezMUk`{T0Mz4bMU`.pTpjMele ɀ
ʙzaYrp+M4^`-{Tɇi
(39)ௐ,PPDQXHO.DQWLa religion dans les limites de la simple raison (Paris: Vrin, 1968), p. 23.
(40)ௐ3HWHU6LQJHUHGA Companion to Ethics (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 1993), p. 177.
ͶcLNy09,eq5UjXs`{Trɀf+&=i^+/fa5f`l]fyz%bMU`bMTͷo,$m.or͸41͹
Immanuel Kant, Métaphasique des mœurs, Tome 1 (Paris: Flammarion, 1994), p. 178.

18
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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ɀYaEe.]`c,M\ʘ%`Nzf {TYaEere/<rae\Fj\0Ij{T͸za5` s`
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VɈ5jq-ɇ,${T.orɀzXʙ(lz`sYejs]yiwaL
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NT,`waLɀ/+Xe+e0z]U`w`ɀ0EAe5`{5UjYale+sp!fczY`w` ${T5aT*`{.Q`{eIj
0IkyͶ{ɇkL ɀ@sLbff`bfM`.pir0(ʚbɇU]z4
Immanuel Kant, Qu’est–ce que les lumières? (Saint–Étienne: Publications de l’Université de Saint–Étienne, 1991),
p. 73.
(43)ௐ6LQJHUHGA Companion to Ethics, p. 178.
za4/q`j\iw$ɀzXʙ(ɀ/ɇ0e0%`bMT&=z`y/r0A`Cr09`BMr+2f`0z`,e+,%y͸44͹
ɀzXʙ(ɀ,y%ebXʜwaLrɀ,ɇz bMU`is]yi!y΃
ɀzXʙ(ɀʘsYebMUa`08f`0z`is]yi!y΃
0z`r`sYel]`rpzTsP0e0zPrMXseza5`!zk`rzXʙ(ʜz$k`leɀk5$is]yibMU`le,=Y`΃
yQ`ZzY%`08eaz4rʘrɀT,o6z`bMUa`{a5`
͸4k`,LX͹lzyr5ejs]yi!ybXʜwaLrz5`0z`letsX,z!`0z`is]yi!y΃
0Ikybz<U`le,y2fa`
0LFKDHO:DOWHUGuerres justes et injustes (Paris: Belin, 1999), pp. 220–221.

19
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
ﺎً
ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا :ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
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{Tb(,yɀz!yɀ r0DY`/5e0zzQ`MT0`c,)4j0L-_]8ʞ10ykorɀzj
xsj`Zy0E`waL>)9`bX{or!zk`Ne?/Mz4`%`m.o{UT,L5f`WEj
esIkewaLzaATʜp`0z(ʜm.o ɇifrYaEf`za5` s`esIke{Tb(,y.or
0zzQ`MT0`c,)4c,LiT.]or0z(ʜm.o%a=f`is]y/z(ʘɇiTz!yʞWʙ(ʜ
(45)ௐ3KLOLSSD)RRWVirtues and Vices: And Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002),
pp. 19–32.
_f`bz4waL0Iky+ɇ,Mf`pa,raAMf`m.op$0E{`z`]8ʞ_s$bz<U`le,y2f`͸46͹
Sandel, pp. 21–24.
(47)ௐ-XGLWK-DUYLV7KRPVRQ7KH7UROOH\3UREOHPYale Law Journal, vol. 94, no. 6 (1985), pp. 1395–1415.

20
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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.318–309;͸20184z5`4/+r%ʝ`{0M`2\0f`r0zͿ$r,`͹͸/0%e͹{jy+
(49)ௐ-RKQ5DZOVThéorie de la Justice (Paris: Points, 2009), p. 30.
(50)ௐ,ELGS
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c0$ʘzLf ʘ64ʜrr0`rb(,`rz`r5f`<kerVHrz$ʙ<rEa4rC9k`/z(y0$r\0%`
0Iky.`
John Rawls, Justice et Démocratie (Paris: Seuil, 1993), p. 175.

21
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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(52)ௐ5DZOVThéorie de la Justice, p. 91.
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161.
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(1248b–1249b).
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(QULFR%HUWL0LFKHO&UXEHOOLHULire Aristote (Paris: PUF, 2016), pp. 161–176.
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Revue d’éthique et de théologie morale, no. 261 (2010), pp. 71–98.
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DQLPDX[LQŒuvres complètes, tome II, p. 1633 (741b).

22
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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(60)ௐ$ODVGDLU0DF,QW\UHAfter Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007),
pp. 187–188.
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0IkyzLf!`/z ɀAy
$PLWDL(W]LRQL&RPPXQLWDULDQLVP3ROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOSKLORVRSK\Encyclopædia Britannica, 25/9/2013, accessed on
30/11/2020, at: https://bit.ly/3b2V21R

23
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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͸2018–1941͹TristramEngelhardt /paQjc5y0{\0zeʜzE`rSs5azU`leMoralStrangers 0]T6Yj͸62͹
zky,`Wʙ(ʜb\1r!ycspUf\ͶzjfaM`z5jʞL2k`ͷlLzjfaM`z5jʞrz s`sz`zXʙ(q\{TNT,yx.`
0IkyzYy2zTzf`rzky,`,YMf`lL0Ik`BQ09\09`lz[Ʉ09ɅesoɇfL%` syx.`{9`zjʙYM`r
H. Tristram Engelhardt, Bioethics and Secular Humanism: The Search for a Common Morality/RQGRQ6&0 3UHVV
1991), p. 119.
(63)ௐ0DF,QW\UHS
(64)ௐ,ELGS
(65)ௐ&KDUOHV7D\ORU/DFRQGXLWHG¶XQHYLHHWOHPRPHQWGXELHQEsprit, vol. 3–4, no. 230–231 (Mars–Avril 1997),
p. 159.
(66)ௐ&KDUOHV7D\ORUSources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1989), pp. 92–97.

24
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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.͸68͹Ͷ,zf$ry0z(is]4>)9`
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(68)ௐ5RVDOLQG+XUVWKRXVHOn Virtue Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 1.

25
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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lzE5Pr6y,Y`bely+b //s=w$.]`leKsjxq`sXc,L{Tzjs]`+f`
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l]`.]a`{ s`sEjʜN@s`{T?s)`{4z5`.]`_!ewaLzXʙ(ʜy0Ik`m.oZzEɇfpele6z`͸69͹
0=%`ʘ_f`bz4waLz``N 0f`waL/Y`bz%jbz<U`le,y2fa`
3LHUUH6DUU'LVFRXUVVXUOHPHQVRQJHGH3ODWRQj6DLQW$XJXVWLQFRQWLQXLWpRXUXSWXUHDialogues d’histoire ancienne,
vol. 36, no. 2 (2010), pp. 9–29; Arendt, Hannah, La crise de la culture (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), pp. 289–336.
a!e{T09jͶTruthandPoliticsͷiskM,j/k$_Yf`z5j0U`f 0`w`0z9%U=`ɇiw`/8ʞ/,!r
{TɀY4ɀM 0e,ɆfɅLx.`Between Past And Future]a`y2za]jʞza<ʜ)5k`{T+s se0zPrThe New Yorker
z5j0U`)5k`w`0(_YeNeVz@qk]`4/,`m.o
(70)ௐ-RQDWKDQ6ZLIWL’art du mensonge politique: Précédé de Le Mentir vrai de Jean–Jacques Courtine (Grenoble:
Jérôme Million, 1993), p. 34.
(71)ௐ1LFRODV0DFKLDYHOLe prince et autres textes (Paris: Gallimard, 1980), p. 107.

26
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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(Paris: J’ai lu, 2014).
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27
ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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28
Issue 9 / 36 دﺪﻌﻟا
Spring 2021 ﻊﻴﺑر
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References ﻊﺟاﺮﻤﻟا
ﺔﻴﺑﺮﻌﻟا
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ثﺎﺤﺑأو تﺎﺳارد
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ﺟذﻮﻤﻧ راﺮﻘﻟا ذﺎﺨﺗاو ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا ﺔﻠﻀﻌﻤﻟا :ﻖﻴﺒﻄﺘﻟا تﺎﻴﻟﺎﻜﺷإو ةﺮﺻﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﺔﻴﻗﻼﺧا تﺎﻳﺮﻈﻨﻟا
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