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Archives of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Biotechnology Journa
Volume 2 Issue 2 June 2022 ISSN: 2971_611X
APSBJournal
199
PHARMACOGNOSTIC STUDIES AND PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL
SCREENING OF LEAF OF MAYTENUS SENEGALENSIS (LAM.) EXELL
CELASTRACCEAE
Ahmed MA*, Garba I1, Abubakar A2, Abdullahi AM 3, Yusha’u HM1
1Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Kaduna State University, Kaduna
2Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Kaduna.
3Department of Science laboratory technology, Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic, Zaria, Kaduna,
Nigeria. For correspondence: murjanatu.ahmed@kasu.edu.ng, +234-8037651813
ABSTRACT
Aim: The aim of the study was to evaluate the pharamacognostic parameters for the plant M.
senegalensis, to ensure its purity, quality and safety.
Place and duration of study: this study was conducted in the Department of Pharmacognosy and
Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. From
August to December 2021.
Methodology: Whole powdered leaves and methanolic extract were used. Pharmacognostic
standards were determined according to the guidelines given by the World Health Organization
(WHO). Parameters determined are macroscopic and microscopic characters (quantitative and
qualitative), physicochemical parameters as well as preliminary phytochemical tests.
Results: Macroscopically the leaves of M. senegalensis are alternately arranged with glabrous
surface, serrated margin, and a characteristic taste and odor. Microspically, the leaves have stomata
that is anomocytic type on both upper (SN= 80.50-70.00-59.50, SI= 10.81-12.72-14.63) and lower
epidermis (SN= 101.78-88.50-75.23, SI= 10.65-12.53-14.41), the epidermal cells were polygonal
in shape and trichomes were absent. The vein islet number was determined to be 23.46-20.40-
17.34 and the vein let termination number was 17.94-15.60-13.26. Transverse sections of the
leaves revealed a dorsiventral type having a singled layered epidermis, palisade cell beneath the
upper epidermis, with some vascular bundles at the center covered by a bundle carp, and some
spongy mesophyll. Chemo-microscopical study revealed the presence of cellulose cell wall,
lignified fibers, starch grains, calcium oxalates, fixed oil and fats. Other determinations include:
moisture content (9.33 % w/w ± 0.01), total ash (7.83.00 % w/w ± 0.004) acid-insoluble ash
(01.67% w/w ± 0.01), alcohol-soluble extractive values (12.00% w/w ± 0.10), and water-soluble
extractive values (13.25%w/w ± 0.04). Preliminary phytochemical screening of the methanolic
leave extract reveals the presence alkaloids, saponins, tannins, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides,
carbohydrates and flavonoids.
Conclusion: The drug can be stored in powdered form for a long time without worrying about its
purity based on the moisture content value obtained. The high digestibility of the plant when eaten
is indicated by the low total ash and acid-insoluble ash values obtained (i.e can be safely eaten).
The drug may be very significant in the development of phytomedicines, according to the results
of the phytochemical screening.
Key words: macroscopic, microscopic, physicochemical, phyto-chemical
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Volume 2 Issue 2 June 2022 ISSN: 2971_611X
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INTRODUCTION
All medicines, be it synthetic or of plant
origin, should fulfill the basic requirement of
being safe, and effective [22]. Due to cultural
and historical factors, dependency on
medicinal plants has become a topic of global
importance in both the developing and
developed countries [7]. In most countries,
herbal products are launched into the market
without proper scientific evaluation;
consumers can buy herbal products without a
prescription and might not recognize the
danger in an inferior product [13]. The major
source of herbs for local people and herbal
industries is wild source, adulteration is
mostly found in the raw materials when
purchased from the market [9]. There is also
report that the herbal industries and local
residents face the problems of adulteration
and substitution at a raw material stage [2].
The first step towards the identification of
crude medicinal plant is authentication, and
despite modern techniques, pharmacognostic
identification of plant drugs is more reliable.
Pharmacognostic studies ensure plant
identity hence its authentication, there by
leading to the production of quality herbal
products [14].
The Celastraceae family comprises
approximately 106 genera and 1300 species
that are widely distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world [18]. Most
members of the family are shrub to small
trees, although members of some genera such
as Bhesa, Koona, and Lapophetalum, reach
up to 50 m high and have buttressed trunk.
Most Celastraceae are erect but members of
some genera such as Celastrus, Euonymus,
Maytenus, etc are scandent [5].
The genus has been reported to contain
various phytoconstituents such as flavonoids,
phenolic glucosides, triterpenes. Pentacyclic
triterpenes- 3-oxofriedelane and 3ß-
hydroxyfriedelane are said to be the
chemotaxonomic marker of the genus.
Compounds isolated from the Maytenus
genus include the ansa macrolide,
maytansine, and related macrolides such as
normaytansine, maytanprine and
maytanbutine [11]. Other isolated
compounds include spermidine alkaloids
(celacinnine and celallocinine) and nicotin
sesquiterpene alkaloids (maytoline and
maytolidine) as well as catechin,
procyanidins and phenoldienone
triterpenoids [10].
In African traditional medicine, root of
Maytenus senegalensis is used in the
treatment of cancer; in Asia it is used as an
insect repellant while the South American
people use it for treating gastro intestinal
disorders. The plant is one of the most
frequently used species [17]. It has a long
history of usage by the ‘Hausa’ community in
traditional medicine and known to exhibit a
wide range of biological activities such as
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial
activities. Literature review shows that a
systemic standardization on the plant is still
inadequate; therefore, this investigation was
carried out to establish pharmacognostic and
phytochemical standards that can be helpful
in identification as well as checking
adulteration which will help in quality
assurance of finished products.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection and Identification of Samples
Leaves were collected from Ahmadu Bello
University dam, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria. It
was identified by taxonomist, Malam Musa
Muhammad of the herbarium section,
Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State.
Voucher Number in the Herbarium.
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Macroscopical Studies of the Leaves
Fresh samples were used for this analysis. All
distinguishable macroscopic features of the
leaves such as shape, color, odor, e.t.c., were
observed, noted and described with
appropriate terms as described in quality
control methods for medicinal plants [21].
Microscopical Studies
Cleared fresh samples of the leaves were
prepared and observed under a compound
microscope under magnification (x100). The
features observed such as stomata, epidermal
cells, e.t.c; were analyzed, drawn and labeled
[6] [21]. Four physical constants were
determined for the leaf. These are: stomatal
number, stomatal index, vein islet number,
vein-let termination number. The
determinations were carried out three times
using surface preparations and cut sections
[22].
Anatomical Studies
Transverse and longitudinal sections of the
leaves were studied. Thin sections were
placed in a test-tube containing 70% chloral
hydrate and boiled for a few minutes until
they become transparent. Cleared sections
were mounted and observed under
microscope, magnification (x100). Features
observed were photographed and labeled.
Chemo-microscopical Studies
Powdered material of the leaves was used for
this study in order to detect the presence of
cell wall material and ergatsic substances.
Test for starch:
A small amount of the cleared leaves powder
was stained with N/50 iodine on a glass slide.
A drop of glycerol was added and the sample
was observed under a compound microscope
(x400). Appearance or absence of blue-black
coloration indicated the presence or absence
of starch grains.
Test for Tannins:
A small quantity of the cleared leaves powder
was mounted in 5% ferric chloride; one drop
of glycerol was then added, the mounted
sample was analyzed under microscope.
Appearance of bluish or greenish-black
coloration indicated the presence of tannins.
Test for Lignin
Cleared small quantity of leaves powder was
placed on slides and a drop of phloroglucinol
was added followed by a drop of conc.
Hydrochloric acid. Appearance of red
coloration indicated the presence of lignin.
Test for Gums and Mucilage
Small quantity of cleared leaves powder was
placed on slides and a drop of ruthenium red
was added. Appearance of pink coloration
indicated the presence of gums and mucilage.
Test for Oils
Small quantity of the cleared leaves powder
was placed on a slide and a drop of Sudan
(IV) reagent was added. Appearance of
pinkish color indicated the presence of oils.
Test for Cellulose
Small quantity of the cleared leaves powder
was placed on a slide and a drop of N/50
iodine was added, followed by a drop of 66%
sulphuric acid. The appearance of bluish or
violet coloration indicated the presence of
cellulose.
Test for Calcium Oxalates and Calcium
Carbonates
Small quantity of the cleared leaves powder
was placed on a slide this was viewed under
microscope and some crystals were observed
which dissolved in sulphuric acid without
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effervescence and later formed some needle-
shaped crystals. Thus, indicating the presence
of calcium oxalates. Calcium carbonate only
dissolves in acetic acid or conc. Hydrochloric
acid.
Determinations of Microscopical Physical
Constants
Stomatal Number
A cleared surface section of the upper and
lower epidermis of the leaf was mounted
using glycerol, this was analyzed under
camera Lucida, the size, type and the
dimension of the stomata and epidermal cells
per square mm was counted (5×). The
stomatal numbers of the section were
calculated using the formula: 15%mean ±
SEM.
Stomatal Index
The stomata and epidermal cells per squared
mm were counted with the aid of camera
lucida and the stomatal index was calculated
as follows:
[Stomatal index =
]
Where S= total number of stomata per mm2,
E= total number of epidermal cells per mm2.
Vein-islet Number
It is the number of vein-islet per square mm
of the leaf surface midway between midrib
and margin.
Thin section of the leaf was cleared and
mounted in dilute glycerol. Vein islet per four
contagious mm2 in the central part of the
lamina of the leaf midway between the mid
rib and margin was analyzed under camera
Lucida and calculated.
Vein let Termination Number
This was also achieved with the aid of camera
Lucida. The portion where veins terminate
are noted, traced and counted.
Determinations of Physicochemical
Constants of the Leaf of Maytenus
senegalensis
Five physical constants were determined for
the plant material. These include: moisture
content; ash value; acid insoluble ash value;
alcohol extractive value and water extractive
value [21]. Three different determinations
were carried out for each of the parameter and
average was taken as shown in the appendix
one. Physico-chemical values obtained were
calculated in terms of air-dried weight
samples of the leaves.
Moisture Content
It is the quantity of moisture contained in a
plant material. Moisture content of Maytenus
senegalensis was determined by loss on
drying method. 3.0g of the leaves powder
was accurately weighed and placed in clean,
dried evaporating dish of known weight. Dish
was placed in an oven and heated at a
temperature of 1050C. After 30 mins, the
weight of the drug and the dish was
determined and returned to oven. The weight
was taken subsequently after every 30 mins
until the weights become constant. The
weight of water loss on drying was computed
following the formula below:
% Moisture content =
Total Ash Value
Total ash is the ash remaining after ignition
of medicinal plant materials. Powdered plant
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material (2.0g) was accurately weighed and
placed in a crucible of known weight. The
material was in an even layer and ignited and
the heat was gradually increased until it is
carbon white. It was allowed to cool in a
desiccator and weighed. The ash was again
heated and weighed. The heating and
weighing continue until a constant weighed is
obtained. The ash value was then calculated
using the formula below:
Acid-insoluble Ash Value
This is the residue that remains after boiling
the total ash with dilute hydrochloric acid,
and igniting the remaining insoluble matter.
Conc. Hydrochloric acid (25ml) was added to
the crucible containing the ash; it was then
covered with a watch-glass and gently boiled
for 5 mins. The watch glass was rinsed with
a 5ml of hot water, which was added to the
crucible. It was filtered with ash less filter-
paper; the filter paper and the filtrate are
placed back into the crucible, dried on a hot
plate and ignited to constant weight. The
residue was allowed to cool in desiccator for
30 mins, and then weighed without delay.
The acid-insoluble ash value was then
calculated using the formula below:
Alcohol Extractive Value
The powdered plant material (4.0g) was
accurately weighed in a conical flask. It was
macerated with 100ml of 95% ethanol for 6
hours, shaken frequently with mechanical
shaker and later allowed to stand for 18
hours. It was filtered and 25ml of the filtrate
was transferred into an evaporating dish of
known weight and evaporated to dryness on
a water bath. Dried at 1050C for 6 hrs and
weighed after it was cool. The alcohol
extractive value was calculated using the
following formula:
Water Soluble Extractive Value
The procedure for water soluble extractive
value is the same with that of alcohol soluble
extractive value. The solvent for extraction
here is water.
Extraction of the Powdered Leaf of M.
senegalensis
The leaves powder (300g) was extracted with
aqueous methanol (70:30 v/v) using
maceration method for 96 hours. The extract
was concentrated using water bath at the
temperature of 450C.
Phytochemical Analysis on Methanolic
Extract of Leaf of M. Senegalensis
Phytochemical Analysis was carried out
using leaf’s extract to detect the presence of
various phytoconstituents such as alkaloid,
saponins, tannins, anthraquinones,
glycosides, carbohydrate, and flavonoids
according [6].
Test for Alkaloids
About 0.5g of each extract was stirred with
5ml of 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid on a
water bath; 1ml of the filtrate was treated
with a few drops of Mayer’s reagent and a
second 1ml portion was treated with
Dragendorff’s reagent. Turbidity or
precipitate with either of these reagents may
be due to the presence of alkaloids in the
extracts.
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Test for Saponins
The extract (0.5g) was shaken with water in
a test tube followed by warming on a water
bath. Frothing which persists on warming
was taken as preliminary evidence for the
presence of Saponins.
Test for Tannins
Ferric Chloride Test
The extract (0.5g) was stirred with 10 ml of
distilled water and then filtered. Few drops of
1% ferric chloride solution were added to 2
ml of the filtrate. Occurrence of a blue-black,
green or blue-green precipitate indicates the
presence of tannins.
Bromine Water Test
Few drops of bromine water was added to the
extract in test tube, formation of a buff
colored precipitate indicates the presence of
condensed tannins while none color reaction
indicates the presence of hydrolysable
tannins.
Test for Anthraquinones
To the plant extract (5g) in the test tube, 10ml
of benzene was added and was shaken for 5
minutes. The extract was then filtered and
shaken with 5ml of 10% ammonia solution.
Formation of a bright color in the upper part
of the aqueous layer indicates the presence of
free anthraquinones.
Test for Cardiac Glycosides
Keller-Keliani Test
Small quantities of the extract (0.5g) was
dissolved in 2ml of glacial acetic acid
containing a drop of ferric chloride solution;
1ml of conc. Sulphuric acid was carefully
added to form a lower layer. A brown ring
formed at the interface indicates the presence
of desoxy sugar. A violet ring may appear
below the brown ring while in the acetic acid
layer a greenish ring may form just above the
brown ring and gradually spread throughout
this layer, indicates the presence of
cardenolides.
Salkowski’s Test
Five milliliter of extracts each were mixed in
2 ml of chloroform and filtered. Concentrated
sulphuric acid (3ml) was carefully added to
the filtrate to form a layer. A reddish-brown
coloration at the interface indicates presence
of steroids/Terpenes.
Test for Carbohydrate
Molisch Test
The plant extract (0.5g) was dissolved in
distilled water in a test tube and filtered. Four
drops of Molisch reagent and 4 drops of conc.
Sulphuric acid were added to the filtrate
without mixing. Appearance of purple ring at
the interface as a result of interaction between
Molisch reagent and 5-
hydroxymethylfurfural produced by
dehydration of saccharides indicates the
presence of carbohydrates.
Fehling’s Test
The plant extract (0.5g) was dissolved in
distilled water in a test tube. The test tube was
then placed on a water bath to heat. Equal
volumes of Fehling's solution A and B were
added drop by drop into the test tube.
Appearance of brick-red precipitation of
cuprous oxide indicates the presence of
carbohydrate.
Test for Flavonoids
Shinoda Test
The plant extract (0.5g) was dissolved in 2ml
of methanol and 4 drops of concentrated
hydrochloric acid was added followed by
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some chips of magnesium metal. Appearance
of orange color indicates flavones, red-
crimson indicates flavonols and pink-
magneta indicates flavonones.
Sodium Hydroxide Test
The plant extract reconstituted was in water
and filtered, (5ml) each was shaken with 10%
sodium hydroxide. A yellow solution which
becomes colorless on addition of dilute
hydrochloric acid indicates the presence of
flavonoids.
RESULTS
Macroscopical Evaluations on the Leaf of
M. senegalensis
Organoleptic properties of Maytenus
senegalensis were assessed. Leaves: The
ovate-shaped leaf is organized alternately.
The lower surface is pale green and the upper
surface is dark green, with a length that varies
from 12.5 to 22 cm. The leaf's surface is
glabrous, with serrated margin, acute
apex and a symmetrical base. Petiolate
attachment and with parallel venation. Leaf
has a characteristic odor and a characteristic
taste (Table 1).
Table 1. Macroscopical Evaluations on the Leaf of M. senegalensis
Evaluative Parameters
Results
Arrangement
Shape
Size
Color
Surface
Margin
Apex
Base
Attachment
Venation
Odor
Taste
Alternate
Ovate
12.5-22cm in length
Pale green (LS), green (US)
Glabrous
Serrate
Acute
Symmetrical
Petiolate
Parallel
Characteristic odor
Characteristic Taste
Microscopical Features of the Leaf of M.
Senegalensis
The surface peel of leaf showed the presence
of stomata and epidermal cells, trichomes are
absent on the epidermal surface. The stomata
are anomocytic type and are present on both
upper and lower epidermis with diameter of
48μ, but it is more frequent on the lower
epidermis. The epidermal cells are straight
walled, polygonal (5 – 6 sided) cells. The
mean values of the stomatal number, stomatal
index, vein islet and vein let termination
numbers are given in table 2 and the
photomicrograph stomata are shown in plate
I and II. The transverse sections of the leaf is
dorsiventral showing single layered upper
and lower epidermis with a layer of compact
elongated palisade cell below the upper
epidermis, an anomocytic type of stoma and
arc shaped vascular bundles that were
surrounded by a bundle carp with some
spongy mesophyll in the lamina (plate III).
The longitudinal sections of the leaf showed
the presence of single layered epidermis and
some collenchymas (plate. IV).
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Table 2: Microscopical Physical Constants of M. Senegalensis
Leaf’s constants Values
Upper epidermis Lower epidermis
Stomatal Number 80.50-70.00-59.50 101.78-88.50-75.23
Stomatal Index 10.81-12.72-14.63 10.65-12.53-14.41
Vein-Islet Number 23.46-20.40-17.34
Vein let Termination Number 17.94-15.60-13.26
*n=5
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Chemo-Microscopical Evaluations of Leaf of M. senegalensis
Crystals of calcium oxalate as well as cellulose, lignin, starch, and protein were found after
chemomicroscopic examination. (Table 3).
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Table 3: Chemo-Microscopical Characters of Leaf of M. senegalensis
Constituents/reagents
Observations
Inference
Cellulose
N/50 iodine + HCl + 66%
H2SO4
Lignin
Starch
N/50 iodine
Protein
Millions reagent
Calcium oxalate crystals
Conc. H2SO4
Hydroquinone
A drop of KOH
Tannins
1 drop of FeCl3
Fixed oil and fat
A drop of sudan IV
Gums and mucilage
Red stains
Violet coloration observed
on outer wall of some cells
and fibers
Some fibers stained pink
Some grains in parenchyma
cells stained blue
No reaction
clustered crystals
dissolved without
effervescence
No reaction
was observed
Green coloration was
observed in some parts of the
parenchyma cells
Red stains were observed in
some parts of the cytoplasm
of the parenchyma cells
Red stains were observed in
some parts of the cell
Cellulose is confirmed to be
present
Lignified fibers are present
Starch grains are present
Protein is absent
Calcium oxalate crystals are
present
Hydroquinones are absent
Tannins are present
Fixed oil and fats are present
Gums and mucilages are
present
Determinations of Physico-chemical Constants of the Powdered Leaf of M. Senegalensis
Moisture content was found to be 9.33% ± 0.01, ash values 7.83 ± 0.00, insoluble ash values 1.67%
± 0.01, alcohol extractive value 12.00% ± 0.01, and water-soluble extractive value 13.25 ± 0.04.
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Table 4: Physico-Chemical Parameters of the Powdered Leaf of M. Senegalensis
Evaluative Parameters
Values %w/w ± SEM Leaves
Moisture Content
Total Ash Value
Acid Insoluble Ash
Alcohol Extractive Value
Water-soluble Extractive Value
09.33 ± 0.01
07.83 ± 0.00
01.67 ± 0.01
12.00 ± 0.10
13.25 ± 0.04
*Each value is a mean of three determinations ± SEM
Phytochemical Analysis on Leaf Methanolic Extracts of M. Senegalensis
Phytochemical screening of methanolic extracts of leaf of the plant showed the presence of
alkaloid, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, carbohydrates, and flavonoids while
anthraquinones were found to be absent. The result is shown in table 5.
Table 5: Result of Preliminary Phytochemical Screening on Leaf Methanolic Extracts of M.
Senegalensis
Phyto-constituents
Tests
Observations
Inference
Alkaloids
Saponins
Tannins
Anthraquinones
Cardiac glycosides
Carbohydrates
Flavonoids
Dragendorff’s reagent
Mayer’s reagent
Frothing test
Ferric chloride test
Bromine water test
Borntrager’s test
Keller-Kiliani test
Salkowski’s test
Lieberman-buchard’s
test
Molisch’s test
Fehling’s solution
Shinoda test
Sodium hydroxide
(Na2OH) test
Orange-red
Precipitate
Cream coloured
Precipitate
Frothing persisted on
warming
Green Precipitate
Buff coloured
precipitate
No reaction
Brown ring at
interface
Reddish brown color
at interface
Color changes from
violet to blue to green
Purple to violet
coloration
Brick red Precipitate
Pink color
Yellow color formed
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Absent
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
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DISCUSSION
The pharmacognostic studies carried out
showed that leaves are with spikes, a feature
that protects the plant from predators. The
plant is commonly referred to as Red spike
thorn which is attributed to the presence of
these spikes and can be a distinguishing
feature of the plant. Some organoleptic
features of the leaves were reported to be
petiolate, alternate or fascicled with pale
green lamina features that were similarly
observed in this research [4]. The presence of
anomocytic-type stomata, which are more
frequent on the lower surface of the plant as
observed in this research, can be used as a
character of identification. Dorsiventral
leaves are a characteristic of dicotyledonous
plants therefore, can be used as an
identification tool. In the present study,
prisms of calcium oxalate crystals were
found either scattered or clustered in
parenchymatous and epidermal cells in the
leaves. Calcium oxalate crystals in higher
plants are most common in form of minerals
and are usually formed from environmentally
derived calcium and biologically synthesized
oxalates and are deposited inside intra-
vacuolar membrane chambers of specialized
cells in any organ or tissue [16] [20]. It was
reported that differentiation of cell into a
crystal idioblast is surely under genetic
control [8]. Therefore, the shape of the
crystals may also be governed genetically.
Functions of calcium oxalates can be related
to ionic balance and osmo regulation, storing
form of calcium oxalates, mechanical support
and protection against foraging animals [12].
Chemomicroscopical features are unique to a
particular plant and are employed in
standardization. Allied substances when
mixed with original drugs as adulterants can
only be detected by chemomicroscopical
analysis. Leaves physical parameters
determined in quantitative microscopy are
relatively constants for plants and can be used
in distinguishing members of closely related
species. The result of the moisture content of
the leaves was determined to be 9.33%.
Moisture of the leaves is not high, meaning
less chance of microbial growth. The general
requirement of moisture content in crude
drugs should not exceed 14% [1], at this
value of moisture content, drugs can be
stored for a long period of time without fear
of microbial degradation. Total ash
determined for the leaves was 7.83%, this
result implies that both the leaves have low
content of organic and inorganic matter. The
accepted range of total ash is 22% [3], this
signifies that total ash for leaves is within the
accepted limit. This parameter is particularly
important in determination of purity of crude
drugs. The result of acid insoluble ash values
for the leaves was 1.67%, this result is also
within the range of the accepted limit of the
acid insoluble ash value. Total ash
determines presence or absence of foreign
organic matter [15]. The alcohol and water
soluble extractive values determined for
leaves were 12% and 13.25% respectively,
alcohol and water soluble extractive values
suggest total solvent soluble phytochemical
constituents [19]. Therefore, from the result,
the leaves have high water soluble extractive
value, meaning water may be a better
extractive solvent for the leaves of Maytenus
senegalensis. Quantitative evaluation as an
important parameter in setting standard for
crude drugs [6].
CONCLUSION
Standardization is essential measure for
quality, purity and identification.
Macromorphology and microscopy along
with the quantitative analytical microscopy is
one of the simplest and cheapest methods to
start with for establishing the correct identity
of the source materials. Physiochemical and
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chemical analysis of the leaves confirm the
quality and purity of plant and its
identification. This work can be used as a
guide to identifying and differentiating M.
senegalensis from the members of its family.
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