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What Keystroke Logging can Reveal about Writing
... In the current study, we use keystroke logging to collect writing process data. Keystroke logging is a technique to capture all the activities (e.g., key presses or mouse movements) during the writing process along with their time distribution (Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist et al., 2006). ...
... A number of variables can be derived from this writing pattern, including the active writing time, or the number and length of pauses (Frid et al., 2014;Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist et al., 2006). Pauses are considered indicators of cognitive effort. ...
... Keystroke logging is a technique to capture all the activities (e.g. key presses or mouse movements) during the writing process along with their time distribution (Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist et al., 2006). ...
... A number of variables can be derived from this writing pattern, including the active writing time, or the number and length of pauses (Frid et al., 2014;Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist et al., 2006). Pauses are considered indicators of cognitive effort. ...
In this paper we explore the influences of normal ageing and verb transitivity on sentence production. The underlying aim is to provide a foundation for further research on sentence production in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We used a computer-based written sentence production task, designed to elicit intransitive, monotransitive and ditransitive sentences. Data was collected using keystroke logging, a technique to capture the entire typing process. Data of ninety healthy elderly was analysed focusing on the following writing process variables: time on task, production time and pause times. Results show that age influences time on task, pause time before sentences and within words. Verb transitivity influences time on task, production time and pause time between words. For pause time before sentences and between words, an interaction effect between age and verb transitivity was found as well. These results indicate that a follow-up study with AD patients should not attribute a slowdown in one of these variables to the disease in its entirety but should instead be compared with the slowdown in age-matched healthy peers.
... The writing researchers have developed numerous keystroke logging applications as it provides a non-intrusive and inexpensive technique to monitor user inputs. Inputlog [81] and ScriptLog [82] are such programs used in context of writing research 2 . Most keystroke logging applications include real-time playback recorded keystrokes and it is an effective approach to help subjects account for their writing in retrospect, which is less intrusive than having them think aloud while writing [83]. ...
... The writing researchers have developed a number of keystroke logging applications. Inputlog [81] and ScriptLog [82] are such programs used in context of writing research 2 . Most keystroke logging applications include real-time playback recorded keystrokes and it is an effective approach to help subjects account for their writing in retrospect, which is less intrusive than having them think aloud while writing [83]. ...
Creating an artifact - such as writing a book, developing software, or performing a piece of music - is often limited to those with domain-specific experience or training. As a consequence, effectively involving non-expert end users in such creative processes is challenging. This work explores how computational systems can facilitate collaboration, communication, and participation in the context of involving users in the process of creating artifacts while mitigating the challenges inherent to such processes. In particular, the interactive systems presented in this work support live collaborative creation, in which artifact users collaboratively participate in the artifact creation process with creators in real time. In the systems that I have created, I explored liveness, the extent to which the process of creating artifacts and the state of the artifacts are immediately and continuously perceptible, for applications such as programming, writing, music performance, and UI design. Liveness helps preserve natural expressivity, supports real-time communication, and facilitates participation in the creative process. Live collaboration is beneficial for users and creators alike: making the process of creation visible encourages users to engage in the process and better understand the final artifact. Additionally, creators can receive immediate feedback in a continuous, closed loop with users. Through these interactive systems, non-expert participants help create such artifacts as GUI prototypes, software, and musical performances. This dissertation explores three topics: (1) the challenges inherent to collaborative creation in live settings, and computational tools that address them; (2) methods for reducing the barriers of entry to live collaboration; and (3) approaches to preserving liveness in the creative process, affording creators more expressivity in making artifacts and affording users access to information traditionally only available in real-time processes. In this work, I showed that enabling collaborative, expressive, and live interactions in computational systems allow the broader population to take part in various creative practices.
... Taking another's perspective is regarded as an important prerequisite for the acquisition of language. For the young child, most modalities of writing forces new ways of achieving shared pre-understanding (Strömqvist, 2006). This might be a part of children's writing ability that affect their ability to demonstrate reading comprehension through written responses in a test situation. ...
... Each participant wrote one expository text about typical problems in a school setting the text production taskusing the keystroke-logging software ScriptLog (c.f. Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006), and read one very similar text on the same subject written by someone elsethe reading task. ...
... Secondly, keystroke logging is more scalable compared to other observational methods such as screen recording and think-aloud protocols. To date, a number of laboratorybased keystroke logging programs have been developed, among which Scriptlog (Strömqvist et al., 2006), Translog (Carl, 2012), Inputlog , and GenoGraphiX-LOG (Caporossi, Leblay, & Usoof, 2023) are most notable. These programs were developed with different focuses. ...
Despite the growing interest in the dynamics of the writing process in writing research, publicly available large-scale corpora of keystroke logs have been rare. We introduce KLiCKe, a freely available collection of keystroke logs for around 5,000 argumentative texts written by adults in the United States. The KLiCKe corpus also includes human-rated holistic scores for the essays as well as writers' demographic details, their typing skills, and vocabulary knowledge. We describe our methods for constructing the corpus and present descriptives for different components of the corpus. To illustrate the use of the KLiCKe corpus, we report a study using a subset of the corpus to investigate whether keystroke features are associated with holistic writing quality for L1 and L2 writers. The study shows that higher writing scores are related to shorter pauses in general, shorter between-word pauses, lower proportion of deletions, higher proportion of insertions, and less process variance. The KLiCKe corpus provides a robust resource for researchers to study the dynamics of text production and revision that will help spur the development of process-oriented tools and methodologies in writing assessment and instruction.
... It also features extensive revisions that may intervene at different points of the textualization process, rely on different triggers, and target different types of structures (Conijn et al., 2022). These dynamics can be thoroughly explored through the use of keylogging, that is, live recordings of the timestamps of each keystroke during a typing process (Strömqvist et al. 2006). The temporal characteristics of these keylogs, and the Inter-Key Intervals (IKI) in particular, in turn reflect the cognitive mechanisms that underlie the writing process (Galbraith & Baaijen, 2019). ...
Bursts of writing, extracted from online recordings of the writing process, have proved an invaluable vantage point into the cognitive mechanisms at work during written language production. Crucially, they show that writers, much like speakers, produce language through a sequence of small ‘chunks’, patterns-like groupings of words that do not necessarily match the structures of theoretical grammars. As such, they are intriguing objects, whose linguistic properties are yet to be understood. To contribute to this endeavor, we track all instances of French so-called clitic subjects in a corpus of 81 keylogs of short essays written by undergraduate students in experimental conditions. We show that these clitic subjects are attracted to the burst-initial position, favoring resumption of the production after revision events. Moreover, they also act like discursive hubs in that writers are more likely to revise up to a clitic subject and restart from there, possibly relying on an entirely different structure. Therefore, they play the role of landmarks in the writing process, from which information can flow, and to which writers can get back to develop alternative discursive strategies. These results hint that the writing process and the information structure of the product are likely to be intimately intricated.
... This is somewhat problematic because pause thresholds set on the group level are by definition arbitrary. While it is essential to choose a pause threshold relevant to the research question, a two-second threshold has frequently been used to mark the point at which an IKI is considered a pause (Strömqvist et al., 2006) as seen in earlier keystroke logging research. This threshold was, for example, utilized in both Wengelin (2007) and Wengelin et al. (2014). ...
Spelling difficulties are commonly associated primarily with spelling errors. However, it is not uncommon for spelling challenges to transform the whole writing process into a formidable struggle. This paper delves into the exploration of whether and to what extent analyses of children’s writing processes can enhance our understanding of their difficulties, potentially contributing to the assessment of spelling challenges. We focused particularly on the degree of hesitation within words and the ability to detect and correct spelling errors among children with and without reading and spelling difficulties, as well as how these processes impact the quality and lexical diversity of their texts. Additionally, we sought to contribute to disentangling the influence of spelling and decoding abilities on these processes. A cohort of 47 children, aged 10–13, participated in the study, comprising 16 typically developing children, 16 with predominantly spelling difficulties, and 15 with both reading and spelling difficulties. Our analysis encompassed their spelling performance in both standardized tests and task-oriented writing samples, as well as an examination of their pausing and revision behaviour. As expected, we found robust correlations between the children’s spelling test scores and the proportions of spelling errors in their texts. Furthermore, our findings indicated that children encountering spelling difficulties exhibited a reduced ability to detect and correct errors compared to their peers without such challenges. Additionally, they displayed a slightly higher tendency to experience word-internal interruptions, aligning with prior research. The children who also had reading difficulties produced fewer words and processed words more slowly compared to children in both the other groups. Intriguingly, process data did not reliably predict text characteristics, suggesting that dysfluent writing may not significantly detriment the overall quality of the text, contrary to our initial expectations based on prevailing writing development models. Nevertheless, the study revealed considerable individual variation, with some participants demonstrating a high degree of struggling and dysfluency, resulting in poorer text outcomes, but also others whose struggling processes led to better outcomes. We posit that the crucial aspect lies in identifying these individuals within a classroom context and gaining insights into their processes to provide them with appropriate, formative feedback and adequate writing tools to facilitate their writing.
... In fact, research indicates that, compared to beginners, accomplished writers produce text fluently in relatively long chunks and bursts; spend more time planning, generating text, and revising; and tend to stop at natural planning junctures like clause and sentence boundaries (Connelly, Dockrell, Walter, & Critten, 2012;Kaufer, Hayes, & Flower, 1986;McCutchen, 2006;McCutchen, Covill, Hoyne, & Mildes, 1994). Cognitive research using keystroke logging has generally reaffirmed these findings (Baaijen, Galbraith, & De Glopper, 2012;Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006;Sullivan & Lindgren, 2006;Wengelin, 2006). ...
This study examined differences in the composition processes used by educationally at-risk males and females who wrote essays as part of a high-school equivalency examination. Over 30,000 individuals were assessed, each taking one of 12 forms of the examination’s language arts writing subtest in 23 US states. Writing processes were inferred using features extracted from keystroke logs and aggregated into seven composite indicators. Results showed that females earned higher essay and total language arts writing composite scores than did males, but only by trivial amounts. More pertinent was that, after controlling for language arts writing composite score, age, and essay prompt, all seven process indicators showed nontrivial, statistically significant differences, the most notable being for indicators related to fluency and different aspects of editing. The study’s findings are consistent in important ways with those from other investigations of school-age students and adults, and with results from both online and paper-based writing tasks. Implications are offered for conducting similar research for individuals composing in character-based languages like Chinese.
... Moreover, social networks, marked by timeliness and multimodality (Chun et al., 2016), enable learners to relate their writing to social aspects, making digital writing feasible even for L2 beginners. In addition, learner corpora can benefit L2 learners' writing through concordance-based data, digital techniques for handwriting recognition can facilitate the development of automated writing evaluation, and software like Scriptlog (Strömqvist et al., 2006) and Inputlog (Leijten & Van Waes, 2013) can record details like keystrokes, deletions, and mouse movements. ...
Advanced technology has brought about great changes to language teaching and learning, such as significant shifts and requirements in the field of writing, which is considered as a complex ability to acquire, especially for second language (L2) learners (Hyland, 2021). Writing in this digital era has been shaped by various new technologies, resulting in more attention paid to technology use in L2 writing instruction and research. A new collection of papers titled Technology in second language writing: Advances in composing, translation, writing pedagogy and data-driven learning has been timely published to illustrate how the L2 writing field embraces the integration of technology in teaching and researching students with various cultural backgrounds. This fascinating book was edited by Jingjing Qin and Paul Stapleton who gathered scholars with different pedagogical experiences to provide a comprehensive detour from original research orientations to pedagogical applications.
... See Spelman Miller, 2006b), and on revision processes (see . Research has also included comparisons between writing and speaking processes (see Strömqvist et al., 2006). Additionally, attempts have been made to create an overarching model of language processing on the assumption that temporal patterns during writing would reflect general inherent patterns during language production (Spelman Miller, 2006a, b). ...
This volume brings together the perspectives of new and established scholars who have connected with the broad fields of first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing to discuss critically key methodological developments and challenges in the study of L2 writing processes. The focus is on studies of composing and of engagement with feedback on written drafts, with particular attention to methods of process-tracing through data such as concurrent or stimulated verbal reports, interviews, diaries, digital recording, visual screen capture, eye tracking, keystroke logging, questionnaires, and/or ethnographic observation. The chapters in the book illustrate how progress has been made in developing research methods and empirical understandings of writing processes, in introducing methodological innovations, and in pointing to future methodological directions. It will be an essential methodological guide for novice and experienced researchers, senior students, and educators investigating the processes of writing in additional languages.
... This is a crucial parameter that has attracted attention in previous work and about which there is no full agreement, which renders the comparability of findings from different studies difficult (see Medimorec & Risko, 2017). Given the absence of previous research on children L2 writers in digital environments, we had to rely on the procedure followed in studies with adult L1 and L2 writers where pause thresholds have been established between 1000 and 2000 ms (Barkaoui, 2019;Strömqvist et al., 2006). According to Van Waes and Leijten (2015), lower cognitive processes are generally located between 1000 and 2000 ms and they reflect motor activities, while pauses above 2000 ms are indicative of more cognitively demanding processes. ...
This volume brings together the perspectives of new and established scholars who have connected with the broad fields of first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing to discuss critically key methodological developments and challenges in the study of L2 writing processes. The focus is on studies of composing and of engagement with feedback on written drafts, with particular attention to methods of process-tracing through data such as concurrent or stimulated verbal reports, interviews, diaries, digital recording, visual screen capture, eye tracking, keystroke logging, questionnaires, and/or ethnographic observation. The chapters in the book illustrate how progress has been made in developing research methods and empirical understandings of writing processes, in introducing methodological innovations, and in pointing to future methodological directions. It will be an essential methodological guide for novice and experienced researchers, senior students, and educators investigating the processes of writing in additional languages.
... Keylogging led to various tools for writing research, such as "progression analysis" (Perrin, 2003(Perrin, , 2019, ScriptLog (Strömqvist et al., 2006) or "InputLog" (Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;. Keylogging research focused mainly on text progress (fluency), pauses, and revision activities as these variables are what the data reveal most easily. ...
In the mid-1980s, more than 300 different versions of word processing software existed (Bergin, 2006a, b), but within a decade, Microsoft Word emerged from the pack and became the standard writing tool. MS Word convinced the public to exchange their typewriters for microcomputers with writing software. It gave writing an (inter)face to become familiar with. A new era of literacy had begun and started to shape writing, thinking, design, and communication in its own way. First, we provide an overview of the developments that made MS Word successful and describe in broad terms the core issues of word processing before we look at the functionalities that MS Word offers. Next, we reflect on the importance of research on word processors and show that it has dwindled since the initial wave of studies. Research ceased since the 2000s, even though new technological opportunities to study word processors arrived, such as key logging and screen recording. The report ends at the time when the internet had developed sufficiently to change literacy once more and when word processing had to adapt to the tasks, technologies, and demands of writing for the web or in the web.
... Over the past two decades, keystroke logging has become an increasingly popular method for capturing data on revision processes for both first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing research (Leijten and Van Waes, 2006;Strömqvist et al., 2006;Van Waes et al., 2009). Keystroke logging records all keystrokes, mouse movements and clicks made during a writing session, allowing researchers to reconstruct the writing process and analyse detailed output. ...
Revision is a fundamental part of the writing process and is particularly important in the production of high-quality academic writing. This study is an exploratory examination of changes in revision behavior, as measured by keystroke logging software, at the beginning (T1) and end (T2) of a one-month intensive English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course on n = 39 undergraduate and postgraduate students. Bayes Factors (BFs) are utilized as measures of strength of evidence for changes in behavior. In this paper, we examine the application of a Bayesian Hypothesis Testing (BHT) approach and its implications specifically for exploratory studies, i.e., studies with relatively small samples intended to search data for emergent patterns. The results show that, in most cases, we have moderate evidence against any change in behavior over time. Based on this evidence, we conclude that the experimental parameters of further exploratory work into the development of revisions should be modified to maximize the chance of finding patterns in the data from which to generate any confirmatory hypotheses.
... In a follow-up study with participants recruited from the same groups, Dich and Pederson (2013) used a dynamic approach to assess the spelling of a list of commonly misspelled irregular words by logging keystrokes during typing (Strömqvist et al., 2006). There were no differences in the number of within-word hesitations across the groups. ...
The current narrative review focuses on cross-language influences (CLI) in spelling English as a foreign language (EFL). We identify three types of distance between first language (L1) and English that may impact English spelling, namely distance in writing system, in orthography and in phonology. The review describes and specifies the spelling difficulties that different groups of EFL learners may experience due to these distance types. We present a detailed examination of these inter-connected aspects of distance in order to characterize the different sources of CLI in spelling. Because CLI plays a significant role in learning a new language, understanding and characterizing the types of distance that lead to CLI has important implications for EFL instruction and learning. The empirical studies reviewed here clearly indicate that distance from L1 affects the English spelling of both beginning and advanced English learners, and this effect depends on the type of distance. In addition, we suggest that spelling difficulties are exacerbated in cases where L1 is distant from EFL in more than one way. Suggestions for future research are provided and pedagogical implications for EFL instruction are offered.
... From a researcher's point of view, factors such as, e.g., motor control, vocabulary, intellectual abilities, interests, motivation involved in writing, may clutter both the testing and interpretations. In this respect, studies using keystroke logging during text writing are promising [82][83][84]. ...
Introduction. The focus of the present paper is on (1) how dyslexia research and hence definitions have developed during the period 1950–2020 and includes (2) a database search of scientific publications on dyslexia during the same period. The focus is on the definitions of dyslexia and the organization of the network search based on the causal four-level model by Morton and Frith. Method. (1) The definitions are presented in accordance with a historic review of dyslexia research from 1950 to 2020 and based on (2) Google Scholar counts of publications on dyslexia, on defining dyslexia, on dyslexia at the four levels (symptomatic, cognitive, biological, environmental), and by areas (sensorimotor, comorbidity). Finally, a percentage calculation shows the relative development within each level and area by decennium (1950–1960, 1960–1970, 1970–1980, 1990–2000, 2002–2010, 2010–2020). Results. (1) Of the seven definitions presented, only the definition by the BDA 2007 included the four levels of the causal model. (2) The number of publications increased substantially over the period. However, relatively few publications have defined dyslexia. An increase in publications from 1950 to 2020 was seen across the four levels and two areas—however, with an alteration in the thematic focus over this time span. Summary. Defining dyslexia has still not reached a consensus. This uncertainty may explain why only one of the seven definitions proved satisfactory according to the four-level model. Along with the general increase in research, publications on dyslexia have increased accordingly during the period 1950 to 2020. Although the symptomatic level has played a dominant role over the whole period, thematic shifts have been seen over these 70 years. In particular, a substantial thematic shift was seen by the turn of the millennium. There has been a relative increase in the focus on literacy at the symptomatic level, on phonological awareness at the cognitive level, in gender at the biological level, and second language learning as comorbidities. However, increases in counts are not alone a valid indication of scientific progress. In particular, the lack of definitional criteria as a basis for participant and method selection should attract much more focus in future studies. The present study underlines the multifactorial nature of dyslexia, as evidenced by a substantial increase in the number of publications on the subject. It is a challenge for future research to continuously use and possibly redefine dyslexia definitions in line with such standards.
... A threshold of two seconds has been frequently used in previous studies (e.g. Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001;Strömqvist et al., 2006) and researchers have assumed that pauses longer than two seconds are mainly caused by cognitive activities, for example, choice of vocabulary and/or spelling uncertainty. Thus, this threshold has been used in this dissertation to analyse burst lengths. ...
The main aim of this dissertation was to explore L1 (Persian) and L2 (Swedish) reading and writing of 26 bilingual biscriptal children with and without reading difficulties (RD)(years 4–9). Previous studies have mainly focused on Latin scripts or one alphabetic and one non-alphabetic script with English as L1 or L2. Linguistic and cognitive skills related to word reading and writing fluency were analysed through standardised tasks across both languages. Regarding writing, each participant completed four tasks in each language, one narrative and one descriptive. Eye and Pen (EP) software was used to collect writing data and study children’s writing fluency and orthographic features that could disrupt writing fluency in each language. Furthermore, the writing of two bilingual children with RD was analysed through a meaning-making analysis. The EP software was used to investigate their writing processes. Moreover, a questionnaire was designed and interviews were conducted to investigate all the participants’ language and literacy usage and practice at home. The results demonstrated that both bilingual children with and without RD were more fluent writers in their L2 (Swedish) compared to their L1 (Persian). Furthermore, most children were also more efficient readers in Swedish compared to Persian. The results also suggest that orthographic features could negatively affect children’s reading efficiency and writing fluency. Furthermore, the linguistic and cognitive skills that relate to word reading and writing fluency could vary across languages depending on the orthographic features and orthographic depth of each language. The results also suggest that the extent to which bilingual children with RD can use their knowledge about writing in both languages could depend on the type and extent of their difficulties. The results are analysed in relation to previous research and the educational implications are discussed.
... One way to investigate the writing process is to analyze a writer's activity using a keystroke logging program. One of several keystroke logging programs available that enable researchers to collect data during the writing process without interrupting the writer is ScriptLog (Strömqvist et al. 2006). Detailed information about the writer's activity during online writing is stored in a log file. ...
Research on writing that focuses on what writers do when they compose shows that processes such as planning, transfer to writing and editing are recursive and affect the writing process of first and second language writers differently. To our knowledge, what has yet to be explored in research is the writing process of young bilingual students. The present study focused on the revisions and spelling errors made by 9-year-old bilingual students during a writing activity in their L2. Details about the writing process (e.g., revisions) were taken from statistics registered in the keystroke logging program ScriptLog and were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Results from the quantitative analysis show that the mean proportion of the students’ revisions is relatively low compared to results in previous research. The qualitative analysis showed both surface and meaning changes; the latter were found at both the micro- and macrostructural levels. Bilingual students exhibit a creative writing process in which several meaning changes occur in a language (in this case Swedish) that they are particularly competent in. The spelling error analysis indicated that the bilingual students make the same type of spelling errors as monolingual students in their initial stages of learning to write.
... This captures the idea that processing at a specific location in the text will only be disruptive to higher level processing if it takes substantially longer than is typical for that location. We identified a within-word disfluency if the interval exceeded 1 s and a word-initial disfluency if the interval exceeded 2 s. 2 s has been treated as the threshold at which an interkey interval becomes a "pause" by convention (Strömqvist et al., 2006) and in several, but not all, of the studies that we cited in our introduction. The modal word-initial latency for children in our sample composing continuous text was in the region of 300 ms (See Appendix Fig. A1). ...
This study investigates the possibility that lack of fluency in spelling and/or typing disrupts writing processes in such a way as to cause damage to the substance (content and structure) of the resulting text. 101 children (mean age 11 years 10 months), writing in a relatively shallow orthography (Norwegian), composed argumentative essays using a simple text editor that provided accurate timing for each keystroke. Production fluency was assessed in terms of both within-word and word-initial interkey intervals and pause counts. We also assessed the substantive quality of completed texts. Students also performed tasks in which we recorded time to pressing keyboard keys in response to spoken letter names (a keyboard knowledge measure), response time and interkey intervals when spelling single, spoken words (spelling fluency), and interkey intervals when typing a simple sentence from memory (transcription fluency). Analysis by piecewise structural equation modelling gave clear evidence that all three of these measures predict fluency when composing full text. Students with longer mid-word interkey intervals when composing full text tended to produce texts with slightly weaker theme development. However, we found no other effects of composition fluency measures on measures of the substantive quality of the completed text. Our findings did not, therefore, provide support for the process-disruption hypothesis, at least in the context of upper-primary students writing in a shallow orthography.
... Consistent with this proposition, research suggests that in comparison to novices, proficient writers produce text fluently in relatively long chunks and bursts; tend to stop at natural planning junctures like clause and sentence boundaries; and spend more time planning, generating text, and revising (Connelly et al., 2012;Kaufer et al., 1986;McCutchen, 2006McCutchen, , 1994. These findings have generally been confirmed by cognitive research using keystroke logging (Baaijen et al., 2012;Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Revesz et al., 2019;Strömqvist et al., 2006;Sullivan & Lindgren, 2006;Wengelin, 2006). ...
Grouping individuals according to a set of measured characteristics, or profiling, is frequently used in describing, understanding, and acting on a phenomenon. The advent of computer‐based assessment offers new possibilities for profiling writing because aspects can be captured that were not heretofore observable. We explored whether writing processes could be profiled of over 30,000 adults taking a high‐school equivalency examination. Process features were extracted from keystroke logs, aggregated into composite indicators, and used with essay score to assign individuals to profiles. Analyses included computing the percentages of individuals that could be classified, using MANOVA to examine differences among profiles on external variables, and examining if profiles could be distinguished from one another based on patterns derived from cluster analysis. Results showed that about 30% of examinees could be classified into profiles that were largely distinct. These results contribute toward a foundation for using such profiles in describing how individuals compose and in how their writing might be improved.
... Burst was defined as text produced between pauses and a pause was defined "as a period of handwriting interruption" (Alves & Limpo, 2015: 379). We used a pause threshold of two seconds, which is a commonly used threshold in writing process research (Chenoweth & Hayes, 2001;Strömqvist et al., 2006;Alves & Limpo, 2015). The two-second threshold assumes that mechanical interruptions in the writing fluency would be shorter than two seconds, thus be filtered out from the analysis leaving pauses that are more likely to be due to cognitive activities, such as word choice, spelling insecurity, or changes of ideas. ...
Bilingual literacy not only supports academic success it also contributes to bilingual children's development of identity. However, not all contexts allow children to develop their writing fluency in their first language (L1) to the same degree as in their school language, their second language (L2). Few studies have explored bilingual children's writing fluency in two languages and most studies to date have fo-cussed on Latin scripts, in particular English. The present paper fills this gap by exploring writing fluency of bilingual biscriptal children in the typologically different languages Swedish (official language and main medium of instruction) and Persian (home language). Twenty-three bilingual biscriptal children between the ages of 10-15 wrote four texts each by hand using Eye and Pen, descriptive and narrative, in Persian and Swedish respectively. The final texts and temporal information were used to compute product and process writing fluency. In order to explore writing fluency further, the role of language exposure and lexical retrieval was investigated. A survey was used to explore the participants' exposure at home and participants' lexical retrieval was measured by standardized tasks in each language. An additional qualita-tive study of three writers focused on what may have caused interruptions in fluency in the two languages. Results show that the children produced more characters, words and clauses and wrote faster, produced longer and more complex bursts in their L2 as compared with their L1. Exposure in L1 was connected with writing fluency in both languages while lexical retrieval was mildly related with fluency in L1. Typological characteristics such as diacritics created pauses and hence interrupted writing fluency in both languages.
... And the pause defined shall exceed this time, so we choose 4 s as the thresh-hold, which is longer than common pause thresh-hold defined in writing scenario (e.g. Stromqvist et al., 2006;Alves et al., 2008) since translation involves an additional mental activity, i.e. comprehension of ST, apart from writing (rendition) as content output. ...
This article explores the differences of translation processes for expressive and informative texts by professional translators primarily by triangulating pausing and revision data retrieved by Keystroke logging experiment and rational report thereof via questionnaire survey and interview. The article discovers that in terms of temporal distribution, the drafting of informative text accounts for a larger proportion of time, while orientation and checking accounts for a smaller proportion compared with those of expressive texts. At orientation interval, translators come to fully understand the source expressive text at the very beginning, while generally conducting syntactic analysis of and re-sequencing the semantic component of source text in target language in translating informative text. At drafting interval, structural modification frequency word rate (MWR) in translating the expressive text is larger than that in translating the informative texts, while spelling and lexical MWRs of both texts are similar. At checking interval, both texts hardly see any structural modification, but lexical MWR for the former is much bigger than that for the latter. These data, along with pausing and revision rational report, suggest the priority of familiarity with standardized grammar and expertise in specialized field for translating informative text, and the importance of embedded reading and writing training for translating expressive text.
... The first one is related to the very status of LCR, which has always been considered as a product-oriented approach and which actually has the potential to combine both process and product orientations in the future. Mäntylä et al. (2018), for instance, show how the use of keystroke logging software (Strömqvist et al., 2006) cannot only help researchers better understand the writing process but also -and perhaps even more importantly here -lead to a reconsideration of what is actually perceived or stored in the learner's mind as a formulaic sequence (Wray, 2002). Previous LCR research on formulaic language focused on 'learner-external' sequences (viz. ...
... Keystroke logging software has recently become very popular in L1 and L2 writing research (Leijten & Van Waes, 2006;Révész et al., 2019;Strömqvist et al., 2006;Van Waes et al., 2009). The use of Inputlog, i.e., one of the logging programs, has created multiple opportunities for examining the cognitive processes of L2 writers including planning, composition and revision. ...
Revision constitutes an important component of the writing process that integrates text interpretation, reflection, and production. Although previous studies have offered useful insights into the revision behaviour of L2 writers at different levels of proficiency using off-line measures, little is known about the online processes of revision. In this study, I used keystroke logging to investigate longitudinal changes in the revision processes of postgraduate and undergraduate students in the context of an intensive English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program. Twenty-five postgraduate and 14 undergraduate students participated in this study. The keystroke logging program Inputlog was used during two essay writing sessions at the beginning and at the end of the course to observe how the participants revise their essays and to get insights into their on-line writing processes. Keystroke logging data were coded in terms of the orientation and location of revisions. The results revealed that postgraduates produced more content-oriented revisions at the end of the programme than at the beginning. The opposite trend was observed for the undergraduates, who revised their essays significantly less frequently at the end than at the beginning of the EAP program and made more mechanical revisions than postgraduate writers. The findings highlight fundamental differences in the developmental trajectories of revision processes between postgraduate and undergraduate students. These differences caused by previous academic writing experience and language proficiency should be considered in developing materials for EAP programs. In the paper, I also discuss benefits of using keystroke logging to investigate L2 writers' revision processes.
... Keystroke-logging software is a computer tool designed to record all keyboard and mouse activity during a writing process (Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006;Van Waes, Leijten, Wengelin, & Lindgren, 2012; Van Waes, Leijten, Lindgren, & Wengelin, 2016) in real time. This makes it possible to analyse what the writer has done while producing the text and to observe the writing process as it unfolds (Wengelin et al., 2009). ...
Background: Writing ability is of increasing importance in our computerised societies, yet research into functional text writing in persons with aphasia (PWA) remains scarce. Knowledge is limited of how different aspects of the writing process interact during writing. Spelling ability has commonly been investigated using dictation tests, but it is not known to what extent those results relate to spelling or editing in text writing.
Aims: To compare text writing in the production of narrative texts in persons with and without aphasia and to interrelate measures from the narrative output. Furthermore, to investigate how performance in dictation tasks related to spelling and editing in text.
Methods & Procedures: Fifteen participants with mild to moderate aphasia and 26 participants without aphasia in a reference group wrote two types of narratives in a keystroke-logging program and were tested with dictation tests. Writing process measures and characteristics from the texts were compared between groups. Writing process measures were interrelated for both groups. Spelling test results were correlated to spelling and editing in text for the group with aphasia.
Outcomes & Results: Significant differences between the two groups were found on all writing process measures; the PWA typed more slowly in the copytask, produced fewer words per minute and deleted a larger proportion of their texts while editing in two narrative tasks. There were also significant differences in text length and the amount of spelling errors in the picture-elicited narrative – but not in the free narrative. There were significant correlations between productivity and editing in both narrative tasks for the group with aphasia, but no such relation was found for the reference group, showing that for the PWA their productivity in text writing aligned with the amount of editing undertaken. A strong correlation between scores on the real-word dictation task and the amount of spelling errors in a picture-elicited text was found, but no correlation was found between scores on the real-word dictation task and spelling errors in the free narrative.
Conclusion: All aspects of productivity in text writing were affected in this group of participants with mild to moderate aphasia. There was a relation between editing and production rate for the persons with aphasia, but not for the reference group. Scores on real-word spelling tests cannot predict spelling in free texts for PWA. Editing of writing is time-consuming and problematic for PWA and is worthy of specific focus within assessment and therapy for writing difficulty.
... Studies of the writing process have increasingly taken advantage of keystroke logging technologies (Baaijen, Galbraith, & de Glopper, 2012;Leijten & Van Waes, 2013;Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006;Sullivan & Lindgren, 2006;Wengelin, 2006). These studies confirm and extend some of the results from cognitive research on writing noted above, finding that stronger writers have shorter latencies during typing, pause to plan at linguistically predictable locations, and engage in more deliberate editing and revision. ...
This study compared gender groups on the processes used in writing essays in an online assessment. Middle‐school students from four grades responded to essays in two persuasive subgenres, argumentation and policy recommendation. Writing processes were inferred from four indicators extracted from students’ keystroke logs. In comparison to males, on average females not only obtained higher essay scores but differed from males in their writing processes. Females entered text more fluently, engaged in more macro and local editing, and showed less need to pause at locations associated with planning (e.g., between bursts of text, at sentence boundaries). That these differences were detected after controlling for essay scores suggests that they cannot be attributed solely to disparities in group writing skill.
... A burst is a period of handwriting activity between two consecutive pauses in which at least one word is written (Alves, Castro, Sousa, & Strömqvist, 2007;Alves & Limpo, 2015). A pause is an interruption of handwriting typically lasting more than 2 s (Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006). Still, depending on researchers' focus, pause thresholds can vary widely (Wengelin, 2006). ...
... Although EyeWrite allows researchers to accurately match fixations to words in the text, it was developed for an experimental text editor with limited functions. Wengelin and colleagues (2009) developed the functionality to connect and synchronize keystroke logging data from Scriptlog (Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006) with data from the Polhemus head tracker and the SMI IView X eye tracking program. They developed Timeline to provide a graphical representation of the reading and writing behavior. ...
This study aims to explore the process of reading during writing. More specifically, it investigates whether a combination of keystroke logging data and eye tracking data yields a better understanding of cognitive processes underlying fluent and nonfluent text production. First, a technical procedure describes how writing process data from the keystroke logging program Inputlog are merged with reading process data from the Tobii TX300 eye tracker. Next, a theoretical schema on reading during writing is presented, which served as a basis for the observation context we created for our experiment. This schema was tested by observing 24 university students in professional communication (skilled writers) who typed short sentences that were manipulated to elicit fluent or nonfluent writing. The experimental sentences were organized into four different conditions, aiming at (a) fluent writing, (b) reflection about correct spelling of homophone verbs, (c) local revision, and (d) global revision. Results showed that it is possible to manipulate degrees of nonfluent writing in terms of time on task and percentage of nonfluent key transitions. However, reading behavior was affected only for the conditions that explicitly required revision. This suggests that nonfluent writing does not always affect the reading behavior, supporting the parallel and cascading processing hypothesis.
... These cognitive processes at work during written language production can be further explored by studying the temporal characteristics of language production. Since the availability of video recording (Foulin 1993) and subsequently digital recording (with, for example, softwares recording keyboard activity, Strömqvist et al. 2006;Leijten & van Waes 2013;van Waes et al. 2012; or software for recording handwriting activity on digitizing tablets, Chesnet & Alamargot 2005;Alamargot et al. 2006), researchers have access not only to the order in which writing activities occur but also to the precise timing of these activities (e.g. writing rates, pause durations) as well as eye movements occurring during writing (Alamargot et al. 2007;Torrance et al. 2015). ...
A crucial way of revealing cognitive process at work during language use is by studying the temporal characteristics of language production. During written text production, the writer engages in many cognitive processes, such as planning, translating or reviewing (Hayes & Flower 1980). S/He has to write sentences and clauses which are linked, in order to constitute a coherent discourse. In our study, thirty undergraduate French students were asked to continue a fictive story. The text was written on a graphic tablet, connected to a computer. The Eye&Pen software (Chesnet & Alamargot 2005) was used to provide chronometric measures, such as the initial pause of each word. We hypothesized that the clause initial pause would depend on the degree of dependence between clauses: the more dependent the clause is, the shorter the initial pause would be. Results corroborate this hypothesis: the initial pause duration is affected by the clause type, suggesting that subordinated clauses start to be planned at the beginning of the matrix clause. A similar result was obtained when the clause required planning at the semantic level: pauses are shorter before restrictive relatives than before explicatives. We argue that the long pauses at the beginning of sentences can be explained by the planning of several dependent clauses.
... While pauses usually refer to inactivity (or non-scribal periods) during writing, there does not exist an objectively defined pause threshold in the literature (Chenu, et al., 2014;Wengelin, 2002Wengelin, , 2007. The most commonly used pause thresholds in adult writing (both handwriting and typing) are 1 and 2 s (e.g., Alves et al., 2008;Levy & Ransdell, 1995;Schilperoord, 2002;Severinson-Eklundh & Kollberg, 1996;Strömqvist, Holmqvist, Johansson, Karlsson, & Wengelin, 2006). On the other hand, some researchers have proposed using much lower pause thresholds (e.g., 250 ms in the handwriting study by Olive & Kellogg, 2002), 300 ms (Lacruz, Denkowski, & Lavie, 2014;typing), or 500 ms (Chukharev-Hudilainen, 2014; typing), while some researchers did not use any thresholds (e.g., Maggio, Lété, Chenu, Jisa, & Fayol, 2012;handwriting). ...
Much previous research has conceptualized pauses during writing as indicators of the engagement of higher-level cognitive processes. In the present study 101 university students composed narrative or argumentative essays, while their key logging was recorded. We investigated the relation between pauses within three time intervals (300–999, 1000–1999, and >2000 ms), at different text boundaries (i.e., between words, sentences, and paragraphs), genre (i.e., narrative vs. argumentative), and transcription fluency (i.e., typing speed). Moreover, we investigated the relation between pauses and various lexical characteristics of essays (e.g., word frequency, sentence length) controlling for transcription fluency and genre. In addition to replicating a number of previously reported pause effects in composition, we also show that pauses are related to various aspects of writing, regardless of transcription fluency and genre. Critically our results show that the majority of pause effects in written composition are modulated by pause location. For example, increased pause rates at word boundaries predicted word frequency, while pause rates at sentence boundaries predicted sentence length, suggesting different levels of processing at these text boundaries. Lastly, we report some inconsistencies when using various definitions of pauses. We discuss potential mechanisms underlying effects of pauses at different text boundaries on writing.
... For example, the use of keystroke logging tools in the domain of cognitive writing research has created new possibilities by providing detailed information about the writing process that was not accessible previously. Particularly, key-loggers are utilised in studies on writing processes, description of writing strategies, children writing development, writing and spelling difficulties analysis [4] [5] [6]. Inputlog is an example of such logging tool [7]. ...
As we become increasingly dependent on our computers and spending a major part of our day interacting with these machines, it is becoming important for lifeloggers and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) researchers to capture this aspect of our life. In this paper, we present LoggerMan, a comprehensive logging tool to capture many aspects of our computer usage. It also comes with reporting capabilities to give insights to the data owner about his/her computer usage. In this work, we aim to address the current lack of logging software in this domain, which would help us, and other researchers, to build datasets for HCI experiments and also to better understand computer usage patterns. Our tool is published online (http:// loggerman. org/ ) to be used freely by the community.
... The answer to the question when and why one invents or discovers paragraphs may be answered through keystroke logging and eye-tracking research (see e.g. Stromqvist, Johansson, Karlsson and Wengelin, 2006). If we can trace how we type, and what our eyes are looking at, we may be able to get a better understanding of how we actually make paragraphing decisions. ...
The pedagogical implications of recent research into paragraphing have rarely been considered by the TESOL community. This paper begins by providing a state-of-the-art research-based overview of the paragraph and paragraphing from language, learner, teacher, reader and writer perspectives. Following this, a questionnaire-based investigation into Omani teacher beliefs about paragraphing and pedagogical practice is reported, and these self-reported data are considered in the light of the relevant research, and similarities and differences are noted. In addition, teacher writing and beliefs are examined and a summary of interview data with teachers about belief-praxis tensions is provided. It is suggested that researching teacher beliefs and reflecting on areas of tension between prescriptivism and descriptivism is a necessary step in considering how paragraphing pedagogy might be updated.
... JEdit and Trace-it (Eklundh 1992(Eklundh , 1994Eklundh and Kollberg 2003) were designed for Macintosh computers and both have their own word processors, which are quite limited. ScriptLog (Stromqvist et al. 2006) is a key stroke logger for Windows, but it too has a limited word processor, and it is usually used in research on young learners' writing development. The software includes an extra module for tracking eye-movements. ...
Numerous studies maintain that classroom interactions may facilitate language development because they can increase language awareness – particularly noticing. However, how the teacher-learner (expert-novice) and peer-peer interactions affect language awareness in writing requires further research. This article investigated how stimulated recall induced peer-peer and expert-novice interactions during the replay of the participants' writing process using InputLog affected the number of surface and non-surface changes made either during (noticing) or after (revision) the stimulated recall session (SRS). Thirty-six student English teachers wrote different argumentative essays and recorded the writing process. Next, they participated in SRSs while watching the replay of their writing process, three times with a peer (twice as practice) and once with an expert. Revisions were made during and after the SRSs. The greatest number of enhancement occurred in the expert-novice SRS. However, no significant difference was found in the number of surface changes in these sessions.
... Some material activities of handwriting, however, leave directly accessible, manifest traces in manuscripts, which offers insights into the material activity of long past writing processes. In in-situ approaches, these material activities can be captured in real-time, using video recording (e.g., Van Waes and Mangen 2012) or keystroke logging (e.g., Flinn 1987;Van Waes and Van Herreweghe 1995;Spelman Miller 2006a;Strömqvist et al. 2006). Social aspects of writing, however, such as balancing workflows and editorial quality discourse in organizations, call for methods such as network analyses or dynamic modeling that capture the complexity of writing on macro levels too. ...
This article discusses the application of keystroke logging techniques to research in second language (L2) writing. Keystroke logging provides an unobtrusive and detailed method for capturing the writing process. In this paper, we provide an introduction to keystroke logging as a research tool and an overview of its applications in writing research. In particular, we focus on the cognitive approach to writing process research with keystroke logging and discuss the alignment of keystroke features with specific cognitive processes in writing. We also analyze recent research efforts that apply keystroke logging to writing instruction and assessment. Lastly, we provide guidance for getting started with keystroke logging research using two examples: Inputlog, a laboratory-based keystroke logging software program, and a demonstration of FlexKeyLogger, a
web-based application for keystroke logging in online settings. We also present an illustrative case study demonstrating how keystroke logging tools can be used in writing research.
本研究基于一个中学同等学力测验，考察了教育高危群体在写作过程上的性 别差异。研究涉及了来自美国23个州的合计三万多考生，每一考生均参与了 该语言测验的12副本考卷中的一个。研究借助键盘记录中抽取出的特征推断 背后的写作过程，并将之整合为7个过程指标。研究结果发现女性被试的作文 得分和语言测验总分均领先于男性，但领先程度很微弱。更重要的是，当控 制了语言测验总分、年龄和作文题目后，全部7个过程指标均显示出显著的性 别差异，其中，最突出的指标是流畅性和编辑性的不同方面。当前研究结果 在许多重要方面与先前一些对在校生和成人的研究结果相一致，也与在线和 纸笔写作任务的研究结果相吻合。关于对使用字符类语言(如汉语) 进行写作 的个体如何开展类似研究，文章结尾给出了一些建议。
The study of pausological behavior in L2 writing has been a matter of interest in recent years (see Lindgren &
Sullivan, 2019), leading to a number of empirical studies which have explored pausing behavior from different
angles. Among the many elements of pausological behavior, the pause threshold has aroused controversy in recent
years (Alves et al., 2008) given its role in helping to discern lower-level and higher-level cognitive processes
associated with L2 writing. While the research intent has focused recently on observing how pausological behavior
varies according to the pause thresholds in adult L2 writers (Medimorec & Risko, 2017), this element of writing
has not been examined in children L2 writers. For that purpose, this study analyzes pausological behavior and
transcription fluency based on a picture-based story task by children L2 writers. Results indicate that pauses at
word boundaries were more frequent than at sentence or paragraph boundaries. Likewise, the text boundary effect
was not fully replicated, contrary to what studies in adult L2 writers have shown (see Wengelin, 2007)
Introduction
A two-second threshold has been typically used when analyzing the writing processes. However, there is only a weak empirical basis to claim that specific average numbers and durations of pauses may be associated with specific writing processes. We focused on handwriting execution pauses, because immature writers are known to struggle with transcription skills. We aimed to provide an evidence-based account of the average number and duration of handwriting pauses in the mid-Primary grades and to identify process-level markers of writing difficulties.
Methods
Eighty 3rd and 5th graders, with and without writing difficulties, participated in the study. We examined pauses in a handwriting-only task, to be able to isolate those which could only be attributed to handwriting processes. Letter features were considered, as well as children’s handwriting fluency level.
Results
The average duration of handwriting pauses was around 400ms, in line with assumptions that transcription pauses would fall under the 2,000ms threshold. We found that 3rd graders made more and longer pauses than 5th graders. Struggling writers made a similar number of pauses across grades than typically-developing children, although they were significantly longer, even after controlling for the effect of handwriting fluency.
Discussion
Our findings provide an evidence-based account of the duration of handwriting pauses. They also suggest that children need fewer and shorter handwriting pauses as they progress in automatizing transcription. However, some young writers struggle with letter formation even after 3 to 5 years of instruction.
This chapter is a sketch towards a general model of the language production process in different modalities, with special reference to the dynamic interaction between language and thought. The model, it is argued, must take the temporal, social and cognitive organization of the language production process into account.Special attention is given the external representation and its affordances, that is, what the spoken or written representation offers the speaker or writer to do. For the purpose of demonstration, three different situations of language production are subjected to contrastive analysis: a predominantly monological discourse in a spoken and a written condition derived from a narrative task; a genuinely dialogical spontaneous spoken discourse; and the writing of a poem.Further, the paper proposes a partly new conceptual approach: that of seeing language production basically as a process of drafting – in writing as well as in speech. In effect, text-writing can be said typically to be a solitary drafting process where revisiting and reinterpreting one’s own previous discourse is essential to developing the text, whereas spoken conversation is typically a joint drafting process where attention to one’s co-speaker’s reactions is essential to developing the discourse.KeywordsLanguage productionSpeakingWritingDraftingAffordancesLanguage and thought
Investigating real-life writing processes of journalists at their workplaces requires combining newsroom ethnography with linguistic analysis. But how to combine research frameworks and methods? In this paper, we start with the methodological requirements of researching real-life writing processes. We then outline a typology of state-of-the-art methods in writing research : version analysis for tracking intertextual chains, progression analysis for identifying writing strategies, variation analysis for revealing audience design and meta-discourse analysis for investigating language policy making. Finally, we explain challenges of combining such perspectives and methods in research projects.
We evaluate how higher- vs. lower-scoring middle-school students differ in their composition processes when writing persuasive essays from source materials. We examined differences on four individual process features–time taken before beginning to write, typing speed, total time spent, and number of words started. Next, we examined differences for four aggregated process measures: fluency, local editing, macro editing, and interstitial pausing (suspending text entry at locations associated with planning). Results showed that higher vs. lower scoring students were most consistently differentiated by total time, number of words started, and fluency. These differences persisted across two persuasive subgenres and two proficiency criteria, essay score and English language arts total-test score. The study’s findings give a more complete picture of how the processes employed by more- and less-successful students differ, which contributes to cognitive writing theory and may have eventual implications for education policy and instructional practice.
It is established that transcription skills (handwriting and spelling) constrain children’s writing. Yet, little is known about the mechanism underlying this relationship. This study examined the mediating role of bursts and pauses on the link between transcription skills and writing fluency or text quality. For that, 174 second graders did the alphabet task and wrote a story using HandSpy. Path analyses indicated that writing fluency and text quality models were excellent descriptions of the data, with 80% and 46% of explained variance, respectively. Results showed that handwriting and spelling influenced writing fluency only indirectly via burst length and short pauses duration (full mediation); and that whereas only handwriting contributed to text quality directly, both handwriting and spelling contributed to text quality indirectly, via burst length (partial mediation). These findings suggest that better transcription skills allow students to write more words without pausing, which in turn results in more fluent and better writing.
This article aims at exploring how writers rebuild an image of their own text while they produce it. This is a phenomenon whose analysis involves several fields of investigation but has been studied little even though it is part of the dynamics of writing. For this study, we built an experiment with two recall tests. It appeared that the reconstruction process, that we call “resémantisation”, can use different ways. We notice in particular the use of two different strategies, one focused on sketching, the other on language components memory. We also observed how the image that the writers built of their own texts changes over time.
In this paper we use keystroke logging to examine the development of fluency and revision in high school L1 Swedish and L2 English writing. Each writer wrote one text in English and one in Swedish in each year of the study. Using a combination of statistical and automatic analyses of the keystroke log, we attempted to investigate: i) how the on-line writing process in terms of revising, pausing and fluency in first and second language writing changes over time, ii) whether there are on-line writing process variables which can be identified as contributing to text improvement, and iii) whether there are any aspects of L1 writing which can be identified as contributing to L2 writing and learning processes and which may form part of a teaching programme. Previous studies of L2 writers have attested to changes in fluency, pause and revision behaviour, and amount of text produced, although associations with the quality of the final output are not clearly supported. The within-writer comparison of this study addresses differences in fluency, pause and revision behaviour between L1 and L2 writing. A regression analysis looking at quality and two types of revision (Form, and Conceptual) found that form revision frequency was related to the language of writing and that conceptual revision frequency was dependent on linguistic experience rather than on language. The findings suggest that conceptual revision and writing skills are transferred from the L1 to the L2, and that these skills should be taught accordingly.
Plusieurs méthodes pour analyser le processus d’écriture ont été utilisés afin de comprendre les stratégies des scripteurs. L’outil principal pour analyser le processus d’écriture est le fichier log, qui contient de façon exhaustive et détaillée l’ensemble des opérations effectuées par le scripteur lors de la rédaction d’un texte. Les données qui y sont emmagasinées sont de quantité considérable et lorsqu’elles ne sont pas préalablement traitées, elles sont hostiles à être analysées par l’humain. Parmi les outils d’analyse utilisés, les représentations du processus d’écriture permettent l’agrégation des données grâce à un pré-traitement. Les structures sous-jacentes des données ainsi représentées sont généralement plus propices à l’analyse que les données brutes. Cet article vise à démontrer différentes méthodes d’analyse automatique pouvant être appliquées à ces structures afin de trouver ou confirmer des structures et tendances à travers les données.
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