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Gamebooks for environmental education: designing for content
and pedagogy
Jonathan Halls, Shaaron Ainsworth
Jonathan.halls2@nottingham.ac.uk, Shaaron.ainsworth@nottingham.ac.uk
School of Education, University of Nottingham
Abstract: The goal of this project is to design gamebook-based lessons, which include an interactive
gamebook (a non-linear, branching narrative) and supporting dialogic lessons, to increase children’s (7- to
11-years-old) engagement in pro-environmental behaviours. A design-based research approach was used
to optimize the design, focusing on both the content of the gamebook and the supporting pedagogical
methods. This paper details the early design processes, not typically covered in DBR papers.
Introduction
Although many individuals are aware of climate change and preventative measures, actual behavioural change is
limited (Pruneau et al., 2010). To effectively tackle climate change, a more educated and action-oriented public
is necessary, focusing on preventative and adaptive societal changes (Williamson et al., 2018). Developing early
education materials can help promote pro-environmental behaviours in children and prepare them for a future
where their behaviour must change regardless of personal desire. This paper reports the development, in relation
to content and pedagogy, of educational materials that aim to increase children’s engagement in pro-
environmental behaviours (PEBs), defined here as any decision that leads to an action with a positive impact on
the planet (e.g., walking instead of driving or recycling).
Gamebooks
Existing educational materials cover the scientific aspects of climate change but rarely aim to support children in
undertaking PEBs (Lundholm, 2019). Educational gamebooks are proposed here to address this problem.
Gamebooks are non-linear, branching narratives that allow readers to make choices that shape the book’s ending
(e.g., Choose-Your-Own AdventureTM books). Gamebooks provide readers with agency and may effectively
demonstrate the potential impact of their actions, supporting education for behavioural change.
Theoretical background
This project utilizes the Reasoned Action Approach (RAA) to predict and change social behaviour (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 2010). RAA has been effective in modelling predictors of behavioural intention and developing
behavioural change interventions, including encouraging PEB (Steg & Vlek, 2009). The RAA model proposes
that behaviour is predicted by intention, which is, in turn, influenced by three constructs: attitude towards the
behaviour (i.e., consequences of the behaviour), perceived behavioural control (i.e., skills and agency to perform
the behaviour), and perceived social norms (i.e., the behaviour of influential others). Each construct is formed
from corresponding beliefs: attitude is based on behavioural outcome beliefs (e.g., by recycling, I reduce landfill),
perceived behavioural control on control beliefs (e.g., I know how to recycle), and perceived social norms on
normative beliefs (e.g., my friends recycle).
The RAA model suggests that behaviour can be changed by challenging influential beliefs through
discussion, reflection and the use of implementation intentions (IIs). IIs are action plans that draw on
environmental cues to support behavioural change (Gollwitzer, 1999). They focus on a specific behaviour in
response to a specific trigger, usually with an IF-THEN structure (e.g., IF I am brushing my teeth, THEN I will
turn the tap off between rinsing). Designing educational materials based on RAA involves targeting specific
beliefs, as different beliefs may vary in their impact on the formation of intentions to undertake PEBs. De Leeuw
et al. (2015) found that perceived behavioural control (based on control beliefs) had a strong effect on high school
students’ intentions to undertake PEBs, while attitude towards the behaviour (behavioural beliefs) had a smaller
but significant effect.
Gamebook-based lessons
Drawing on the RAA, the educational materials were designed to target behavioural, normative and control
beliefs, with behavioural beliefs reflected in different gamebook endings, control beliefs reflected in reader
choices, and normative beliefs addressed through supporting dialogic pedagogies. Furthermore, it was necessary
to consider the language used in the gamebook (Cleaver, 2010), risk of causing eco-anxiety (Pihkala, 2020), and
how to integrate an engaging narrative with learning content to support intrinsic motivation (Habgood &
Ainsworth, 2011). Regarding the last element, the core mechanic of gamebooks is user choice, in this instance
choice in carrying out PEBs, which reflects the educational aim of encouraging children to choose to undertake
PEBs. While the gamebook serves as the central resource, in practice, it is supported by teacher-led pedagogical
approaches. As discussed, implementation intentions effectively support behavioural change, therefore, represent
a suitable supporting activity. Another approach shown to be effective in similar contexts is dialogic teaching
(Alexander, 2006), supported by talk moves (Michaels & O’Conner, 2012), where teachers facilitate group
discussion to critically reflect on concepts and collaboratively develop a shared understanding. In the gamebook
supporting lessons, dialogic teaching would allow children to explore the beliefs of others and develop a shared
understanding of appropriate behaviour, which could positively affect normative beliefs. Taken together, these
are referred to as gamebook-based lessons. In developing these gamebook-based lessons, careful consideration
needed to be given to the content of gamebooks (e.g., creating a fun narrative) and the design of pedagogical
approaches (e.g., design of suggested talk moves).
Research approach
This project used a design-based research (DBR) approach to develop and evaluate the gamebook-based lessons.
The paper reports the first two cycles of material design, which cover the often underreported phase 1 of design-
based research studies: preparation and design of materials (Bakker, 2018).
Conjecture mapping (Sandoval, 2014) was used to inform the design of the gamebook-based lessons.
The following provides an overview of the conjecture map based on concepts discussed in the introduction. The
high-level conjecture is that children’s intention to engage in PEBs can be improved by increasing the three
predictive constructs (attitude towards the behaviour, perceived behavioural control and perceived social norms)
through challenging the associated beliefs (behavioural, control and normative). This conjecture is embodied in
both the design of the materials and structures. Materials include the gamebook, the core mechanic of which
allows for intrinsic integration of learning content, and the creation of implementation intentions to support
behavioural change. Regarding participant structures and discursive practices, the gamebook is used alongside
dialogic lessons. In these, children collaboratively reflect on choices made in the gamebook, supported by talk
moves to help teachers guide discussion. The design conjecture between embodiment and mediating process is if
children engage with the activities (reading the gamebook and forming implementation intentions) through the
environment (dialogic lessons), they should: a) explore the impact of PEB; b) develop a shared understanding of
what are appropriate PEBs; and c) generate personal action plans (implementation intentions). Mediating
processes are theorized to lead to four related outcomes: understanding the importance of individual PEB;
improved predictive constructs (e.g., perceived behavioural control); ability to review what are appropriate PEBs;
and increased engagement in PEBs. The theoretical conjecture between mediating processes and outcomes is if
mediating processes occur: i) influential beliefs are challenged, leading to increased PEB intention; and ii)
environmental cues, via implementation intentions, increase engagement in PEB.
The following reports six research activities across two overlapping cycles of iteration completed in
phase 1: cycle one focused on designing the content of the gamebooks, and cycle two covered the design of
supporting pedagogical activities. Given space limitations, only the aim and outcome of studies are reported.
Cycle one: Designing for content
C1.1: Initial design of gamebook-based lessons
This section presents the initial design of the gamebook-based lessons. The gamebook’s narrative is set during a
week of school holidays, where readers take on the role of a child going on various days out. Each day includes
choices about minor narrative content and pro-environmental choices grouped by areas of environmental action:
• Day A – Area of Action: material consumption; Act 1: clothes shopping; Act 2: visit the fair.
• Day B – Area of Action: travel and mobility; Act 1: visit the park; Act 2: trip to the cinema.
• Day C – Area of Action: food and diet; Act 1: explore the zoo; Act 2: go food shopping.
• Day D – Area of Action: heating and cooling: Act 1: visit the beach; Act 2: plan a holiday.
Days can be experienced in any order, after which it is revelated in a twist that readers were acting as ‘time agents’:
individuals sent from a future badly impacted by climate change and tasked with carrying out PEBs. Readers are
then shown one of two futures based upon their choices about engaging in PEBs. These futures depict the impact
of climate change in 2050, based on current predictions, and show either 1) a worst-case scenario; or 2) a best-
case scenario. The gamebook is written in ink (inkle, 2021), with the UI created using Unity. In theory, the
gamebook challenges and encourages reflection on behavioural and control beliefs. A demo is available at
www.enviroedgamebooks.co.uk.
In practice, gamebook reading is followed by two learning activities. Firstly, a book club where children,
in small groups, discuss choices made in the gamebook. This acts as a dialogic lesson where children can co-
construct understanding of PEB. It is supported by a set of generic talk moves to focus discussion on underlying
beliefs and the rationale for behavioural change. Secondly, children create implementation intentions they can use
in the following weeks. These are revised and refined each week. These activities target normative beliefs, as
children collaboratively discuss their experience of the gamebook and develop a shared understanding of what
are appropriate and practical PEBs.
C1.2: Determining viable pro-environmental choices
To integrate learning content through the core gamebook mechanism of reader choice it was essential that
gamebook PEBs reflected actions that children would carry out in the real world. Consequently, a survey of 32
UK-based parents/guardians was conducted to develop a homogenous set of child-friendly PEBs. The analysis
resulted in 40 child-friendly PEBs for which children would be at least somewhat likely to carry out.
C1.3: Affective reactions to gamebook content
To design engaging gamebook content for children and address concerns of eco-anxiety, a study was conducted
to investigate emotional reactions, reading difficulty and narrative engagement. 18 children (7-14 years old) read
shortened versions of the gamebook and completed a questionnaire. Results showed minimal adverse emotional
reactions concerning eco-anxiety. However, parts of the narrative (e.g., the visit to the beach) required revision
for greater engagement. The gamebook was suitable for the target age range in terms of reading level, and there
was reported increased intention to engage in PEBs.
Cycle two: Designing for pedagogy
C2.1: Expert group review
A wider design team, consisting of 11 academics with expertise in initial teacher education, science education,
computer-supported collaborative learning, design-based research, and gamebook writing, provided feedback on
the design and use of educational materials at various stages throughout the project. In phase 1, they provided
feedback on early narrative storyboards and reviewed the gamebook and lesson plans in focus groups and
individual interviews. Feedback from the team in initial teacher education suggested supplementary materials
should accompany the gamebook-based lessons. The group also suggested using visual indicators when readers
faced PEB choices and highlighted the opportunity to increase inclusion and diversity in gamebook imagery,
particularly disability representation. Changes to gamebook imagery were made in all following iterations. The
group also called for more exploration of the emergent structure of learning to inform dialogic activities.
C2.2: Teachers’ use of materials
A study evaluated the practicality of the gamebook-based lessons and adaptions made by teachers (two teachers
and 53 children) using the gamebook-based lessons in classrooms across three lessons. Lesson 1: read the first
half of the gamebook. Lesson 2: finish reading the gamebook, take part in a ‘book club’ to discuss choices made
and book endings, and create individual implementation intentions that can be used across the following week.
Lesson 3: review children’s records of individual implementation intentions. Results showed that readers only
received the better ending of the book (due to following PEB visual indicators), necessitating a mechanism for
readers to view alternative endings to better facilitate group discussion. Teachers noted it was difficult for children
to reflect on and revise their IIs. Like the expert group, teachers requested supplementary materials to extend
children’s environmental education. Finally, neither teacher was a science specialist. Still, they did not feel out of
their depth discussing climate change issues or running the activities, suggesting that the intervention does not
require additional subject-specific or pedagogic knowledge.
C2.3: Facilitating group discussion
While talk moves were designed for teachers to support children’s discussion, predicting the types of questions
children will raise and the prompts needed to guide discussion can be challenging. An exploratory study was
conducted with 16 children (10-13 years old). The aim was to explore the emergent structure of learning activities.
That is, what questions children raised and what talk moves were needed to focus group conversation. Participants
read the gamebook, were observed participating in book club discussions and creating IIs, then provided feedback
on gamebook design. The results produced a set of targeted talk moves to highlight the underlying position that
all PEBs are beneficial. This ensures that IIs are both possible for children to conduct and focus on a specific PEB
and introduces the time travel mission at the beginning of the book to act as a narrative hook. Finally, reliance on
PEB visual cues was observed, as participants noted they signposted when to think about their actions.
Revision of materials
The six studies reported here demonstrate the need to design for both content of the gamebook and the supporting
pedagogical approaches. The results highlighted the need to evaluate initial assumptions about child-friendly
content design (see C1.2, C1.3, C2.3); for example, moving the time travel mission to the beginning of the book
as a narrative hook. In terms of pedagogical revisions, targeted talk moves were developed (C2.3) to ensure they
anticipated children’s questions and better-guided reflection. Implementation intentions were found to be difficult
for children to develop and revise. To support II development, children now create IIs in Lesson 1 (linked to
school-based behaviour), in addition to those created in Lesson 2 (linked to out-of-school behaviour), with the
two contexts covering different social norms (school and home). Lesson 3 now involves group discussion of PEB
vignettes where children evaluate pro-environmental choices of fictional others and design IIs for them.
Consequently, the initial conjecture map was updated to include PEB vignettes as additional material, leading to
a new mediating process of reflecting on the behaviour of others.
The results of the studies led to two design conflicts. Firstly, both the expert group (C2.1) and classroom
teachers (C2.2) wanted supplementary climate change materials to use alongside the gamebook-based lessons. A
suitable pack has been developed; however, potential variations in use pose methodological problems that must
be evaluated in future efficacy tests. Secondly, the use of visual cues (C2.1) within the gamebook to flag potential
PEB may have guided children to predominantly select PEBs (C2.2, C2.3), limiting the experience of alternative
endings and potential loss of reader agency. The use of such cues will be investigated in future studies.
Conclusion
Educational gamebooks are an under-explored resource that can be used to show individuals the impact that their
actions can have. The studies reported here illustrate how to design for both content and pedagogy in developing
gamebook-based lessons, including underpinning conjecture mapping. Such steps are crucial for others creating
gamebooks for environmental education and other areas that focus on belief revision or behavioural change.
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Acknowledgements
This project is funded by the British Academy Postdoctoral Fellowship scheme, grant number: PF19\10010.