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Identifying Optimal Locations for Hardwood CLT Plants in Tennessee: Application of a Spatially Explicit Framework
Abstract
The prospect of using mass timber products, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), for building material has increased in recent years because of the advantage of these products over their substitutes in terms of structural rigidity, cost efficiency, and climate benefits. However, the American National Standard developed for CLT currently applies to softwood only. With the expected increase in the market for CLT, the supply chain needs to address the projected rise in demand for hardwood as well. Promoting the production of hardwood mass timber like CLT requires studying the feasibility of quality hardwood lumber supply and identifying the optimal locations for investing capital in CLT manufacturing plants. By presenting a case from Tennessee, this study provides a spatially explicit framework to use a variety of factors such as transportation networks, proximity to sawmills, sawmill capacity, and roundwood supply to identify optimal CLT plant locations. Specifically, fuzzy multicriteria analysis was used to identify potential locations, which provided inputs for a location-allocation model to identify optimal locations for CLT plants. Among the several potential locations, three optimal locations suitable for CLT plants were identified with 12,504 thousand cubic feet (MCF) annual production potential of CLT panels in Tennessee. Although increasing transportation distance for lumber procurement would increase CLT production capacity, it would also result in increased lumber supply costs. Potential investors and regional planners interested in using hardwood forest products can benefit from these findings to locate suitable sites for new investment.
... Supply chain management 5 [96], [97], [98], [99], [100]. Sustainable construction 3 [101], [102], [103]. ...
... Location [10], transportation [25], and inventory management [14] are some specific supply chain-related barriers that have been highlighted. One approach to managing the supply chain is identifying locations for setting up manufacturing plants [96], [98]. Long transport distances within the supply chain for EWPs may negate the carbon gains from using wood, and even demonstrate higher global warming potential (GWP) than locally produced reinforced concrete [105]. ...
The construction industry is embracing sustainable practices to combat environmental degradation and climate change, and engineered wood products (EWPs) offer promise as structural materials for sustainable infrastructure. Despite the benefits of EWPs, challenges such as supply chain integration and market acceptance have limited their use. This paper explores how industrial engineering could facilitate the adoption of EWPs in the South African construction industry, and provides a framework for developing critical industrial engineering capabilities that the South African timber construction sector should possess to integrate EWPs efficiently into construction projects. We used a comprehensive literature review and a curriculum analysis to achieve the study’s objectives. By drawing upon these capabilities, the study identified where industrial engineering as an expertise could drive innovation adoption.
... Studies have employed GIS-based analyses using transportation networks to pinpoint optimal locations and assess resource availability for new facilities (Akca et al., 2023;Comber et al., 2015;Shu et al., 2017;Van Holsbeeck and Srivastava, 2020;Zhang et al., 2011). Adhikari et al. (2023) used a GIS-based location allocation model to identify three locations and assess resource availability for mass timber facilities in Tennessee. Strategically placing new mass timber facilities could have tri-fold impacts -added capacity to satisfy growing demand, lower mass timber price, and lower transportation emissions. ...
Mass timber, an engineered wood product, offers exceptional strength and versatility as a building material, is lightweight, which makes it easy to transport and assemble, is aesthetically appealing, and offers the potential to reduce GHG emissions. This study attempts to identify the potential locations for mass timber production in Michigan, estimate the available feedstock, and evaluate the economic impacts of mass timber production on the state's economy. Procurement zones for all softwood lumber producers in Michigan were identified and overlaid to create competition hotspots for the softwood sawtimber industry. Two potential locations were identified for mass timber production within the state. Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data was used to estimate the annual sustainable availability of softwood (ASAW) for mass timber production. Finally, IMPLAN was used to assess the economic impacts associated with mass timber production in Michigan. We identified two sawmills for mass timber production and concluded that there is sufficient ASAW for mass timber production in these facilities. Producing 12,429 m3 of mass timber supports at least 93 total jobs (35 direct, 29 indirect, and 29 induced) with a total output of 5.63 million.
Many land managers throughout the Intermountain West practice periodic thinning of woody biomass to reduce forest stand density and thereby reduce the risk of high severity wildfire. Pyrolyzing biomass wastes, such as slash from thinning, into biochar can help sequester carbon to mitigate climate change and improve soil health. However, there are insufficient biochar facilities to process the amount of woody biomass available from thinning throughout the Intermountain West. By presenting a case of New Mexico, this study provides a spatially explicit framework, which explains relationships among variables based on their spatial dimension, to utilize a variety of factors such as biomass availability, wildfire risks, markets, soil conditions, and road networks to identify optimal location(s) for new biochar production facilities. Several locations suitable for biochar production facilities have been identified, but the number needed depends on facility capacity and feedstock hauling distances. Findings from this study can help establish several medium-size or a single centralized biochar production facility(ies) in the region. Furthermore, establishment of biochar production facilities can incentivize forestry contractors and landowners to expedite thinning operations in densely overstocked forests of New Mexico. Finally, it can serve as a model that other regions in the Intermountain West can use to facilitate scaling of biochar facilities and production.
Mass timber products are growing in popularity as a substitute for steel and concrete, reducing embodied carbon in the built environment. This trend has raised questions about the sustainability of the U.S. timber supply. Our research addresses concerns that rising demand for mass timber products may result in unsustainable levels of harvesting in coniferous forests in the United States. Using U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data, incremental U.S. softwood (coniferous) timber harvests were projected to supply a high-volume estimate of mass timber and dimensional lumber consumption in 2035. Growth in reserve forests and riparian zones was excluded, and low confidence intervals were used for timber growth estimates, compared with high confidence intervals for harvest and consumption estimates. Results were considered for the U.S. in total and by three geographic regions (North, South, and West). In total, forest inventory growth in America exceeds timber harvests including incremental mass timber volumes. Even the most optimistic projections of mass timber growth will not exceed the lowest expected annual increases in the nation’s harvestable coniferous timber inventory.
This study evaluated the effects on forest resources and forest product markets of three contrasting mass timber demand scenarios (Conservative, Optimistic, and Extreme), up to 2060, in twelve selected countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. Analyses were carried out by utilizing the FOrest Resource Outlook Model, a partial market equilibrium model of the global forest sector. The findings suggest increases in global softwood lumber production of 8, 23, and 53 million m3 per year by 2060, under the Conservative, Optimistic, and Extreme scenarios, respectively, leading to world price increases of 2%, 7%, and 23%, respectively. This projected price increase is relative to the projected price in the reference scenario, altering prices, production, consumption, trade of forest products, timber harvest, forest growth, and forest stock in individual countries. An increase in softwood lumber prices due to increased mass timber demand would lead to the reduced consumption of softwood lumber for traditional end-use (e.g., light-frame construction), suggesting a likely strong market competition for softwood lumber between the mass timber and traditional construction industries. In contrast, the projected effect on global forest stock was relatively small based on the relatively fast projected biomass growth in stands assumed to be regenerated after harvest.
Understanding the economic feasibility of cross-laminated timber (CLT), an emerging and sustainable alternative to concrete and steel, is critical for the rapid expansion of the mass timber industry. However, previous studies on economic performance of CLT have not fully considered the variations in the feedstock, plant capacities, manufacturing parameters, and capital and operating costs. This study fills this gap by developing a techno-economic analysis of producing CLT panels in the Southern United States. The effects of those variations on minimum selling price (MSP) of CLT panels are explored by Monte Carlo simulation. The results show that, across all the plant capacities from 30,000 to 150,000 m 3 /year, the MSP ranges from 609/m 3 with a ±6%-9% range caused by the variations in feedstocks, key manufacturing parameters, capital and operating cost. The MSP decreases significantly along the increasing capacities. A sensitivity analysis exhibits that the lumber price, lumber preparing loss, plant capacity, and the installed costs of layering and gluing, finishing, and miscellaneous, are the top driving factors to CLT MSP. Supported by Geographic Information System, this study also studies the transportation cost of delivering CLT to customers under three CLT demanding levels (1%, 5%, 15%). The results show that the transportation cost is 1%-8% of the MSP. Lower demanding level or higher plant capacity can increase the transportation cost due to average longer delivering distance. When considering the delivered cost that sums MSP and transportation cost, larger plant capacity does not necessarily generate lower delivered cost.
Building on the first of its kind review of the global CLT industry published in 2017, this paper aims to provide insight into the global CLT industry. Based on two global CLT industry surveys, 46 plant tours, and supplemented with information obtained from other sources, we observed an increasing production trend of a complimentary cross-laminated panel products that use nails, wooden dowels and other alternative panel integration systems. In most countries outside the Alpine Region, the growth of the CLT industry has been encouraged by the governments motivated by the desire to find a stable, economically viable outlet for substantial volumes of domestic lumber of lesser quality. At the beginning of 2020, we estimated that, considering the number of high-capacity plants ready to go in line or reach full capacity in 2020, the global annual output might reach 2.0-2.5 million m 3 by the end of the year. However, this number does not reflect the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, something we will investigate in a third survey.
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a bio-based building material that enables rapid construction and buildings with low embodied energy. Despite its comparative maturity in European markets, relatively little information regarding process design and economics for the manufacture of cross-laminated timber is available in the literature. Two techno-economic analyses were conducted to quantify the mill-gate cost of cross-laminated timber. The cross-laminated timber manufacturing process was described, and costs were analyzed for two facility scales. Cross-laminated timber produced at the large-scale facility using lumber priced at an average value for the northwest United States has a minimum selling price of 518/m3.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been used to understand the carbon and energy implications of manufacturing and using cross-laminated timber (CLT), an emerging and sustainable alternative to concrete and steel. However, previous LCAs of CLT are static analyses without considering the complex interactions between the CLT manufacturing and forest systems, which are dynamic and largely affected by the variations in forest management, CLT manufacturing, and end-of-life options. This study fills this gap by developing a dynamic life-cycle modeling framework for a cradle-to-grave CLT manufacturing system across 100 years in the Southeastern United States. The framework integrates process-based simulations of CLT manufacturing and forest growth as well as Monte Carlo simulation to address uncertainty. On 1-ha forest land basis, the net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions ranges from-954 to-1445 metric tonne CO2 eq. for a high forest productivity scenario compared to-609 to-919 metric tonne CO2 eq. for a low forest productivity scenario. All scenarios showed significant GHG emissions from forest residues decay, demonstrating the strong needs to consider forest management and their dynamic impacts in LCAs of CLT or other durable wood products (DWP). The results show that using mill residues for energy recovery has lower fossil-based GHG (59%-61% reduction) than selling residues for producing DWP, but increases the net GHG emissions due to instantaneous release of biogenic carbon in residues. In addition, the results were converted to 1 m 3 basis with a cradle-to-gate system boundary to be compared with literature. The results, 113-375 kg CO2 eq./m 3 across all scenarios for fossil-based GHG emissions, were consistent with previous studies. Those findings highlight the needs of system-level management to maximize the potential benefits of CLT. This work is an attributional LCA, but the presented results lay a foundation for future consequential LCAs for specific CLT buildings or commercial forest management systems.
We estimated annual timber growth, removals, and mortalities under various scenarios of emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, EAB) spread within Texas. Future annual ash EAB-induced mortalities were simulated to follow either a normal or beta distribution over 25, 50, or 75 years, with 5% of the original inventory remaining at the conclusion of each projection. Discounted present values of future ash growth, harvests, mortalities, salvage, and beginning and ending annual inventories were calculated, and economic impacts to timber receipts were determined from average real prices. The present net effects of timber product output, mortalities, and salvage resulted in benefits ranging from lows of (delivered/stumpage) 37.6/12.8 million over 25 years when assuming a normal distribution to highs of 247.8/97.2 million over 75 years under a beta distribution. Salvage intensity exceeded mortality accumulation by a factor of at least 2.00. Regardless of length chosen, mortality that skewed towards later years led to lower discounted volumes and less value lost to EAB. Results were sensitive to discount rate selection (constant, increasing, distributional) with the constant and increasing rates having the most similar results. Longer time horizons led to far smaller losses of overall economic returns allowing more typical harvest management despite EAB.
The emerald ash borer (EAB) Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire, Coleoptera: Buprestidae) will have untold impacts on the contributions hardwood timber products provide Louisiana's economy. We modeled a scenario where ash mortality was assumed to follow a PERT-Beta distribution to kill essentially all Louisiana ash within 25 yr. Future ash mortality volumes were discounted to the present and valued using market prices to estimate a present effect on timber receipts. Assuming the dead timber would have otherwise been typical trees of average quality, stumpage was presently valued at US3.48 million. A salvage arrangement using the double declining balance method coupled with a second PERT-Beta distribution centered upon Louisiana's current 2.84% harvest-to-inventory proportion depreciated the timber's value monthly over 1 yr. Following salvage, average stumpage revenue declined -US3.41 million, whereas state timber severance tax collections declined by -US882,400 and -41.6 jobs, respectively. The multiplier effects of these losses emanating from the timber industry resulted in additional declines averaging -US4.51 million. The total economic effects summed to -US9.46 million.
Lower grade material of three previously untested species (Eastern White Pine, Red Maple, and White Ash) were fabricated in Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) panels and tested to determine their mechanical properties. The results were compared to the ANSI/APA PRG-320 production standard for CLT. Both of the hardwood species met requirements for the V2 species group, but the softwood species did not. Next, the bending stiffness results were compared to bending stiffness predictions from the Shear Analogy approach as described in the US CLT Handbook. The Shear Analogy approach underpredicted the bending stiffness of the softwood CLT by less than 5%, and underpredicted the bending stiffness of the hardwood CLTs by about 25%. The difference in the hardwood prediction was reduced to about 15% by using published elastic moduli ratios. Average hardwood elastic moduli ratios for use with the Shear Analogy Method were proposed.
Mass Timber has been produced and used in many forms over the past decade. Examples are Glulam Beams, Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL), and Parallell Strand Lumber (PSL). More recently, new entrants have been developed and are being adopted in the the North American engineered wood product buiding materials family of products. Panel products like Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT), Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT), Dowel-Laminated Timber (DLT) and Mass Plywood Panels (MPP) have experienced years of product testing, manufacturing learning curves, yet limited market space. CLT manufacturing has been an established industry in Europe for decades, but is in its infancy stage in the U.S. and Canada. The potential markets for CLT in the U.S. are enormous if architects, developers, builders/contractors, and building owners accept the product as a substitute for steel and concrete. A study was conducted at the Louisiana Forest Products Development Center, in the School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, which took a social science, market perception/adoption approach targeting architects, engineers (architectural, civil, and structural), non-residential builders, and sawmills. The study, led by Professor Richard Vlosky, Ph.D., Crosby Land and Resources Endowed Professor of Forest Sector Business Development, included 10 Southern states . Over 20 companies, universities, federal and government entities, associations, and foundations were instrumental as funding and/or study partners that helped to provide input for the survey instrument and guidance throughout the project. This article focusses on the sawmill component of the study. Results show a general unfamiliarity of CLT and CLT manufacturers from the perspective of Southern sawmills with opportunities for industry stakeholders, including universities to provide information to the sawmill sector. Sawmills expressed that they would most prefer contacts with CLT manufacturers as well as the builders and architects that use or specify CLT. Respondents expressed their willingness to cooperate with CLT manufacturers, and shared a positive outlook on the level of CLT used by builders in the next year. As with any new industry, communication is crucial for efficient interactions and information sharing between CLT feedstock suppliers and CLT manufacturers.
Due to changes in forest management in various European countries, hardwood forest areas and amounts will increase. Sustainable and individual utilization concepts have to be developed for the upcoming available resource. Studies conclude that there is low potential for hardwoods in the traditional appearance market thus the application areas have to be extended to new structural innovative products. This paper examines the extension to a future laminated beech wood supply network which would be a combination of already existing and new production facilities. For a better future use of hardwood raw materials it is necessary to consider the entire supply chain. This also better shows a total hardwood value chain. Therefore, this paper provides data to the solid hardwood business and develops a mixed integer linear programming to design a laminated beech wood supply network. The model is applied to Austria as the sample region. It covers the important strategic decisions where to locate a downstream facility within the existing production network with the lowest supply network cost. Fourteen scenarios are developed to examine various future network configurations. Results about optimal material flows and used sawmills as well as downstream production facilities are presented in form of material and financial performances. Two optimal laminated beech production locations are determined by the calculated scenarios results, and the impact of a new sawmill is analyzed which is focused on beech.
The use of cross-laminated timber (CLT), as an environmentally sustainable building material, has generated significant interest among the wood products industry, architects and policy makers in Washington State. However, the environmental impacts of CLT panels can vary significantly depending on material logistics and wood species mix. This study developed a regionally specific cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of CLT produced in western Washington. Specifically, this study focused on transportation logistics, mill location, and relevant wood species mixes to provide a comparative analysis for CLT produced in the region. For this study, five sawmills (potential lamstock suppliers) in western Washington were selected along with two hypothetical CLT mills. The results show that the location of lumber suppliers, in reference to the CLT manufacturing facilities, and the wood species mix are important factors in determining the total environmental impacts of the CLT production. Additionally, changing wood species used for lumber from a heavier species such as Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) to a lighter species such as Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) could generate significant reduction in the global warming potential (GWP) of CLT. Given the size and location of the CLT manufacturing facilities, the mills can achieve up to 14% reduction in the overall GWP of the CLT panels by sourcing the lumber locally and using lighter wood species.
Purpose of Review
In this paper, the authors review the available literature on the manufacture and usage of hardwood cross-laminated timber (CLT) and discuss the technical and economic feasibility of hardwood CLT including procurement issues.
Recent Findings
CLT is an emerging building system in North America that has attracted the attention of construction professionals, developers, and researchers across the continent, due to its environmental, economic, and esthetic advantages, among others. Today, however, virtually all CLT structures are manufactured using softwoods, yet, there is growing interest in the possibility of manufacturing CLT using a variety of hardwood species. To date, most studies on the feasibility of hardwood CLT are motivated by a desire to find high value-added uses for underutilized or low-valued hardwood species but there is also an interest in benefitting of specific mechanical properties of selected hardwood species.
Summary
Research on hardwood CLT is scarce, though findings from existing studies suggest that it is technically feasible and the resulting product offers interesting perspectives for specific applications. However, for hardwood CLT to become a reality, the hardwood industry needs to overcome significant challenges, some of which are discussed in this paper.
The forest products (FP) industry is the most important segment of the agricultural sector in the state of Louisiana with regard to farm gate value and added value. According to Michael Porter, the FP industry has cluster characteristics concentrating in geographic areas due to competitive advantages. This analysis explores the spatial distribution of Primary and Secondary FP manufacturers in Louisiana in order to identify spatial clusters and model industry frequencies as a function of socio-economic variables. Forest Products industry, socio-economic, and geographic data were obtained from the Louisiana Forest Products Development Center and the U.S. Census Bureau. Results suggest that Primary FP companies show a higher spatial dependency compared to Secondary FP manufacturers as well as evidence of clustering of Secondary FP manufacturers. Regression analysis shows that total population is the variable most significantly correlated to clustering of Secondary FP manufacturers.
Important and complex spatial decisions, such as allocating land to development or conservation-oriented goals, require information and tools to aid in understanding the inherent tradeoffs. They also require mechanisms for incorporating and documenting the value judgements of interest groups and decision makers. Multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is a family of techniques that aid decision makers in formally structuring multi-faceted decisions and evaluating the alternatives. It has been used for about two decades with geographic information systems (GIS) to analyse spatial problems. However, the variety and complexity of MCDA methods, with their varying terminologies, means that this rich set of tools is not easily accessible to the untrained. This paper provides background for GIS users, analysts and researchers to quickly get up to speed on MCDA, supporting the ultimate goal of making it more accessible to decision makers. A number of factors for describing MCDA problems and selecting methods are outlined then simplified into a decision tree, which organises an introduction of key methods. Approaches range from mathematical programming and heuristic algorithms for simultaneously optimising multiple goals, to more common single-objective techniques based on weighted addition of criteria values, attainment of criteria thresholds, or outranking of alternatives. There is substantial research that demonstrates ways to couple GIS with multi-criteria methods, and to adapt MCDA for use in spatially continuous problems. Increasing the accessibility of GIS-based MCDA provides new opportunities for researchers and practitioners, including web-based participation and advanced visualisation of decision processes.
The annual national report of the Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) program of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, presents forest health status and trends from a national or multistate regional perspective using a variety of sources, introduces new techniques for analyzing forest health data, and summarizes results of recently completed Evaluation Monitoring projects funded through the FHM national program. In this 21st edition in a series of annual reports, national survey data are used to identify recent geographic patterns of insect and disease activity. Satellite data are employed to detect geographic patterns of forest fire occurrence. Recent drought and moisture surplus conditions are compared across the conterminous United States. Data collected by the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program are employed to detect regional differences in tree mortality. Fine-scale change in Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to detect broad patterns of forest disturbance across the conterminous United States. Seven recently completed Evaluation Monitoring projects are summarized, addressing forest health concerns at smaller scales.
The annual national report of the Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) program of the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, presents forest health status and trends from a national or multi-State regional perspective using a variety of sources, introduces new techniques for analyzing forest health data, and summarizes results of recently completed Evaluation Monitoring projects funded through the FHM national program. In this 20th edition in a series of annual reports, national survey data are used to identify recent geographic patterns of insect and disease activity. Satellite data are employed to detect geographic patterns of forest fire occurrence. Recent drought and moisture surplus conditions are compared across the conterminous United States. Data collected by the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program are employed to detect regional differences in tree mortality. Nearly 20 years of FIA coarse woody material (CWM) data are examined across spatial scales to assess change over time in CWM biomass, diameter and decay class, and species composition. Case studies demonstrate the potential of rFIA, an open-source R package developed to improve the accessibility of FIA data and offer enhanced flexibility in estimation strategies, to advance forest health evaluation and monitoring. Six recently completed Evaluation Monitoring projects are summarized, addressing forest health concerns at smaller scales.
Mass timber is a promising building material that has been used in Europe for a long time. Structural rigidity, renewable characteristics, and low-carbon footprint have made this material a major structural component in the European construction market. While the concept of mass timber building has been successful in Europe, the US construction practitioners are still dubious to adopt this material on a greater scale. In the US construction industry, mass timber has received very little consideration from the stakeholders. Lack of case study projects, awareness, and work experience in mass timber materials have created an industrywide knowledge gap that is hindering the progress of this innovative building material in the US construction market. This study evaluates the feasibility of mass timber products in the US construction industry by analyzing its level of awareness, existing challenges and difficulties, and recommendations to improve the existing perceptions to help solve the knowledge gap and increase the current acceptability of mass timber products among the US construction practitioners. The research method includes three different sets of semistructured questionnaire surveys, distributed among 1,200 construction companies, 300 architectural firms, and 55 mass timber manufacturers in the US. Data analysis of the surveys suggested that the US construction practitioners have significantly low involvement level and work experience in timber building design and construction. The main perceived benefits of using mass timber material are the requirement of a small workforce during construction, aesthetic appeal, and prefabricated characteristics of timber panels. Major perceived downsides are lack of work experience, insufficient timber manufacturing plants, high cost of engineered wood products, and code limitations. Several recommendations were provided on the survey including from the study such as increasing awareness among the stakeholders by undertaking more timber building projects, establishing more manufacturing facilities, developing codes and standards, and developing a skilled workforce experienced in timber construction. The outcomes of the study will be a helpful reference source for US construction practitioners to evaluate the actual feasibility of mass timber as a building material. It will further help increase the acceptability of mass timber products in the US.
The highly dispersed nature of biomass sources and limited tools with which to exploit geographically explicit data to minimise delivery costs are major barriers to the initiation of biomass energy projects. This paper presents a geographical information system based approach in combining suitability analysis, spatial biomass assessment and optimality analysis to locate plants for bioelectricity generation with sustainable availability of single or multiple biomass. First, fuzzy multi-criteria analysis was employed to identify the suitability of plants’ locations, using local economic, environmental, and social sustainability criteria. As well, the availability of multiple types of biomass was assessed. Biomass availability information and land use data were combined to generate high-resolution spatial biomass information with user-defined resolution. Next, a location-allocation model was used to identify optimal locations for biomass energy plants by considering both road networks and spatially distributed biomass availability. Additionally, different scenarios were analysed to optimise plant sizes, biomass delivery costs and total number of plants for the region under both single biomass and multi-biomass approaches. The developed model was demonstrated for a Queensland case study using sugarcane waste alone and combined sugarcane waste and forest waste. Results using sugarcane waste in Queensland identified optimally located plants with sizes from 57 MW to 185 MW and average transportation distances of 27 km to 64 km. By combining sugarcane waste with forest waste, the plant sizes increased, depending on spatial biomass availability. This methodology can be extended to evaluate optimum configuration and optimum combination of different biomass types at a plant level.
Pacific Northwest policy makers are excited about the emergence of mass timber into U.S. construction markets as the product potentially creates local manufacturing jobs while utilizing Douglas fir growing sustainably in the region. This study assessed regional economic impacts generated by mass timber high-rise construction in Oregon. Economic impact estimates were derived using a regionally specific input-output model combined with analysis-by-parts methodology. Financial data from Portland’s 12-story Framework building, estimated using RSMeans software, provided purchasing information. The study’s economic model made use of regionally specific socioeconomic data from the American Community Survey to determine how economic impacts translated into increased earnings for study area residents. Because building with mass timber represented product substitution over traditional construction practices, this study assessed regional impacts of mass timber construction alongside the opportunity costs associated with a concrete frame alternative. Net impact assessment results indicated that construction of the 12-story building using a mass timber design generated larger economic impacts than traditional concrete frame construction and generated additional earnings for households of all income levels. Panels must be produced locally to realize the full economic benefits of mass timber construction as importing panels from outside the state creates economic leakage that reduces economic benefits.
Large-scale silvicultural programs designed to alter forest characteristics to accomplish either financial or ecological goals often involve the extraction of significant volumes. The operational costs, and thus extend over which these programs can be applied, depend in large part on supply chain considerations and the degree to which removals can be merchandized. Forestry supply chain considerations include the spatial allocation of forest products processing facilities, the array of primary forest commodities they consume, and the transportation infrastructure. This study conducts a network analysis utilizing the location of 2,543 primary forest product producers in the contiguous United States along with a national road dataset to evaluate hotspots where a better opportunity to merchandise forest products enables flexibility in forest management, and coldspots where alternatives are limited. This study establishes service areas of processing facilities for sawlogs, pulpwood, and biomass at varying haul-times and two scenarios as a function of transportation costs and constructs a Cumulative Merchantability Index (CMI) by summing the Merchantability Index values defining the current market extent. In the Short Haul scenario, 26% (61.71 million hectares) and the Long Haul scenario, 9% (21.32 million hectares) of the forests have low merchantability for all three commodities. Only 3% of forests in Short Haul and 20% forests in the Long Haul scenario have an opportunity to market all three forest commodities. Results are helpful in prioritizing differing management objectives by evaluating the potential cost saving afforded by selling forest commodities.
Shear stresses in planes perpendicular to the grain, so-called rolling shear stresses, need to be considered in the ultimate and serviceability limit state design of many timber structural elements. Knowledge about the rolling shear modulus and strength has further gained in importance since the invention and increased use of cross laminated timber (CLT). As a result of the orthogonal orientation of adjacent layers within CLT, rolling shear stresses develop when CLT is subjected to out-of-plane bending. Previous numerical and experimental studies on rolling shear are largely restricted to Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). In the present study, experimental investigations on the rolling shear properties were carried out on six timber species. The two investigated coniferous species were Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Four deciduous species, namely European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.), poplar (Populus tremula L.), and European birch (Betula pendula R.) were investigated. Furthermore, different board geometries and sawing patterns were investigated. In comparison to Norway spruce, all other investigated species featured higher rolling shear properties. In particular, these of European beech and European ash were roughly three-times higher. In agreement with previous findings, the aspect ratio (board width vs. board thickness) as well as sawing pattern were identified as main influencing parameters on the rolling shear properties. In addition to single board segments, multi-segment systems were experimentally tested and numerically investigated. Parallel systems consisting of either two or four board segments were tested to obtain information on potential system effects of laminations within single CLT cross layers regarding rolling shear strength and rolling shear modulus, i.e. stresses may be distributed depending on the local stiffness. This system effect may influence the shear strength, the shear modulus, and the failure behaviour compared to the results of single segment testing. Often, CLT elements consist of more than one cross layer. Layups can also feature parallel layers, however, usually with grain in direction of the main span direction. Some of these layups have a remarkable potential for two-dimensional load transfer. Thus, these commonly double or triple layers are exposed to rolling shear by stresses in the weak load transfer direction. As rolling shear failure of one of the cross layers in layups featuring alternating orthogonal layers as well as layups featuring some parallel layers leads to the ultimate failure of the entire element, such elements can be considered as serial systems with regard to the rolling shear strength and rolling shear modulus. In order to investigate the serial-parallel system behaviour, multi-segment systems consisting of 4 × 3 board segments were tested. The investigated systems should allow linking the results obtained from single element testing to the actual behaviour of CLT laminations and, subsequently, to give recommendations for rolling shear test configurations as well as related rolling shear properties. The outcomes show a good comparability between the results from out-of-plane bending tests on CLT elements featuring rolling shear failures and EN 408-alike shear tests conducted on board segments. The analysis of the within- and between-boards variation of rolling shear properties and density is also a part of this paper. The results of this study provide an overview of the rolling shear properties of tested European softwood and hardwood species. The investigated species are already in use, or have a significant potential to be used for construction purposes in the near future. The findings regarding the influential material- and product-related parameters contribute to a better understanding of the mechanical behaviour of timber subjected to rolling shear.
Recently, the US forest product industry has seen remarkable shifts in market demand for traditional forest products. The displacement of paper demand by new electronic media and communication technology has led to the closure of several pulp and paper-based manufacturing facilities across the nation. The closure of such facilities can have devastating impacts on forest communities in the mills' fiber shed area, particularly forest landowners, loggers, truckers, and others involved in the supply chain. Sustaining forest-dependent communities need viable economic alternatives. Development agencies at the local and regional levels need to fully understand the feasibility of new forest-based alternatives. With a case of 24 counties that made up the hardwood fiber shed for a recently closed pulp mill, this study analyzed the feasibility of three alternatives in revitalizing the affected economy through utilizing the surplus fiber and creating new opportunities for the displaced workforce. Although investment in each business alternative is likely to yield positive return on investment for the region expected impacts on jobs and industrial output varied considerably. Compared with wood pellet and bioelectricity, the bio-oil industry is likely to generate jobs that will not only offset the current job deficit but also create additional opportunities. Results from a multiregional input-output analysis revealed spillover economic opportunities beyond the impacted areas. Findings will be useful in guiding sustainable business and investment decisions as well as understanding the anticipated community benefits of energy-based industries in revitalizing economies affected by the declining market demand for traditional forest products.
Pulp, paper, and paperboard mills consume close to 52 percent of southern roundwood, providing a significant market to southern forest landowners. Declining numbers of pulpwood-using mills and downward trends in mill capacity, however, present a growing challenge to the southern forest sector. Shrinking mill capacity affects rural communities that depend on mill demand for labor and other production inputs. This study investigates the effect of pulp mill closures on the regional and local economy, focusing on the spillover effects to forestry and forest products industry. Multiregional input-output models were built for two mill closures using Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN) showing linkages among different sectors, households, and governments in the regional economy. Results revealed the different effects across wood procuring zones with areas displaying significant loss in logging activity. Significance to other forestry-related industries depended on closed mills' inputs. We compared our results with information available in the literature regarding expected economic impact from a wood pellet mill, an alternative market for small-size wood. We expect research results will provide valuable information to policymakers and managers when addressing likely future changes in the paper manufacturing industry.
Spatial analysis of forest products manufacturer location allows for identifying potential forest business clusters and outlining areas suitable for cluster-based economic development. Mississippi can benefit from such development because of a strong presence of the forest industry. This study utilized an average nearest neighbor and a cluster and outlier analyses to examine spatial distribution of Mississippi's primary and secondary forest products manufacturers and identify potential forest business clusters. A Poisson regression was used to examine the impact of transportation infrastructure, labor, and availability of raw materials on location of these manufacturers. The results of the spatial analysis indicated that Mississippi's forest products manufacturers tended to cluster and identified four potential forest business clusters. They included one cluster of 26 primary forest products manufacturers in Southwest Mississippi, two clusters consisting of six and 58 secondary forest products manufacturers in Northeast Mississippi, and one cluster of 78 primary and secondary forest products manufacturers in Northeast Mississippi. The regression analysis indicated that county-level volume of harvested sawlogs had a positive impact on location of primary and secondary forest products manufacturers, whereas volume of harvested pulpwood had a positive impact on location of only secondary forest products manufacturers. Presence of four-lane interstate highways was associated with a decreased number of secondary manufacturers, whereas the presence of railway increased their number by almost 1.50 times. The number of existing primary manufacturers in a county had a positive impact on location of secondary manufacturers and increased their number by 1.12 times. Available labor force also had a positive but relatively small impact on location of secondary forest products manufacturers.
This research identified key factors driving the location of firms in a resource-based industry by expanding on Location Theory, New Economic Geography, and Cluster Theory. First, six latent location factors were identified based on a survey of lumber industry members using factor analysis. An exploratory analysis of sawmill location identified deviations from complete spatial randomness, suggesting the formal incorporation of a spatial dimension in an econometric model. A Bayesian spatial autoregressive approach was used to model the presence of the lumber industry at the county level in the U.S. South. Empirical results are congruent with theory. The strength of the spatial process is weak in the presence of descriptors with a direct geographic dimension. Counties that provide cost advantages, available labor, and appropriate road access are more likely to host the lumber industry. The model was used to identify counties where lumber industry developments could occur with a high probability of success. This research framework can be extended to other industries and regions.
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