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Culture shock or shocking culture: An exploration
of the main obstacles encountering Syrian newly returned
academic staff from abroad
Rami M. Ayoubi 1
Hiba K. Massoud2
Hanan A. Al-Maghout3
Abstract
This study explores and empirically invesgates and classifies the major reverse
culture shock aspects, difficules that Syrian returning academics encounter once
they come back to their sending universies, and their previous cultural exposure
when they studied abroad. The data is collected using a quesonnaire developed
for the purpose of this study and distributed to more than one hundred academics
who returned within the past 49 months to Damascus University. Seventy eight
academics responded. From the perspecve of newly appointed academic staff, the
quesonnaires basically invesgate the extent of study abroad exposure, aspects
of reveres cultural shock, and major difficules academics face from the date of
returning unl the date of being a full member of academic staff. A cross-seconal
comparave analysis based on personal informaon is accomplished. To further
invesgate the three dimensions of the study, both factor and cluster analysis
are employed. The results are presented in a three dimensional grid models. This
study is the first analycal study in this field in the Syrian higher educaon sector.
However, it is limited to data collected from only one public university in Syria.
Implicitly, the study highlights the importance of maintaining academic staff at
their instuons. It also provides suggesons and recommendaons to university
managers for beer eliminaon of the high risk of brain drain in developing
countries.
1 Coordinator of Tempus Programme in Syria based at the Ministry of Higher Education, and Lecturer
at the Faculty of Economics, University of Damascus, Syria. Held PhD in Strategic Management and
Globalization from the University of Nottingham, UK, 2006. Dr Ayoubi could be contacted on ntosyria@
scs-net.org
2 Lecturer at the Faculty of Economics, University of Damascus, and Advisor to some EU and UNDP
Projects, Syria. Held PhD in Corporate Social Responsibility from the University of Nottingham, UK, 2006.
Dr Massoud could be contacted on massoudhiba@hotmail.com
3 Lecturer at the Higher Language Institute, University of Damascus, Syria. Held MA in TEFL from Reading
University, UK, 2003, and MBA from HIBA in Syria, 2008. Miss Al-Maghout could be contacted on
maghout@gmail.com
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I. Introduction
By the end of 2008, thousands of Syrian governmentally funded students were studying abroad,
consuming hundreds of millions of Syrian pounds of the naonal income. In line with the naonal
development map for the higher educaon sector, the main aim is to provide public instuons,
parcularly universies, with their staff capacity needs. A considerable number of those students
return back home holding the capacity qualificaons required for appointment at the instuons
that delegated them. However, most of them encounter several kinds of obstacles and difficules
causing some to leave the country aer returning as well as causing others sll abroad to think
of not returning to Syria.
In order to idenfy the factors that could lead to high risks of brain drain, the study explores and
empirically invesgates these difficules and their relaons with reverse culture shock aspects
and previous exposure to foreign cultures during study abroad. Based on the results of analysis,
the study also aims at providing useful recommendaons to university managers highlighng the
importance of maintaining academic staff at their instuons. The study tries to fill the gap of
reverse culture shock literature in two ways: first, it addresses the issue of reverse culture shock
in an Arab country where this phenomenon has not previously been studied; and second, by its
dynamic nature of analysis that links the exposures to the country of study culture, the difficules
reverse culture shock brings to academic life, and the symptoms of reverse culture shock.
This paper is organized as follows; a review of the main features of the Syrian higher educaon
and the Syrian government efforts towards capacity building of the academic staff is presented
in secon II. Secon III reviews the related literature and provides the theorecal framework of
the paper. The method, difficules, and techniques of data collecon and analysis are described
in secon IV. The findings of this study are illustrated in secon V. Finally, secon VI discusses the
conclusion and recommendaons of the study.
II. Features of the Syrian higher education, and the capacity
building of Syrian academic staff
The Syrian Government has responsibility for the supervision and control of the Higher Educaon
System in Syria. This is achieved through the Ministry of Higher Educaon and the Higher
Educaon Council. There are six public universies (Damascus University, Al Baath University,
Aleppo University, Tishreen University, Al-Furat University, Syrian Virtual University), with a
plan to expand to ten universies by 2010. There are thirteen private universies, and eleven
more which are under construcon. There are also six higher instutes, and a huge number
of intermediate vocaonal, professional and technical training instuons that are under the
responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Educaon. The most influenal legislaon for higher
educaon in Syria since 2000 was the Presidenal Decree No. 36 of 2001, which governs the
work of private universies in Syria. The other legal framework that governs and regulates higher
educaon in Syria is Law No. 6 of 2006, called “The University Regulaon Law”, which governs
the work of public universies in Syria. This Law is an amendment of the previous Law. The
new law gives more autonomy to universies, parcularly with regard to staff appointments and
promoons.
The Ministry of Higher Educaon is aiming to set priories, devise execuve plans to implement
them, and connue the process of modernizaon of the sector. To fulfil its goals, the Ministry of
Higher Educaon is cooperang with naonal (public and private) and internaonal partners. In
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line with the modernizaon and upgrading projects planned and carried out naonally with the
various programmes of the European Union and UNDP, the Ministry has set out the following as
immediate reform priories:
1. The establishment of new instuons, facules and programmes within the exisng
instuons.
2. New admissions policy consistent with academic standards, potenal students’ needs,
and naonal development needs.
3. Developing exisng curriculum and implemenng dynamic flexible rules for their
connuous revision in response to social and market needs.
4. Connuing the process of establishing a Quality Assurance and Accreditaon System.
5. Draing execuve plans for the purpose of upgrading the skills of academic staff.
6. Upgrading the enabling environment through providing up-to-date facilies such as:
labs, modern libraries, network connecvity.
7. Revamping academic research and graduate studies programmes.
8. Upgrading vocaonal and educaonal training instutes.
9. Sector restructuring to enhance governance and introducing updated management
informaon systems.
10. Establishing an effecve stascal matrix which is important for planning at the strategic
and policy level.
One of the major shortcomings of Higher Educaon in Syria, and the Arab region in general, is the
lack of relevance of programmes and curricula to development needs and to the labour market.
The Council of Higher Educaon in Syria is conscious that there is a need for major reform and
diversificaon of the Higher Educaon programmes in Syria to meet development needs, and
has asked the universies in the country to reform and modernize their programmes. It has also
eased the regulaon governing curricula development and made them more decentralized and
flexible.
A government commiee called the “University Admission Commiee”, which is headed by
the Prime Minister, determines the number of students to be admied to the Higher Educaon
system each year and their distribuon. The Syrian government is commied to the policy of
equal access to higher educaon. In principle, each student passing the General Secondary
Educaon Exams (The Baccalaureate) is eligible for a place in the Syrian Higher Educaon system.
This “Open Door” Policy was adopted by the Syrian government in the early sevenes, and sll
being pracced.
Following the open door policy and in order to respond to the huge number of students recruited
each year, the Ministry of Higher Educaon in consultaon with the universies, and applying
the measures of quality assurance, is looking to enhance capacity building among academic staff,
parcularly teaching assistants, both qualitavely and quantavely. This is mainly done through
internaonal capacity building programmes funded by the government, where hundreds of
teaching assistants are sent every year mainly to western countries to study for their PhDs to
enable them to fulfil the requirements of appointment at their sending instuons.
By the end of 2008, there were more than four thousands Syrian governmentally funded students
studying abroad, consuming hundreds of millions of Syrian pounds of the naonal income.
Most of these students were students reading for their PhD degrees. More than half of them
were appointed as teaching assistants at the Syrian universies prior to leaving to the receiving
country. The Syrian governmental policy towards studying abroad was majored by western
receiving countries including Germany, France and Britain (see Table 1).
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Table 1: Number of current governmentally funded Syrian
teaching assistants studying abroad
Hosng country Number of teaching assistants studying
abroad on 29/Jan/2009 %
France 833 41.88
Germany 567 28.51
UK 404 20.31
Egypt 91 4.58
Other countries 94 4.73
Total 1,989
Source: Department of Academic Staff Affairs, Ministry of Higher Education, Syria
Considerable numbers of these PhDs holders come back every year to Syria to start their new
career as full academic members at their facules. However, most of them, aer spending a
relavely long period of me in the country of study, and being exposed to the academic
environment at their hosng instuons may encounter difficules in coping with the new
academic culture at their sending instuons. The aim of this study is to invesgate the
difficules that are encountering Syrian newly returned academic staff from abroad in relaon
to their exposure to their study abroad culture and environment and to the major symptoms of
reverse culture shock.
III. Relevant previous studies and theoretical framework
of the study
1. The dilemma of brain drain
A review of the literature on reverse cultural integraon in the home country of Syria and in the
Arab world reveals a great lack of such studies. However, this is not only the case in the Arab
Region, as Furnham (2004) argues, such studies are comparavely new. There is a lack of large
scale, mul factorial, longitudinal studies that can help policy makers to idenfy the problems of
increasing numbers of returning students the world over. For policy makers, this issue is of great
importance as it may lead to the brain drain of an important class of the society, i.e. the academic
staff. However, it will always be difficult to stop very skilled workers from emigrang. Miyagiwa
(1991) emphasizes that convenonal policies designed to stop a brain drain may succeed only in
retaining those who are mediocre professionals while the brightest connue to emigrate.
The demand for beer opportunies and beer academic and professional environments lead
highly skilled academics to emigrate. Li and Bray (2007) invesgated the push–pull factors and
movaons of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau, and found that that flows of
mainland Chinese students are driven by both excess and differenated demand. Tremblay (2005)
argues that in the context of increasing internaonalizaon of educaon, academic mobility
is a potenal source of qualified workers from the host countries’ perspecve, either during
their studies or through subsequent recruitment. Studying abroad can be part of a deliberate
emigraon strategy from the perspecve of students. Major notable reasons for the emigraon
of highly skilled academic staff and students relate to the uncomfortable culture in the sending
countries. In a study on the major challenges faced by Russian academics, Smolentseva (2004)
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found that Russian higher educaon and its academic staff face the challenges of adapng to
financial constraints, improving appointment and evaluaon procedures, and the formaon
of a faculty with a younger generaon. Halici and Kasimoglu (2006) in a study on the level of
discriminaon against academic staff in a Turkish and an Azerbaijani university, found that such
discriminaon leads to thoughts about emigraon.
Academics have proposed different soluons to the dilemma of brain drain. Gonzalez (2004) proposes
different soluons for brain drain and overseas employment in the Philippines. For oversubscribed
professions, overseas employment is a viable opon; it is a source of foreign exchange and a natural
way of populaon control. For undersubscribed professions he proposes a system of incenves ed
to a period of mandatory service, aer which the beneficiary may exercise his/her opons. Hendriks
and Sousa (2008) invesgated how universies in the Netherlands approach the need and means for
movang university researchers through their management pracces. They found how individual
and organizaonal understandings of work assessment, work processes and work context connect
to the social mechanisms borrowed from the broader epistemic, discipline-specific communies
outside the university are factors that should be invesgated further by university management.
In the same context, Meyer and Evans (2008) suggest that universies must proacvely invesgate
policies and strategies to movate and enhance their developing professoriate, and not doing so
will lead inevitably to limits on the instuon’s capacity to aract, retain, and nurture those with
the essenal qualificaons, academic ability, and commitment necessary for higher educaon to
perform its unique role in society.
2. The exposure to the hosting culture
The theory suggests that most of those who are more exposed to the culture of the country
of study, and specifically the organizaonal culture at the hosng academic instuon, are
more likely to suffer from reverse culture shock. In a study on a group of American students
who parcipated in an honour program in the UK and a control group of students who stayed
home, Bates (1997) suggest that those who parcipated in the study abroad programme showed
personal development as well as an increase in their world-mindedness. In the same context, in
a survey of parcipants in programs run by the New Jersey State Consorum for Internaonal
Studies from the Fall of 1997 to the Summer of 2002, Hadis (2005) found that the experience of
studying abroad has a very posive impact on university students who return more worldly than
before, are more interested in internaonal affairs, read newspapers more oen than before going
abroad, increase their fluency in other languages, acquire a more solid knowledge about their
host countries’ sociees and culture. They also show definite signs of personal development: they
are more independent, more outgoing, more friendly toward people from other countries, more
self-assured and uninhibited about travelling to countries where English is not the first language.
Cannon (2000) invesgated the outcomes of an internaonal educaon for Indonesian graduates,
and found that the outcomes derived from an internaonal overseas educaon are a complex
mix of professional, affecve, cultural and career advantages mediated by the nature of the
environment in which they work and the nature of the work they do. The author found that
most graduates believe the advantages of an overseas educaon are more important than the
disadvantages. In a comparave study of intercultural adaptability and intercultural sensivity to
study abroad students with students who stay on campus, Williams (2005) found that students
who study abroad exhibit a greater change in intercultural communicaon skills aer their
semester abroad than students who stay on campus. This indicated that exposure to various
cultures was the greatest predictor of intercultural communicaon skills.
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Sussman (2002) explores the relaonship between culture identy and repatriaon experience
among 113 American teachers who studied in Japan. Results indicated that overseas adaptaon
and repatriaon experiences are not directly associated. Rather, strong home culture identy
inversely predicted repatriaon distress with repatriates experiencing high distress reporng
weak culture identy. Repatriaon experience is related to shis in culture identy. Increased
estrangement from American culture (subtracve) or feeling ‘‘more’’ Japanese (addive)
following a visit are correlated with high repatriaon distress. Employing an interpreve case
study of a group of masters’ degree students in Singapore taught by an Australian university in
partnership with a local provider, Pyvis and Chapman (2005) found that internaonal students
studying in their home country with an overseas instuon may also experience culture shock as
an effect of this engagement. Cannon (2000) indicated that there are important disadvantages
of exposure to a receiving culture such as difficules with re-entry, work relaonships, and the
development of appropriate professional networks. However he found that the exposure will
cause more important changes in intellectual abilies, atudes and culture perspecves than
on narrower career advantages such as salary and promoon, which may actually suffer as a
consequence of an internaonal educaon.
3. The aspects of reverse culture shock and disintegration
Research has shown that some of the symptoms of culture shock include challenges to sense of
identy, frustraon, anger, withdrawal, depression, exhauson, and numbness. If le unresolved,
culture shock can result in a premature return to the home culture, funconal difficules, and
prolonged psychological distress (Swagler & Jome, 2005). Oberg (1960) has idenfied six disnct
aspects of culture shock:
a. Strain due to the effort required to make necessary psychological adaptaons
b. A sense of loss and feelings of deprivaon in regard to friends, status, profession and
possessions
c. Being rejected by and/or rejecng members of the new culture
d. Confusion in role, role expectaons, values, feelings and self-identy
e. Surprise, anxiety, even disgust and indignaon aer becoming aware of culture differences
f. Feelings of impotence due to not being able to cope with the new environment.
In an invesgaon on the aspects of reverse culture shock in American students returning from
overseas, Gaw (2000) found that returnees experiencing a high level of reverse culture shock were
more likely to report personal adjustment and shyness concerns than were returnees experiencing
a low level of reverse culture shock. The author also found a negave correlaon with regard to
reverse culture shock and student support service usage; as reverse culture shock increased,
service usage decreased. In a study to noons of transions of re-entry through the experiences
of East Asian terary internaonal students who had studied in New Zealand, Butcher (2004)
found that these transions centre on expectaons, a longing to belong, identy crisis, and a
sense of homelessness and loss, as well as various social responses and other general transions.
Butcher argues that the reintegraon of identy and place is crucial in ameliorang some of the
re-entry difficules, which also provides a useful conceptual framework to understand re-entry.
Miyamoto and Kuhlman (2001) idenfy the variables that may predict the level of culture
shock and anxiety level over returning to Japan among 240 Japanese expatriate students
living in southern California. They found that the students aended an American school on
the weekdays and a Japanese supplementary school on Saturdays. The study showed that the
most effecve predictors for the migaon of culture shock and anxiety over returning to Japan
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were, respecvely, the perceived favourableness of the relaonship with American teachers
and friends, perceived favourable relaonship with their Japanese teacher, and a favourable
percepon of their father’s English language proficiency.
Pedersen (1995) proposes five stages of culture shock as follows, the honeymoon stage, the
disintegraon stage, the reintegraon stage, the autonomy stage and the interdependence
stage. In the same context, according to two major dimensions, degree of adjustment to the
culture and the period of adjustment, Black and Mendenhall (1991) draw up a U-Curve of Cross-
Cultural Adjustment based on four major steps of reintegraon (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Black and Mendenhall’s (1991) U-Curve of Cross-Cultural Adjustment
4. The study questions
Based on the theory of culture and reverse culture shock, most studies describe the psychological
symptoms of academic returners. However, there is a lack of dynamic analysis of the associaons
between exposure to the culture in the country of study, the academic life difficules resulted
from reverse culture shock, and the symptoms of reverse culture shock. This study aims to
invesgate the main academic difficules and obstacles encountering Syrian newly returned
academic staff from abroad by responding to the following research quesons:
a. To what extent were the Syrian newly returned academic staff exposed to the culture and
environment in the country of study?
b. What major aspects of reverse culture shock are the newly returned Syrian academic staff
experiencing? And to what extent are the aspects of this shock reflected in their daily
academic life?
c. What are the major academic obstacles that they face, and to what extent are they facing
such obstacles?
d. To what extent is there compability between study abroad exposure, reverse culture shock
symptoms, and the academic occupaonal difficules of newly returned academic staff?
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IV. Methods, difficulties and techniques of data collection
and analysis
1. Methods of investigation
The invesgaon was based on a descripve survey. The study examined the occupaonal
problems of PhD-holders returnees to Damascus governorate governmental Higher Educaon
University and instutes. Data were incorporated to explore the exposure to the other culture
when studying abroad, aspects of reverse culture shock, and occupaonal difficules faced upon
returning to Syria. The subjects were 60 PhD-holders returnees who had been selected by the
government to study for a PhD degree abroad. The number of qualified parcipants is in the
range of parcipants in similar studies. For example 66 parcipated in the Gaw (2000) study; 113
parcipated in the Sussman study (2002); 95 in the Hadis (2005) study.
2. Criteria of participants
Academic staff at Damascus University, who met the following inclusion criteria at the me of
the study were asked to parcipate in the invesgaon: (1) holding a PhD degree; (2) compleng
the PhD degree outside the Syrian Arab Republic; and (3) final returning to Syria within the past
49 months. These criteria were selected following a study of the culture shock literature and
performing some inial pre-sampling tests. The maximum period of 49 months for final return to
Syria as a condion for parcipaon in the study was based on the U-Curve theory of culture shock
and the stages suggested by Black and Mendenhall (1991) which suggests that it usually takes an
individual around 49 months to complete the cycle of adjustment. To test the validity of this cut-
off point, 36 quesonnaires were distributed equally over two groups of PhD-holding staff from
the above menoned higher educaon bodies. The first group of staff arrived back in Syria more
than 49 months ago (at the me of the study) while the other group included returnees who had
been living in Syria for 49 months or less. A t-test was performed to invesgate whether there is
a difference between the means of the percentages of the neutral answers4 to all answers in the
two samples. The test results which appear in Tables (2a and 2b) show Levene’s test is significant
(P<0.05) suggesng unequal variance, and the t-test is also significant suggesng that the mean
of the percentage of neutral answers in the first group (returned more than 49 months ago) is
significantly higher than its counterpart in the second group (returned less than 49 months ago).
Therefore, the t-test results support the choice of the cut-off point built on the U-Curve theory.
Table 2a: Group Stascs
Arrival N Mean Std. Deviaon Std. Error
Mean
Percentage of neutral an-
swers
more than 49
months ago 18 .4804 .32502 .07661
49 months or less 18 .2386 .10430 .02458
4 Neutral answers are those that do not give a clear opinion either because they are not applicable to the
respondent or because he/she is not able to form a decision about an answer for the questiona
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Table 2b: Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
Percentage of
neutral an-
swers
Equal variances
assumed
15.646 .000 3.006 34 .005
Equal variances
not assumed
3.006 20.464 .007
3. Data collection and difficulties of data collection
To collect data, several visits were made to all facules at Damascus University and the other
higher instutes at Damascus University to collect contact informaon about all academic staff
who returned during the past 49 months. The survey packet contained a cover leer explaining
the study and the survey. 25 surveys were sent by email, although respondent rate was very
low for this method of data collecon (only three completed surveys were returned). The
researchers were informed that the survey contains personal informaon and were advised
to send and collect the surveys using mail boxes. 100 surveys were distributed using the mail
boxes and respondents were asked to complete and return the mailed survey immediately. 78
quesonnaires were collected in this way, although aer filtering procedures only 60 of these
were considered as qualified (usable). A variety of issues were encountered while collecng the
data. The first was to idenfy the sample for the study based on accurate informaon on the
exact dates of the parcipants’ final return to Syria. Another was the geographical distribuon of
facules at Damascus University. As menoned above, for confidenality and anonymity reasons,
the majority of parcipants preferred not to fill in the quesonnaire electronically and this meant
that longer me had to be spent in distribung and collecng the quesonnaires. In general, the
parcipants showed a high degree of co-operaon, as many said ‘the quesonnaire pinpoints
their concerns and highlights their problems’. However, a considerable number of parcipants
were irritated by certain items on the first part of the quesonnaire and considered them
too personal and irrelevant to the research. Hence, some refused to fill in the quesonnaire,
while others completed it only aer me spent persuading and clarifying. In order to avoid the
refusal of parcipants to fill-in in the first part of the quesonnaire, the answers were elicited
indirectly following prolonged conversaons with parcipants. Furthermore, some parcipants
commented that they felt uneasy filling in the second part of the quesonnaire.
4. Questionnaire design and techniques of data analysis
This invesgaon employed a survey consisng of three areas; the exposure to foreign culture
during study abroad, reverse culture shock, and the main occupaonal difficules facing the
returnees. Demographic components in the survey included age, sex, marital status, and number
of months lived abroad. The first group of quesons assessed the parcipants’ degree of exposure
to foreign culture during their study abroad. These eleven items invesgated issues ranging from
personal (such as having a partner) to work experience. The second group assessed the par cipants’
degree of reverse culture shock based on the six culture shock aspects menoned in the study by
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Oberg (1960). This was a sixteen item, 5-point Likert-type scale developed from previous culture
shock and reverse culture shock research (e.g., Mumford (1998). The third component of the
survey invesgated the main difficules facing the new comers. This was an eighteen item, 5-point
Likert-type scale represenng 4 groups of difficules; financial, personal, academic and research
related, and organizaonal. In order to meet the three major dimensions of the study idenfied
in the research quesons, i.e. the cultural shock, the level of exposure to culture in the country of
study, and the occupaonal difficules, the authors used the factor analysis technique to obtain
one factor for each of the previously menoned dimensions. The method used to extract the factor
is the Principal Components method (see Bryman and Cramer, 1999, p. 274). As this analysis aimed
only at one factor for each dimension, no rotaon techniques were needed. The aspects of cultural
shock, level of exposure to the culture in the country of study, current occupaonal difficules
factors were esmated using the relevant items idenfied in the previous paragraph. The scores of
the three factors were calculated using the Regression method to count factor scores. The previous
steps of this analysis were conducted by using the SPSS stascal package.
V. Findings
1. Sample description
Parcipants were in the 31 to 45 age range; the average age was 36 (S.D. =2.6) and most of the
parcipants were aged 37 (the mode). Thirty nine males and twenty one females parcipated.
At the me of the study, this sample had been back in Syria for an average of 23 months, with a
range of from less than a month to 49 months. Respondents studied in eight different countries.
The majority were in France, UK and Egypt. The distribuon of parcipants according to the
country of study was: 25 in France, 20 in the UK, 8 in Egypt, 2 in USA, 2 in Russia, and one in each
of Italy, Germany and Japan. The average stay was around 74 months with a range of 40 to 213
months. Twenty seven of the parcipants were single, one was a widow, one was divorced, and
thirty one were married. Three of the married parcipants (two males and one female) were
married to foreigners. Eight were married before leaving to study abroad, another eight married
during the period of study abroad, seven got married aer finishing study abroad, and the rest
preferred not give informaon about the date of their marriages.
2. Descriptive analysis (responding to research questions 1, 2 and 3)
This study assessed the degree of exposure to foreign culture, reverse culture shock, and occupaonal
difficules experienced by a sample of 60 Syrian higher educaon governmental bodies’ academic
staff who received their PhD degrees from abroad. The study then examined the compability
between these three researched areas for newly returned staff. This secon provides a descripve
analysis of the parcipants’ responses to the quesons represenng the three research areas.
a. Exposure to foreign culture
Tables 3a and 3b provide the response percentages of the sample across the exposure
measurement variables. Table 3a shows the responses to the yes/no quesons. The table
shows that less than 7% of the parcipants had partners and/or been married to foreigners.
However, most of them (over 90%) were exposed to other social acvies or experience. Table
3b shows the responses to other nonparametric quesons. This table illustrates that over 55%
of the parcipants were highly exposed to the culture of their countries of studies via residency,
tourism and working abroad. The parcipants’ exposure through problems faced and academic
research however was relavely low (less than 39% of the parcipants).
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Table 3a: The exposure to foreign culture during study abroad
responses (yes/no variables)
Exposure Item Yes No
Married to a foreigner
Having a partner
Vising to foreign families
Having contacts abroad
5.0
6.7
90.0
98.3
95.0
93.3
10.0
1.7
Table 3b: The exposure to foreign culture during study abroad responses
(other non-parametric variables*)
Exposure Item Lower Middle Higher
Residency
Tourism
Work experience**
Work movaons**
Problems faced
Research experience***
8.3
3.3
26.7
58.3
26.7
41.7
33.3
10.0
13.3
66.7
8.3
1.7
25.0
33.3
36.7
56.7
1.7
16.7
1.7
31.7
18.3
60.0
10.0
* No category values represent no such category for the variable
** One missing value
*** Three missing values
Table 3c shows the parcipants’ response stascs of the parametric queson (the duraon of
stay abroad). The minimum stay was 40 months while the maximum was 213 months with a
mean of 74 months (around 6 years) and a standard deviaon of 25 months suggesng that the
variable’s entries are highly dispersed.
Table 3c: The exposure to foreign culture during study abroad responses
(parametric variables)
Exposure Item Minimum Maximum Mean S.D.
Duraon of stay abroad (by months)* 40 213 74 25
*Three missing values
b. Aspects of reverse culture shock
Table 4 provides the response percentages of the sample across the culture shock aspect
subscale. Items were sorted by respondents as; neutral (not applicable/do not know), strongly
disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree. Some quesons in the quesonnaire were structured
in a negave form (referring to the existence of the culture shock aspect examined), while others
were structured in a posive form. For the purpose of factor analysis, answers for the posive
quesons were transformed to be presented in the same direcon of the negave quesons
(indicang the existence of culture shock aspects (see Table 4).
Table 4 shows that more than 86% of the parcipants oen make comparisons between the
facules where they worked/ studied abroad and the ones they are working at in Syria and noce
the gaps between organizaonal cultures when comparing between the two. Interesngly, about
60% of the parcipants have the feelings of deprivaon with regard to profession and over 75%
prefer to write using the language they used to study their PhD degree. Approximately 12% of
the parcipants think that faculty staff members reject them for who they are although 60%
were cauous when dealing with the faculty staff members.
310
Table 4: Reverse culture shock aspects subscale responses
Culture Shock Item Neutral
answers
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
agree
Feelings of deprivaon in regard to academic skills.
Feelings of deprivaon in regard to research skills.
Preference to write using the language of PhD
graduate study.
Feeling uncomfortable with the general atmosphere
in the faculty.
Inability to understand plenty of things that take
place in the faculty.
Feeling different compared to other academic staff
members.
Feeling the gaps between organizaonal cultures
when comparing organizaons in the two countries.
Cauous when dealing with the faculty academic
staff members and/or employees.
Oen compare between the faculty I worked/
studied at abroad and the one I am at in Syria.
Feelings of deprivaon in regard to development and
success opportunies.
Feeling afraid of being misunderstood by academic
staff or employees.
Think that academic staff members and employees
reject me for who I am.
Feeling that academic staff members and employees
might not accept the way I look and that I was
accustomed to when I was abroad.
Feeling being discriminated against because of being
younger.
Feeling shocked by certain things that happen at the
faculty.
Strain to cope with the new work environment.
10.0
6.7
18.3
30.0
30.0
41.7
6.7
16.7
8.3
10.0
30.0
33.3
48.3
31.7
25.0
30.0
10.0
8.3
0
3.3
1.7
3.3
0
1.7
0
1.7
3.3
6.7
10.0
5.0
1.7
1.7
20.0
11.7
6.7
18.3
5.0
15.0
5.0
15.0
5.0
21.7
18.3
48.3
23.3
25.0
5.0
28.3
25.0
23.3
36.7
28.3
40.0
23.3
30.0
41.7
30.0
28.3
35.0
11.7
10.0
23.3
41.7
31.7
35.0
50.0
38.3
20.0
23.3
16.7
58.3
25.0
56.7
38.3
13.3
0
6.7*
13.3*
26.7
8.3
* One missing value
c. Current occupational difficulties
Table 5 provides the response percentages of the sample across the occupaonal difficules
subscale. Items were sorted by respondents similar to the culture shock items ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. The quesons that were formed in a posive way were transformed
similar to the explanaon earlier (so that they refer to the existence of the occupaonal
difficules instead of referring to the nonexistence of the difficules). Table 5 demonstrates that
financial difficules came on the top of the difficulty scale (over 85% of the parcipants agreed
that university payments were insufficient). Organizaonal difficules came next where over
80% of the parcipants stated that the appointment procedures at university were difficult and
inflexible, 75% of them agreed that parcipang in conferences and workshops held abroad is
311
difficult, and over 68% stated their agreement that university has not provided them with a
clear job descripon. However, it should be menoned that on the faculty level, organizaonal
difficules were not of considerable importance (see items referring to management and staff
support). Academic and research related difficules were also given significant weight as more
than 70% of the parcipants agreed that academic and library facilies available at the faculty
were unsasfactory and that keeping in touch by e-mail with colleagues or students at the faculty
was inconvenient. Personal difficules came last.
Table 5: Occupaonal difficules subscale responses
Occupaonal Difficules Item Neutral
answers
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
agree
Insufficient payment from university.
Obstacles with my main university dues due to
working in other academic instuons.
Facing real academic affairs problems/difficules
with colleagues.
Facing real academic affairs problems/difficules
with superiors.
Facing real academic affairs problems/difficules
with students.
Head of Department is not supporve.
Faculty administraon is not supporve.
Faculty employees are not supporve.
Inability to conduct research of the same quality
compared to research done when abroad.
Inability to manage me with the same efficiency
when abroad.
Academic facilies available at the faculty are
unsasfactory.
Library facilies available at the faculty are
unsasfactory.
Keeping in touch by e-mail with colleagues or
students at the faculty is inconvenient.
Difficules to parcipate in conferences and
workshops abroad.
Appointment procedures at university were difficult
and inflexible.
Teaching subjects that are unrelated to area of
specializaon.
University has not provided me with a clear job
descripon.
Not expressing personal opinion freely during
meengs and forums.
8.3
38.3
26.7
31.7
25.0
15.0
30.0
33.3
10.0
15.0
13.3
13.3
16.7
10.0
10.0
8.3
18.3
23.3
1.7
10.0
1.7
3.3
18.3
13.3
11.7
13.3
18.3
8.3
1.7
6.7
10.0
5.0
0
20.0
0
16.7
5.0
21.7
28.3
28.3
36.7
65.0
41.7
50.0
15.0
13.3
13.3
8.3
23.3
10.0
8.3
56.7
13.3
36.7
46.7
20.0
38.3
30.0
15.0
3.3
13.3
1.7
21.7
33.3
21.7
26.7
26.7
20.0
23.3
10.0
30.0
16.7
38.3
10.0
5.0
6.7
3.3*
3.3
3.3
1.7
35.0
30.0
50.0
43.3*
21.7*
55.0
56.7*
5.0
38.3
6.7
* One missing value
312
3. Advanced analysis (responding to research question 4)
In response to research queson 4 on how compable the three dimensions are, the parcipants
were categorized according to the three dimensions; their exposure to the culture in the country
where they studied, the degree of their culture shock, and the occupaonal difficules faced by
them. The 3D visual scaer plot appears on a 3 two-dimension basis (Figures 2, 3 and 4).
While Figures 2, 3, and 4 show 8 categories, Table 6 shows the frequency of cases in each of these
categories and the percentage to the total sample. Table 6 also illustrates that groups 1, 4 and 8
contain the highest number of parcipants and make 56.6% of the total sample. The first group
(group 1) represenng parcipants who experienced high levels of exposure to foreign culture,
showed clear aspects of culture shock and faced more difficules compared to the other groups.
This group alone forms 30% of the total sample. The last group (group 8) represenng parcipants
who experienced low levels of exposure to foreign culture, showed less clear aspects of culture
shock and faced less difficules compared to other groups. This group forms 13.3% of the total
sample. Group 4 is of equal weight as group 8. It represents parcipants who experienced low
levels of exposure to foreign culture, showed more clear aspects of culture shock and faced less
difficules compared to other groups.
Figure 2: (Culture Shock-Occupaonal Difficules) Grid
>SaaRWTķQcZbWSa ?]`SRWTķQcZbWSa
?]`S
Oa^SQba
Less
Os^eQbs
313
Figure 3: (Culture Shock-Exposure to Foreign Culture) Grid
Figure 4: (Occupaonal Difficules-Exposure to Foreign Culture) Grid
More exposure Less exposure
More
aspects
Less
aspects
Less exposure More exposure
More
RWTķQcZbWSa
>Saa
RWTķQcZbWSa
314
Table 6: Groups’ Size
Group Number Percent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
18
4
5
8
6
5
6
8
30.0
6.7
8.3
13.3
10.0
8.3
10.0
13.3
Total 60 100.0
Table 7 demonstrates a summary of the group analysis. It can be noced that the first four groups
of parcipants that showed clear aspects of culture shock were all graduates from the USA and
West European countries. With the excepon of the third group which is ending ‘the honeymoon’
with the least difficules reported, it may be also be due to them experiencing the least average
waing me for appointment, while the rest were mostly in their third stage of culture shock,
the adjustment phase.
Table 7: Groups Descripon
Group
Group
Char.* % Av. Age
Av.
Waing
Time
spent in
Syria
Countries %
UK USA Ger Fr Egy Ru It Jp
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
HHH
HHL
HLH
HLL
LHH
LHL
LLH
LLL
30
6.7
8.3
13.3
10
8.3
10
13.3
34.5
35.67
35.40
36
36.67
35.4
36
37
14
17
7
8
13
10
17
9
10- 24
>24
3- 9
10 -24
10- 24
10- 24
10- 24
10- 24
44.4
50
60
33.3
40
33.3
12.5
5.6
12.5 5.6
44.4
5.
40
7.5
50
40
16.7
12.5
20
16.7
75 33.3 12.5 16.7
* H: High, L: Low
* The first letter refers to culture shock aspect, the second refers to occupational difficulties faced and the third
refers to the degree of exposure
315
VI. Conclusion
This study invesgated the extent to which newly arriving PhD academic staff members at one
public higher educaon instuon are facing reverse culture shock, the degree of their exposure
to foreign cultures while studying abroad and the occupaonal difficules they faced during their
early years of arrival. Quantave data were collected and analyzed by the use of some stascal
methods.
Data analysis showed that a considerable number of them (over 58.3% of the parcipants)
suffered reverse culture shock, parcularly those who studied in the USA and Western Europe.
More than half of the staff members sampled experienced middle to high exposure to foreign
cultures while studying abroad. In aggregate, more than half of all parcipants leave their
country of study aer some years of study-related work experience. 55% of the respondents
suffered different levels of occupaonal difficules. These occupaonal difficules come in
various categories, with financial and organizaonal difficules being the most significant.
The analysis showed eight main groups of parcipants according to the degree of reverse culture
shock, the degree of exposure to foreign cultures while studying abroad and the occupaonal
difficules. However, the most crical group of them all is the one that makes the combinaon
that could lead to higher risks of brain drain. This is the group that contains staff members who
faced high levels of exposure to foreign culture, showed clear aspects of culture shock and faced
more difficules compared to other groups. The cricality of this group comes from two sources.
First, this was the biggest group making up thirty percent of the sample. Second, the fact that
staff in this group are able to quit if they are not able to manage the adjustment phase. This is
due to their high level of exposure and the difficules hindering them from making a professional
and academic contribuon.
The study results highlight the importance of maintaining academic staff members in the
crical group at their instuons. These staff is valuable assets that could revive the instuons
they work within. University managers should seek ways of helping them be aached to their
universies by the improving organizaonal culture and regulaons as well as helping them to
improve their professional skills, both naonally and internaonally. By doing so, the risks of
brain drain might be reduced or even eliminated. Notwithstanding, university managers should
take brain circulaon into consideraon when planning their academic staff, bearing in mind the
temporary absence of their qualified academic staff members as a trade-off. In this regard, the
study opens the door for further intensive research on this group of staff members and their
requirements.
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