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AN EXAMINATION OF GENDER INEQUALITY AND POVERTY REDUCTION IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

Authors:

Abstract

Poverty is a global phenomenon and a fulcrum of sustainable development agenda that has attracted attention of scholars in attempt to reduce it. The Nigeria's position on the global poverty index is at the worrisome level, as against numerous fiscal commitments to various poverty reduction programs and available resources. The paper, through egalitarian theory and qualitative method, identified gender inequality arising from feminization of poverty, socio-cultural stereotype of women's roles and poor legislation on women representation as core threat to poverty reduction efforts in Nigeria, using Ogun State as case study. It recommends advocacy for girl-child education, employment of more women to high paid income in formal sectors and implementation of 35% active positions for women in government as panacea to poverty reduction.
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AN EXAMINATION OF GENDER INEQUALITY AND POVERTY REDUCTION
IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Abdullahi Abiodun Oyekanmi and Ahmed Olawale Moliki
Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Poverty is a global phenomenon and a fulcrum of sustainable development agenda that has attracted attention of scholars in
attempt to reduce it. The Nigeria’s position on the global poverty index is at the worrisome level, as against numerous fiscal
commitments to various poverty reduction programs and available resources. The paper, through egalitarian theory and
qualitative method, identified gender inequality arising from feminization of poverty, socio-cultural stereotype of women’s
roles and poor legislation on women representation as core threat to poverty reduction efforts in Nigeria, using Ogun State as
case study. It recommends advocacy for girl-child education, employment of more women to high paid income in formal sectors
and implementation of 35% active positions for women in government as panacea to poverty reduction.
Keywords: Feminization, formal sector, gender equality, poverty reduction, poverty
Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 23, No.1, 2021)
ISSN: 1520-5509
Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania
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INTRODUCTION
Equality, fairness and justice are strong ethos of democracy, a political firmament with which majority of countries struggle to
associate with. It has been observed that achieving gender equality would remain utopian, if there is no urgent reversal from
the economic deprivation, discrimination and indignation many females have been subjected to over the years. The aged
stereotype of confining the roles of females to the kitchen has limited their economic prosperity, political activism,
representation from other spectrum of opportunities which includes better income. The wholesome of these ugly experiences
of women have stiffened their economic power and impoverished them the more, when compared to the opposite sex. The
experience cum systematic unequalled treatment has great causative reduction in the prosperity of the general population,
whereas the arrays of opportunities for women have been left unharnessed, leading to high poverty rate for all. United Nation
Development Programme (2019) reports that women form the largest population of the poorest gender in the world, having
been conditioned primarily as home manager, producers of food, dispenser of sexual pleasure, shouldering the burden of
agricultural pains and manual labor. Igbuazor (2008) cited in Uchechukwu, Ucheria &Rejoice (2015) noted that girls accounted
for majority of the children out of school in Nigeria and almost two third of women work in informal sectors as unpaid workers
at home or low income earners in other sectors as against the opportunity available for male counterparts. A very few number
of these women are engaged in professional career; elected or either serving in government position of authority as appointees
(Fatile, Akhakpe, Igbokwe-Ibeto& Oteh, 2012; Fodabe, 2017; Olojede, 2019)
Ogu (2014) referring to the prevailing gender inequality and repression of female rights, poverty has remained pervasive with
attendant daily hardship that are difficult to ignore in Nigeria. This was better established by Akamidu’s (2004) exposition that
Nigeria reeks of endemic, misery, destitution and malnutrition. The National Bureau of Statistics (2019) flagged poverty
situation to the high heaven when it declared that the poverty situation in Nigeria is making it difficult for people to eat, shelter
and cloth themselves. Glaringly, these exacerbated effects of poverty in Nigeria and in other places have evoked attention of
not only the Nigeria's government and global institutions; many civil societies and philanthropic individuals have also
intensified efforts towards poverty reduction, through series of programs to make life more abundant. However, practical
evidences abound that efforts to eradicate poverty are not likely to show significant progress if gender inequality persists
through the current Nigeria's socio-economic, cultural and political arrangements. Poverty reduction is contingent on the index
of gender equality achievement. Igbuzor (2008) asserts this opinion when he emphasized that gender inequality intersects with
economic deprivation to magnify the impoverishment of men and women. Significant to note is that, the informal sector is a
major source of employment for women, not excluding Nigeria and Ogun State in particular where women get involved less
in formal sector that has high income. It should be noted that the informal sector in Nigeria is characterized with job insecurity
and low earnings, leading to the exclusion of women from impactful policy (Bridge, 2001; Onah 2016& clabert, 2019).
In essence, the envisioned oasis intended if poverty reduction efforts succeed, rest on the significant number of women that can
be economically empowered, protected from cultural stigmatization and systematic limitation of their innate capacity from
contributing to national development. The dimensions of challenges against poverty reduction and the gains of sustainable
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development cannot be efficiently dealt with, without gender equality (Uchechukwu, Ucheria& Rejoice, 2015). To further stem
the intricate relationship between gender equality and poverty reduction, Kabeer (2013) posits that gender inequality is the
feminization of poverty and that if poverty has to be reduced, equal treatment of all gender must be demonstrated and
domesticated in Nigeria's policy measures. While many research attention has been beamed on the causes of poverty and
copious literature abounds on the concept of gender equality through sustainable development goals, not much has been done
on how equilibrium opportunities to women can accentuate and accelerate reduction of rising poverty in the country. It is in
the need to establish the role of gender equality on the various attempts to reduce poverty and to also interrogate the effects of
women deprivation and restrictions of their capacity on the high rate of poverty in Nigeria, using Ogun State South Western
Nigeria as a case study that this paper was undertaken. The paper is a qualitative insight into the role of gender equality and
Poverty reduction in Ogun State, using egalitarian theory as it expository analysis.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Strategic planning to reduce all the incidence of poverty and its attendance effects has not been factored in the place of even
distribution of resources and development over the years. In furtherance, Macbeth, John & Penkah (2017) argued that there
has not been poverty reduction because gender discrimination persist e has not been poverty reduction because gender
discrimination persist in the allocation of economic opportunities, placing females at a disequilibrium level. In response,
researchers, civil society groups, national and international organizations have exerted efforts on poverty reduction through
gender equality advocacy. It should be noted that since 1998 World Bank has had many strategic plans support for poverty
reduction in at least 15 Africa countries. In contrast, only few African countries paid attention to the fact that the growing
gender inequality is a propensity for high poverty rate. It suffices to say that if poverty would be reduced in Ogun State and in
Nigeria, there is a need for a rethought approach to gender sensitivity.
The women folks have been subjected to artificial inequality, deprivation and various vicious treatments as influenced by socio-
cultural and religious constructs that confer the status of weaker vessels to females from birth. It is observed as aged belief in
the Africa traditional settings that the roles of women are confined into the kitchen, as agent of procreation. Hence, female
children of school ages are preoccupied with cooking, running menial jobs and keeping the home clean. While many of them
are used as laborers on farmlands, against the usual freedom accorded to their male sons who are seen early in life as the
potential head of the family and providers. By this extension, they are allowed to attend schools to be educated and take more
important roles that better their lives. Another manifestation of the problem is rooted in the rural urban migration restrictions
against females. The females are deemed so important for unofficial family work; managing the home and taking care of the
children. The women are not encouraged to migrate to urban areas and other metropolitan locations where job opportunities
and empowerment are available. In contrast, the male are the ones who are found migrating into these areas where industries
and other high income opportunities are available. This is a systematic exclusion of the women from viable opportunities
available in formal sectors with regulated high income and legitimate request for better conditions of living (Jacinta, 2020&
UNDP, 2010).
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The popular Yoruba aphorisms that" Ile Obinrin ki pesu" in technical meaning that women's reproductive days end speedily
,has made early marriage the socio-cultural norm in Nigeria and in Ogun State in particular. The opinion gained prominence,
citing the early biological development of females’ body system and since women are much touted to be instrument of
procreation, the society habitually gets them married at early stage. It has become worrisome that innate energy, creativity and
resourcefulness of the women that could have been useful to creating personal and general prosperity for Nigeria are basically
deployed into raising family and becoming dependent on their husbands (Aboyade, 2017). Another problem is the might of
religion as it concern the Muslim women who are put in seclusion or purdah for chastity and obedience to Islamic law. This
practice is popular in the state of Osun, Oyo State predominantly in Ibadan and Ogun State respectively. The secular nature of
Nigeria politics has not only cut these women out from active socio- political engagements, it is a limitation to their key
involvement in critical economic opportunities and formal employment. In the alternatives, a large number of them are
restricted to informal labour; home trading and heavily dependent. In essence, poverty level rises on when the full potential of
the citizens are not harnessed.
The overall implications of these problems are that poverty reduction efforts by government or civil societies have not yielded
substantial success since gender inequality issues are not well attended to. Glaringly, the ostracized women and the ones who
have had their economic development limited by socio cultural beliefs constitute the largest population in Nigeria. In essence,
the persisting gender inequality is a precursor to growing poverty and general economic doldrums. The emerging global socio
economic reality and the economic shocks of covid-19 have proven that evolving needs of the family and the society have
become burdensome for men to solely shoulder as bread winners. The observed growing syndrome of full housewives is a
challenge to poverty reduction efforts, as more women have become heavily dependent on their husbands and vulnerable to
many socio political economic exclusion.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this study is to examine the extent to which gender equality affects the level of poverty in Ogun State.
The other specific objectives include:
(i) To examine how equitable distribution of resources for all can spread the spectrum of wealth and employment
opportunities in Ogun State.
(ii) To access how even opportunities for all can improve the standard of living in Ogun State
RESEARCH QUESTION
For better clarification, the following research questions guide the conduct of the investigation
(i) Would the equitable distribution of resources for all spread the spectrum of wealth and employment opportunities
in Ogun State?
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(ii) Can even opportunities for all improve the standard of living in Ogun State?
METHODOLOGY
The paper examined the role of gender equality on poverty reduction in Ogun State and sources for the research were drawn
from secondary data using qualitatively approach such as text books, journals, articles and other publications.
CONCEPTUAL DISCUSSION
Gender Equality
Gender equality is a way of assigning same values to male and females in the socio, political, economic and cultural contestation
in ways that such values confer equal life chances and opportunities to all, not minding sexism. This is why Uchechukwu,
Uecheria &Rejoice (2016) posited that gender equality is a reflection of balance treatment by the law and entitlement to same
life opportunities, taking into account the differing biological compositions. It means the society and political structure must
take the peculiar needs of each gender into account while creating a leveler for all to thrive. It means no woman should be
denied a job she is well qualified for just because she is a nursing mother on the excuse that the establishment does not have
child care facility. In contrast, gender inequality is the opposite of gender equality. Gender inequality is socially constructed
practices through societal laws, norms, understanding and unwritten statues that have remained the cogwheel of real
development, putting women at disadvantage in all social, economic and political strata.
Poverty
Poverty is the incapacitating conditions of people wherein they are unable to provide for self basic needs like food, cloths and
shelter. It includes lack of effective ability to participate in critical decisions regarding to self dignity and societal prosperity.
Poverty is not limited to reduction in the purchasing power of people to afford the basic needs of life; it affects the strength and
dignity of such individuals to actively participate in any given activity of the society (Onah, 2006)
Poverty Reduction
Poverty Reduction is a collection of strategic efforts by individuals, government agencies, international institutions and civil
societies as directed towards reducing unbearable indignation conditions of life. It is rooted in multifaceted approach to
removing incidence of poverty through government policies, empowerment and palliative programs. In the area of policy
directives, it could mean granting of tax waiver or reduction of taxes for small businesses and granting of loans to industrialist
who could create jobs for teeming population. One may wonder while attention is on poverty reduction instead of tradition.
The answers exist in the two realities; that the growth level of poverty has become an overarching issues whose global effects
cannot be swiftly expunged and that the gap between the haves and the haves not is a natural phenomenon, its total eradication
is utopian but its reduction is a great possibility as greatly advanced through Sustainable Development Goals (Moliki &
Oyekanmi, 2020; Oyekanmi, Moliki& Dauda, 2019).
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Poverty Feminization
This is a developed concept from the end of the 20th century, focusing on income, assets, time, and health deprivation, socio-
cultural and political exclusion of females. It is a trend that typifies an increasing inequality in the quality of life between men
and women. The reflection of this occurrence is not about lack of income alone, it is prominent in the deprivation of capabilities
and widespread gender sentiments in government and in all societies. Many females live under the poverty line in many parts
of the world; Asia, Africa and some part of Europe where women are deprived of high income and important capabilities
(Goldberg, 2010; Bianchi, 1999)
CAUSES OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN NIGERIA
Causes of gender inequality has proven to be self-reinforcing, interrelated and multifaceted. Some of the factors are discussed
herein:
Socio Cultural Norms and Mindset
Irrespective of formal policies, rising number of gender activists and legal domestication of gender equality by government
and relevant agencies, there has always been pushbacks by the many prevailing social norms and sentimental cultural values.
This is a clear message that the orientation of the society has far reaching impacts on gender inequality on employment, political
representations, healthcare, legal rights and other socially constructed opportunities. A significant example could be drawn
among the Yoruba who have assigned weaker status to females’ children at birth, with their p reference for male child and the
social values attached to having male sons. This patrilineal consideration gives male all the parental attention and other
opportunities like education and technical skills which allow them to sit at the table of decision making, favored for political
positions and high paying income. Ostensibly, these norms have discreet effects on the economic power and social roles of
women, in a society that ascribes greater value to sons over daughters, resulting to poor investments in the education and health
of girls. Somali& Franscesca (2012) were assertive in their claims that social norms and cultural values of society play key
roles in determining opportunities for girls via discriminatory mindsets that in turn place females at the vulnerable conditions.
Early Marriage
Early Marriage for girls limits high educational achievements of females. This does not mean all females who got married early
never had opportunity to continue their education; however the numbers of the lucky ones are insignificant. Wide age difference
between couples is also adduced for many low educational attainment of girls-child (Lloyd & Mensch, 2008). This practice is
rampant in Nigeria, the Northern and Southern part have their own share of blame in this practice. Many of the young girls are
either married out early or put in the family way by fellow teenage boys, leading to high rate of school drop outs. Unfortunately,
the society and the parent stigmatized the girl or turn her to economic vessels as hawkers; the male with whom the act was
committed with is given higher chance to continue with the studies (Ambrus & Field, 2018).
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Unequal Educational Opportunities
Animasahun (2020) notes that the African society and its prevalent archaic belief that female education is a waste constitute a
greater threat to equal capacity building of the girl-child unlike their male counterparts. Undoubtedly, some of the earlier
mentioned interrelated discriminatory issues have contributed to the unbalanced educational access of female child in Ogun
State. Ogundeko (2019) argued that not less than 32% of female students within the ages of 7- 10 years old in Ogun State rural
areas would not complete primary education while he also opined that many of these female children are deterred from
education through child labour. Alimaka (2020), notes that the African society and its prevalent archaic belief that female
education is a waste constitute a greater threat to equal capacity building of the girl-child unlike their male counterparts.
Throughout the world, men have greater access to education than women, with ¼ females between the ages of 15-24 not being
able to complete primary education. According to Soetan (2018), that group make the 58% not completing basic education in
Nigeria and that of the illiterate people in the world, women are the 2/3. The inference here is that when girls do not have the
same educational opportunities, it limits their decision power and other socio-economic advantages and that of the entire
country.
Religious Activities
Religious precepts have assigned some peculiar roles to women and places restrictions on their freedom from venturing into
some activities that are dominated by men. These religious rituals most especially in Islamic societies create encumbrances on
the innate expression of women talents. For instance, the prevalent of women in purdah in the Northern and Western Nigeria
like the State of Osun, Ibadan city in Oyo State and in Ogun State where women dress in Islamic ways, have surely created
certain discrimination for them in the society. Many are inhibited from working in the formal setting with their dresses, as it
could mount fear of Islamization in the minds of the Christian. The fact being raised here is not a conclusion that Islam forbids
freedom for women; it’s a religion that dignifies women more and equally advocates that society should treat them with
courtesy. However, the social interpretation of how the women should dress has placed these restrictions on them (Dauda,
2018)
IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY ON SOCIO- ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
A cursory look at the societies with higher gender equality shows appreciable level of socio-economic improvement of
members. Although, improving gender equality may be viewed as intrinsic values that every modern societies could be proud
of, it also leads to achievement in other development goals in health, education and socio economic prosperity. It is pertinent
to situate clearly within the prism of economy, politics and social harmony that prevailing gender inequality is a further ditch
to the attainment of the aforementioned goals. Gender discrimination is not only inequitable treatment, it reduces economic
performance from all index. There exist a broad correlation between gender inequality and human development, with the low
ranking countries on the Human Development Index (HDI) performing poorly on gender equality measurements than high-
HDI (UNDP, 2019). Wide gap in employment opportunities between women and men is a shortfall on the general Gross
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Domestic Product of the citizens, thereby deepening underdevelopment currently ravaging the third world countries and Nigeria
in specific. Pervading inequality has restricted women to low paying employment opportunities, while many have been
condemned to fulltime housewives by the social constructed values of taking care of the children and managing the home. In
consequence, almost all the financial responsibilities of the family are left for the men to shoulder, even in cases when women
are employed, the income is usually low and it affects the expected contributory values to the economy from women who
constitute higher percentage in total population (Macbeth, eta l. 2017).
Development comprises of human capacity development and available resources and that development begins to suffer when
the human capacity and innate talents of the most populated segment in the society is restricted and underutilized. Adding to
this assertion, real development should be collaborative and cumulative without leaving any segment of the society behind.
Hence, the more the society close up employment gaps between male and females, the better for accelerated development as
asserted by UNDP (Idowu, 2018; Aboyade &Kabeer, 2017).The perverted inequality has restricted women to low paying
employment opportunities, while many have been condemned to fulltime housewives by the socially constructed values of
taking care of the children and managing the home. In consequence, almost all the financial responsibilities of the family are
left for the men to shoulder, even when women are employed, the income is usually low and it affects the expected contributory
values to the economy from women who constitute high percentage in total population. In another perspective, since
development comprises of human capacity development and available resources, development begins to suffer when the human
capacity and innate talents of the most populated segment in the society is restricted and under utilized. In the opinion of Adeojo
(2019), real development should be collaborative and cumulative without leaving any segment of the society behind. Hence,
the more the society close up employment gaps between male and females, the better for accelerated development as asserted
by UNDP.
Educational equality increases female literacy and reduces child mortality and in furtherance, qualifies her to hold political
positions. Herein, advocacy for female schooling improves; it raises female enrollment and higher education opportunities for
females, whereas, if inequality persists, an even educational opportunity for all is a setback. Gender Inequality in education has
negative effects on socio-economic development in Nigeria. Lower fertility rate is also associated with increased educational
opportunities for women, with positive results on growth while gender inequality undermines educational development
(Udochukwu, Eucheria &Joy, 2019) Gender Inequality is crystal to disjointed economic drives and national development.
When development plan is not encompassing, the neglect in one area have ripple effect in other areas.
THEORETICAL UNDERPINING
The paper adopts egalitarian theory to explain gender equality as it deals with development and poverty reduction efforts. The
concept of egalitarianism is widely espoused by many scholars such as Ikedima, Johnson, Tailor& Isaac (Kelly & Kerry 2019).
This theory is useful to accentuate vision that men and women should be treated equally in social, economic and all other
aspects of society, and to not be discriminated against on the basis of their gender, being one of the objectives of the United
Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN, 1948). The premise of egalitarianism is that all men; males and females
are essentially equal. Egalitarianism is assessed via a social periscope on measures to reduce economic inequalities or from
39
political inclinations that advocate for alternatively to ensure equal treatment and rights of diverse groups of people. The theory
stems from philosophical perspective that preaches equality and equal treatment across gender, economic opportunities,
religious practices, and political leanings. From economic view, it emphasized abolition of income inequality and unjust
distribution, the fulcrum ideas that have shaped the growth of many political and economic systems. The notion of
egalitarianism was well advanced for by Karl Marx in his foundation of Marxism and John Locke when he romanticized the
rights of people to own personal property and enjoy self liberty irrespective of their gender (Klinton, 2019). There are various
strands of egalitarianism, extending into various spheres of life; economic, political and socio- cultural values. Gender equality
as it were, presupposes that men and women should be subjected to equal economic, educational and political opportunities
and legal protection. It is undeniable that poverty is on the high rise in Nigeria and in Ogun State in specific. While it is
believed that opportunities have being stiffened against women, which explains why many women have remain politically
disadvantage and economically poor, it suffices to stress that the ensuing inequality has further widen poverty lines among
women and mounted greater challenges for economic development. Hence, egalitarianism as a theory has been advocated as
a leveler against various gender discrimination identified as cog wheel of poverty reduction efforts.
Reflecting on the central themes of the theory, unequal opportunities for all gender remain a strong problem to achieving
poverty reduction, despite the floating of many empowerments and poverty alleviation programmes at the national, state and
local government levels. However, this model of egalitarianism has not reveal an encompassing reality of gender issues behind
the veil. There have been plethora of instances where males have skewed most economic, political and social values to
themselves, leaving the females in disadvantage positions. Female’s representation in Political offices and active participation
in key decisions on which the welfare of the people are decided are said to be at the dwindling level. The theory support
previous work and argued that gender inequality have contributed to the impoverishment of women and reducing the envisioned
development of government.
Conversely, a key gap or lacuna that most works on gender issues and feminization of poverty have not focused on is the need
to investigate how the surging population of females has become a threat to men and opportunities to gainful employment, fair
and equal political contest. One of the key areas to be examined is the emerging trend in unemployment. While it is a consensus
opinion that unemployment is a precursor to poverty, the biological composition, appealing appearances and persuasive
temptation of women are getting them more juicy jobs in high income establishments over men. A look at telecommunication,
entertainment, hospitality business and other corporate organizations and service providers show that many of the jobs available
have been taken over by females, leaving many males out of jobs. The new trend have multiple consequences on the economy
and marital harmony. In political contest, females are always advocating for preferences against other equally aspiring men.
Such is a big question on what equality stands for, after all, both gender are God’s creatures. There is a need to investigate the
reversal of financial responsibility amongst couples. Now that women are getting employed more than men, many husbands
have become helpless in fulfilling financial duties at home, turning the women to bread winners, a situation where men now
stay at home to tender to the children while the wives are away at work. This would create new monster husband, a possible
propensity for marital abuse and high rate of divorce due to the posturing irreconcilable differences among couples.
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GENDER INEQUALITY AND EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND STANDARD OF LIVING IN OGUN
STATE: AN EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Gender Inequality remains a troubling issue within the confines of development agenda and a popular index of measuring
global economic growth, on the reality that the less people are discriminated against, the better to ensuring accelerated
development across all board (Oyekanmi, eta l. 2019; Klassen& Claudia, 2002). While it is agreed that gender issues are both
global and national concerns, the need to take Ogun State as case study was informed by the mixture of its rural -Urban
population and significant boarder line with Lagos State. This characteristics, give it a tapestry of educated population majorly
residing in major cities like Abeokuta, Obafemi Owode, Ado-Odo Ota, Ijebu Ode while the majority of the people with low
literacy achievement reside in the rural suburbs in villages and towns. This variables offer simple comparism to how gender
equality have feared in the state. Abiodun, B. (2020), asserts that women in Ogun State, especially in the rural areas have
continually suffer from socio political and economic exclusions owing to their disequilibrium educational level when compared
to the male counterparts. She emphasized that gender inequality has restricted females to petty trading in household’s items,
reducing their purchasing power and making it difficult to escape the poverty line. Hence , she offered her support to a soft
loan programme taggedOkowo Dapo" an initiative that offer start up loans to women, most especially market woman to
increase their business capital and live above poverty line.
While investigating poverty and unemployment rate in Ogun State. Abegunde, (2019) declared that poverty has become the
flashpoint in Ogun State villages, especially in areas dominated by women and petty traders. He cited that, the females are
excluded from higher educational opportunities available for the male, consequently limiting survival chance from poverty. In
consequence, a great percentage of women suffered from gender discrimination; disadvantaged educational opportunities and
condemned to casual work and peasant farming. The reality herein is that Sustainable growth can only be achieved when it
addresses the core issue of equality and opportunity for females. The need to create equal opportunity for women remain the
fulcrum of Ogun State, most especially through various activities of the Ministry of Women Affairs, given the mandate to;
build a just society devoid of discrimination against women, ensure continuous empowerment and protection of the Rights of
Children; invest in women, men, young and old in a gender responsive manner through participatory approaches for sustainable
development of the State and build a sustainable livelihood for women, promote integration for vulnerable ones and discourage
Gender disparity and all forms of Child abuse( OGSG,2020)
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The research was able to establish close relationship between the prevailing gender inequality and rising level of poverty in
Ogun State. The Perverted uneven treatment of women in economic cultural and political opportunities have been linked to
poverty reduction challenges in the state. Women are the most violated, disempowered and excluded gender in the society.
Through the paper, it was reeled out that women are dislodged from high formal income employment opportunities, as their
socially imposing responsibilities on child bearing, upbringing and home tendering. The foregoing exclusion and unequalled
41
treatment has a telling effects on the educational achievement of the female, the consequence which limits their employment
in key formal sectors with more rewarding income. It was noted that these burdening responsibilities as conferred on the women
are not imposed on male counterparts. Hence, men have unfettered educational opportunities, giving them vantage position in
the nation's economic hub and the ease of escaping poverty lines. The finding asserted that gender inequality against women
furthers the rise of poverty, as many women could not explore their enterprising and industrious values beyond subsistent- rural
economic activities which are not sufficient to live decent life. In summary, the capacity to driving sustainable economy,
improving national wealth and reducing poverty is hampered due to exclusion of women from the table of decision making.
In the same trajectory of poverty reduction efforts and the role of gender equality, the research finds out that gender in equality
have created far reaching uneven distribution of economic opportunities and socio-political, cultural and legal freedom in the
society, leading to the new concept of feminization of poverty. The Perverted strands of injustice and inequality against women
have restricted them to the status of rural dwellers, inhabitants of squalors and shanties with unimaginable indignation. The
men have access to urban and cosmopolitan cities where economic development exists, hence are able to live decent life and
escape extreme poverty as against their female counterparts. Citing Ogun State experience on poverty and inequality, it was
found out women have been frozen out from wider spectrum of opportunities. In few instances where women were empowered
educational and economic wise, they were able to raise the bar and contribute to local and international efforts to reducing
poverty and also improving Nigeria's economic development. The flagship of the paper is that, gender equality efforts would
help to speed up result oriented poverty reduction efforts and that if inequality persists in the dimensions discussed in the paper,
poverty would continue to grow geometrically. It also discovered that wealth would not grow and the global war against
poverty is far from being won if few people as men monopolize and skewed available resources to themselves alone, noting
that female as the most populous gender segment need to play critical role in the development drive and fight against poverty.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Gender equality is a global topical issue and a strong parameter on which nations of the world are categorised on developmental
index. It is a moral persuasion that opportunities such as education, political participation, economic empowerment and other
inalienable rights should be evenly enjoyed by people without special concession to gender leaning. The paper observed that
the prevailing inequalities against women have placed them at disadvantage, the consequence which is the rise in poverty level.
In response to improve the economy of the state and further development, the need for gender equality was emphasized to
retooling poverty eradication and creating a fair, just and developed society. Inequality is tantamount to injustice and
development cannot thrive when the most populous gender is subjected to unfair treatment. Therefore, there is a need for further
study on how the downturn job opportunities for men are turning same men to victims of gender inequality. For instance, when
male and female applies for job in the same establishment, females have recurring chance of getting the job over the male, even
with lesser qualifications with the male, due to feminism attraction (Soetan, 2018)
The research concluded that poverty would continue to rise among women, especially with low literacy level and urban settlers
who are deeply enmeshed in low income jobs if inequality persist in socio political, economic and educational opportunities.
Development of a country is dependent on how fast they are able to reduce gender inequality gaps. This is a prefix that there
42
has been vocal commitment to gender equality in developed countries which explains why they are ranked above developing
countries in Africa where women are subjected to socio cultural and political stereotypes. It is safe to conclude that if
development is to be total and encompassing, bifurcation between sexes is to be discouraged and that if women are allowed
access to opportunities like men, GDP would improve and the economy would be in good standing. The paper also stress that
when adequate attention is given to the girl-child educational initiatives, including adequate monitoring to limit the high
number of drop-outs via teenage pregnancy, early marriage, child labour and increased higher education achievement of
females, many females would escape the poverty line and in furtherance contribute to the economic growth of the country
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS:
Abdullahi Abiodun Oyekanmi, is an Assistant Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Tai Solarin University of
Education, Ogun State Nigeria.
Ahmed Olawale Moliki is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ogun
State, Nigeria
... In the traditional African imaginary, marriage seems to be the proper woman's end goal, she must be meek and humble, not speak when men speak, never challenge his authority, and never look into the eye of her husband or leader because that would be highly disrespectful, be respectful and quiet, never to challenge authorities (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). This is because, more often than not, women are somewhat stateless because they are expected to assume the state of their husbands. ...
... Since time immemorial, the place of women has been and continues to be dictated by men. These women are expected to mind the affairs of the home, be domestic servants who participate in petty trading, agriculture, nutrition, the machinery of child procreation and pleasure, burdened with pains, manual labor, and home management (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). Notably, these are tedious and time-consuming yet with meager incomeearning kinds of labor. ...
... This arguably has been alleviated in our modern era, as the basic foundation of the intrinsic issue of the lack of gender parity . This has further been continuously strengthened and perpetrated by customary doctrines through traditions, unwritten laws, societal laws cultural values, sentiments, and norms (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). ...
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Full-text available
Demographically, more than half of the African population are women. Nevertheless, disparities in allusion to gender lingers at the apex of contemporary issues, especially in Africa. For several decades, women have been longstanding and continuously sidelined from the socioeconomic, cultural, and religious leadership positions and participation. Gender disparities, therefore, seem to be deeply embedded in socioeconomic, cultural, and religious practices in Africa. Despite the multifarious national and international legislations endorsed against gender disparities, there remains a great lacuna of women’s marginalization in governance. The study illuminated the gender disparities with the aid of historical and analytical evaluation as well as the social role theoretical framework. This was further combined with the explanatory and exploratory qualitative research design. This was effective in understanding the numerous drivers for gender disparities as well as the social gender roles and norms, the general exploitative nature of marriage, cultural legacies, politics, and religion in the African context vis a vis western world. This paper also discovered that although women are as intellectually capable as men, ostracism of women remains evident across diverse echelons of human civilization including democratic societies. The research found that some critical factors such as economic impediments, lack of or inadequate education, and religious belief, foster gender disparities in Africa. This research recommended an overhaul of the patriarchal education and curriculum, the analysis and study of religious books must be in accordance with the transformed sociological realities. Moreover, equality must be evidenced in the recruitment process of qualified men and women in governance. The paper concluded that the inflexible and barbaric cultural stereotypes and religious practices be reformed with consideration to gender parity. A standard shift is essential especially by women themselves, to ensure that women are both enlightened and empowered.
... In the traditional African imaginary, marriage seems to be the proper woman's end goal, she must be meek and humble, not speak when men speak, never challenge his authority, and never look into the eye of her husband or leader because that would be highly disrespectful, be respectful and quiet, never to challenge authorities (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). This is because, more often than not, women are somewhat stateless because they are expected to assume the state of their husbands. ...
... Since time immemorial, the place of women has been and continues to be dictated by men. These women are expected to mind the affairs of the home, be domestic servants who participate in petty trading, agriculture, nutrition, the machinery of child procreation and pleasure, burdened with pains, manual labor, and home management (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). Notably, these are tedious and time-consuming yet with meager income-earning kinds of labor. ...
... This arguably has been alleviated in our modern era, as the basic foundation of the intrinsic issue of the lack of gender parity . This has further been continuously strengthened and perpetrated by customary doctrines through traditions, unwritten laws, societal laws cultural values, sentiments, and norms (Oyekanmi and Moliki, 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
Demographically, more than half of the African population are women. Nevertheless, disparities in allusion to gender lingers at the apex of contemporary issues, especially in Africa. For several decades, women have been longstanding and continuously sidelined from the socioeconomic, cultural, and religious leadership positions and participation. Gender disparities, therefore, seem to be deeply embedded in socioeconomic, cultural, and religious practices in Africa. Despite the multifarious national and international legislations endorsed against gender disparities, there remains a great lacuna of women's marginalization in governance. The study illuminated the gender disparities with the aid of historical and analytical evaluation as well as the social role theoretical framework. This was further combined with the explanatory and exploratory qualitative research design. This was effective in understanding the numerous drivers for gender disparities as well as the social gender roles and norms, the general exploitative nature of marriage, cultural legacies, politics, and religion in the African context vis a vis western world. This paper also discovered that although women are as intellectually capable as men, ostracism of women remains evident across diverse echelons of human civilization including democratic societies. The research found that some critical factors such as economic impediments, lack of or inadequate education, and religious belief, foster gender disparities in Africa. This research recommended an overhaul of the patriarchal education and curriculum, the analysis and study of religious books must be in accordance with the transformed sociological realities. Moreover, equality must be evidenced in the recruitment process of qualified men and women in governance. The paper concluded that the inflexible and barbaric cultural stereotypes and religious practices be reformed with consideration to gender parity. A standard shift is essential especially by women themselves, to ensure that women are both enlightened and empowered.
... Recent scholarly works corroborate these findings, identifying these factors as constraints to gender equality in similar development interventions. More scholars have highlighted how social norms pose constraints to gender mainstreaming and contribute to gender inequality in Nigeria [46][47]. Additionally, Obianefo et al. argue that cultural factors have increased women's limited access to land, agricultural inputs, and credit [48]. ...
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Full-text available
This study investigates gender roles in the Groundnut Up-scaling Project (GUP) intervention in Sokoto State, Nigeria, focusing on three rural communities out of five participating local government areas (PLGAs). The main objective is to analyze gender participation in the Groundnut Value Chain (GVC) among households under the USAID-GUP. A multi-stage sampling procedure selected 100 (56 male and 44 female) GVC participants, and 100 (84 male and 16 female) non-participants using the snowball sampling method in the non-participating LGAs (NPLGAs). The objectives were achieved with a descriptive and inferential Chi-square. The findings show that female participants dominate processing activities (72.7%) in the PLGAs, while males dominate production (92.9%). In the NPLGAs, 90.5% of males and 75.0% of females are involved in production. Informal sources are the main credit providers for both PLGAs and NPLGAs. Male participants in both PLGAs and NPLGAs cultivate more of an improved groundnut variety (Samnut – 22), with 64.3% and 70.5% of males and females in PLGAs and 59.5% and 56.3% of males and females in NPLGAs sourcing their land through inheritance. The average mean household income is higher for males (₦892,410.71 and ₦1,008,907.14) compared to females (₦531,386.36 and ₦495,000.00) in both PLGAs and NPLGAs, respectively. Significant differences between male and female categorical variables are observed at different nodes of the GVC in both PLGAs and NPLGAs, including input supply, groundnut production, harvesting, post-harvest handling, marketing, processing, and household chores. In conclusion, the study finds that the USAID-GUP activities, which aimed to promote gender equality, have not fully bridged gender inequalities in all GVC nodes. Gender equity amongst GUP participants has not been fully achieved. The study recommends addressing social and cultural rigidities to enhance gender equity participation in GVC nodes and effectively implement programs.
... Governance in the 21st century has evolved to prioritize popular mandates, democratic values such as justice, peaceful coexistence, and fairness, and the state's responsibility to protect and provide for its citizens (Oyekanmi & Moliki, 2021). Consequently, governments must demonstrate their commitment to national security and legitimacy to maintain power and sustain their democratic systems. ...
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This study investigates the challenges of national security, legitimacy, and democratic sustenance in Nigeria's Fourth Republic, which are critical aspects of governance that affect the stability of democratic countries. Utilizing a desk research method, the paper gathers and contently analyzes secondary materials, including academic journals, case reports, published textbooks, and online sources, employing the failed states theory as the explanatory framework. The research identifies key challenges affecting Nigeria's democratic sustainability, such as inherited colonial security orientation, Boko Haram insurgency, herdsmen clashes, banditry, ethnicity, separatist agitations, underdevelopment, and electoral malpractices. Based on these findings, the paper recommends a comprehensive review of the national security apparatus, emphasizing people's welfare through good governance, public enlightenment on the values of democracy, and the importance of supporting and protecting democratic institutions. This study contributes to understanding the complex interplay between national security, legitimacy, and democratic sustenance in the context of Nigeria and offers potential solutions for addressing these challenges.
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Poverty eradication has been a persistent global challenge throughout history. While approaches to addressing poverty have evolved, the fundamental issue remains unresolved. Studies have shown that there is a high prevalence of poverty among women, and the fundamental cause of this is gender inequality (SDG 5). Akoko Southwest Local Government Area communities are not exempted from this menace. This study looked at the nexus between gender inequality and poverty in Akoko Southwest Local Government Area communities, Ondo State. It also investigated the dimensions of poverty and areas of gender inequality among the sampled populations. The primary source of data made from self- administered copies of questionnaires was used to collect data from 200 respondents in five communities of the local government area. Of these, 175 questionnaires were valid and analysed. The sample population comprises both male and female adults. In addition, the Alkire-Foster methodology was utilised to analyse the dynamics of multidimensional poverty in the study area. We constructed the poverty index using the 2018 Nigerian Multidimensional Poverty indicators developed by UNDP Nigeria and NBS. We employed descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. Household was used as the unit of analysis. The results showed high levels of gender inequality in all dimensions. On the multidimensionality of poverty, female-headed households experienced the incidence (88%) and intensity (60%) of poverty while their male counterparts experienced the incidence (54%) and intensity (42%) of poverty. The outcome also showed that female-headed households were more deprived in terms of education, health, living conditions, unemployment, and asset ownership. The binary logistic regression analysis showed there is a positive relationship between the female-headed household and poverty in the study area with a p-value less than 0.1, which suggests that there is a higher prevalence of poverty in female-headed households than in male-headed households. Overall, the findings revealed that gender, age, and education of household heads significantly contribute to the poverty status of the households. The study concludes that poverty in Akoko-Southwest LGA communities is both a symptom and cause of gender inequality as females are more impoverished due to deprivation in areas such as education, nutrition, living standards, and employment.
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National security and legitimacy are essential issues of governance that no nation desirous of political, economic and democratic stability can afford to take with levity. Thus, when countries begin to struggle in these critical areas of governance, her democracy becomes threatened. Nigeria's national security, legitimacy and democratic sustenance are not exempted from a number of challenges, threatening her in the Fourth Republic. Hence, the paper is an interrogation into the challenges of national security, legitimacy and democratic sustenance. The paper adopted desk research method to gather secondary materials that were contently analyzed and the failed states
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The scourge of poverty has spread over Nigeria. Efforts to address the problem have yielded no tangible results. This study investigated a gendered approach to determinants of adoption of cassava-legume intensification technology and its impact on households' poverty status in innovation platforms. A multistage sampling technique was used in selecting 160 respondents. The adoption index, the Tobit regression model, FGT analysis, and the ordered probit regression model were used to analyze the data. The adoption intensity of cassava-legume intensification technology was relatively low (28.06%), with that of female gender households 3.20% higher than that of their male counterparts. The Tobit regression model revealed that the intensity of adoption of cassava-legume technology was positively and significantly influenced by the years of education, household size, credit accessibility and household gender participation, among other factors. In addition, the ordered probit regression model revealed that revenue generated from cassava-legume, adoption intensity of the technology, extension visits, and gender of the household head were significant factors positively affecting household poverty while household size negatively affected household poverty. This indicates that cassava-legume intensification technology can assist individuals in escaping poverty. Gender sensitivity should, however, be considered when adopting new technologies, and an enabling atmosphere should be developed to enable women to participate.
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Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui pengaruh IPM, pengangguran, dan sumbangan pendapatan perempuan terhadap kemiskinan di Kota Surabaya. Menggunakan analisis kuantitatif dengan data time series dari tahun 2010-2020 dengan metode multiple regression analysis. Hasil menunjukan kemiskinan di kota Surabaya mampu dijelaskan oleh variable IPM, pengangguran, dan sumbangan pendapatan perempuan sebesar 96.54% (R2). Ditemukan bahwa variabel IPM berpengaruh negatif dan signifikan dengan nilai probabilitas 0,0008. Variabel tingkat pengangguran terbuka berpengaruh positif dan signifikan dengan nilai probabilitas 0.0495. Sedangkan sumbangan pendapatan perempuan tidak berpengaruh dan tidak signifikan dengan nilai probabilitas 0.1837. Secara simultan ketiga variabel berpengaruh dan signifikan terhadap kemiskinan dengan nilai probabilitas 0.000018.
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Despite substantial progress, gender gaps persist in many developing countries. Since the 1990s, a literature has emerged arguing that these gaps are not only inequitable but also reduce economic performance. This review finds that, first, it is methodologically difficult to determine reliable effects of gender gaps on economic performance. Second, accounting studies that calculate how much larger GDP would be if gender gaps in employment disappeared vastly overestimate likely effects. Third, the theoretical literature has generated important insights on mechanisms linking gender gaps to economic performance. Fourth, systematic reviews of the cross-country evidence robustly show that lowering gender gaps in education leads to higher economic performance, while the literature on the impact of other gaps is much more limited. Fifth, there is accumulating micro evidence on how reducing particular gender gaps at the level of households, farms, or firms can improve economic performance in particular contexts, with robust results in some areas, and less clear evidence in others. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Resource Economics Volume 10 is October 5, 2018. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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▪ Abstract This paper reviews trends in “feminization” and “juvenilization” of poverty showing that the relative risks of poverty increased for women in the 1970s but decreased for working-age women in the early 1980s. Relative risks of poverty increased for children between the 1970s and 1990s particularly in comparison with the elderly. Four factors affect these trends: First, the increase in women's employment and decline in the gender wage gap enhanced the likelihood that women remained above the poverty level. Second, the decline in manufacturing employment and “family wage” jobs for men increased the likelihood that less-educated men (and their families) fell into poverty in the early 1980s. These two factors combined to halt the feminization of poverty among the working-age population. At the same time, a third trend, the increase in “nonmarriage,” elevated the proportion of single parents who were young, never-married mothers and complicated the collection of child support from nonresident fathers...
Book
The first book to study women's poverty over the life course, this wide-ranging collection focuses on the economic condition of single mothers and single elderly women--while also considering partnered women and immigrants--in eight wealthy but diverse countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In a rich analysis of labor market and social welfare sectors, Gertrude Schaffner Goldberg and a team of outstanding international contributors conclude that both living-wage employment and government provision of adequate benefits and services are necessary if lone women are to achieve a socially acceptable living standard. Taken together, the chapters extend a feminist critique of welfare state theories and chart nations' disparate progress against poverty -- probing, for instance, how Sweden emerged a leader in the prevention of women's poverty while the United States continues to lag. By identifying the social and economic policies that enable women to live independently, Poor Women in Rich Countries provides nothing less than a blueprint for abolishing women's poverty. Available in OSO: http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/content/socialwork/9780195314304/toc.html
Article
Using data from rural Bangladesh, we explore the hypothesis that women attain less schooling as a result of social and financial pressure to marry young. We isolate the causal effect of marriage timing using age of menarche as an instrumental variable. Our results indicate that each additional year that marriage is delayed is associated with 0.22 additional year of schooling and 5.6 percent higher literacy. Delayed marriage is also associated with an increase in use of preventive health services. In the context of competitive marriage markets, we use the above results to obtain estimates of the change in equilibrium female education that would arise from introducing age of consent laws. (c) 2008 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved..
July 15 th ). Poverty eradication and empowerment of rural women: The Okowo'Dapo initiative
  • B Abiodun
Abiodun, B., (2020, July 15 th ). Poverty eradication and empowerment of rural women: The Okowo'Dapo initiative. [Paper presentation]. Women empowerment initiative conference. Oke-Mosan, Ogun State.
Poverty alleviation programs and the politics of ethical despair in Nigeria. The Seventh Inaugural Lecture
  • R A Akanmidu
Akanmidu, R. A., (2004). Poverty alleviation programs and the politics of ethical despair in Nigeria. The Seventh Inaugural Lecture, Ilorin. University of Ilorin.
Cultural stereotype and women subjugation in African society: Challenges and way forward
  • B F Animasahun
Animasahun, B. F., (2020). Cultural stereotype and women subjugation in African society: Challenges and way forward. Journal of African Studies, 7(3). 19-31.
Briefing on the feminization of poverty
  • A Bridge
Bridge, A., (2001). Briefing on the feminization of poverty, University of Sussex. Institute of Development Studies.
Investigating discrimination in workplaces: An examination of the treatment of muslim teachers in selected secondary schools in Ogun State. Unpublished Master's thesis submitted to the School of Postgraduate Studies
  • H A Dauda
Dauda, H. A., (2018). Investigating discrimination in workplaces: An examination of the treatment of muslim teachers in selected secondary schools in Ogun State. Unpublished Master's thesis submitted to the School of Postgraduate Studies, Tai Solarin University, for the award of M.ed in Education