A Global Atlas of Atolls

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A Global Atlas of Atolls
Scattered like dots rising from the deep across vast expanses of the world’s tropical and subtropical oceans, atolls
with their turquoise lagoons and reefs teeming with colorful marine life have captured the public imagination.
ey also have been the homeland of millions of people for millennia as various groups of migrants spread across
the far reaches of the Pacic, Indian and Western Atlantic regions. Developed from recently available satellite
data, A Global Atlas of Atolls presents high-quality details of 476 atolls across the globe, characterizing aspects of
the atoll rim, the lagoon, and their coral reef communities in unprecedented detail. In synthesizing and enhancing
understanding of these unique seascapes, this volume provides a distinct compendium of descriptions and images
as well as documentation of the environmental conditions of winds, waves, and tides and a summary of the back-
ground literature for each atoll area. ere is no comparable work.
After an introduction that includes a glossary of terms, each atoll is documented in the form of an atlas written
for scientists, but accessible to any diver or reader interested in these spectacular reef-island habitats. is book
also describes some current challenges and perspectives on their future. It will be useful as a reference work for
marine scientists, while providing a minimum of technical jargon for those who are not scientists, but who enjoy
reading about exotic places with unusual attributes.

‘A remarkably comprehensive and informative account of coral atolls—one of our world’s most enigmatic, beautiful but
endangered marine habitats. A scholarly account, yet easy to read and understand. It is a highly informative text and a
reference for anyone engaged in coral reef research.’
Professor Charles Sheppard, University of Warwick, UK

A Global Atlas
of Atolls
Walter M. Goldberg
Emeritus Professor of Biological Sciences,
Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
Eugene C. Rankey
Professor of Geology, University of Kansas, Lawrence KS, USA

Designed cover image: Aerial photo of Pukapuka Atoll in the Northern Cook Islands, central Pacic with
its triad of islands that reach a maximum of 4 m elevation and its distinctive stingray-like rim with its west-
facing tail. e lagoon, up to 70 m deep, is carved into pocket-like divisions called reticulations that are
thought to represent erosion during lower stands of sea level. Photo courtesy of Ewan Smith
First edition published 2024
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© 2024 Walter M. Goldberg, Eugene C. Rankey
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003287339
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Table of Contents
Preface .............................................................vi
Acknowledgments ..........................................vii
Authors ......................................................... viii
1 A Global Atlas of Atolls ............................. 1
2 Methods ...................................................25
3 e Polynesian Pacic and the
Atolls of the Tuamotu Archipelago .........27
4 e Atolls of the Society Islands,
French Polynesia ......................................79
5 e Atolls of the Cook Islands .................87
6 e Atolls of the Southern Central
Pacic ......................................................97
7 e Atolls of Tokelau ............................. 101
8 e Atolls of Tuvalu ............................... 105
9 e Atolls of Kiribati ............................. 115
10 e Atolls of Hawai’i and the Pacic
Remote Islands of the United States ...... 143
11 e Micronesian Pacic and the
Atolls of the Marshall Islands ................ 155
12 e Atolls of the Caroline Islands .........181
13 Melanesia and the Atolls
of New Guinea .......................................205
14 e Atolls of the Solomon Islands .........223
15 e Atolls of Fiji ....................................239
16 e Atolls of the Coral Sea ....................261
17 e Atolls of the North West Shelf
of Australia ............................................277
18 e Atolls of Indonesia ..........................287
19 e Atolls of the South China
and Sulu Seas ........................................... 313
20 e Atolls of the Central
Indian Ocean ...........................................349
21 e Atolls of the Western
Indian Ocean and the Red Sea ..............377
22 e Atolls of the Western Atlantic ......... 391
23 A Summary of Atolls and a View
into the 21st Century .............................403
Index........................................................ 417

Preface
Scattered like dots rising across vast expanses of the
world’s tropical and-subtropical oceans, atolls with
their turquoise lagoons and reefs teeming with color-
ful and diverse marine life have been objects of en-
chantment and fascination since the time of Darwin
more than 180 years ago. eir appearance as vari-
ously shaped specks on the ocean surface belies their
support, often by massive volcanic platforms rising
thousands of meters from the ocean oor. Some barely
reach the surface, but waves, tides, and long-range
swells may inuence the development of reefs followed
by islands perched like a crown at or near the edge of
the platform. On most atolls, the side facing the wind
forms stronger islands and reefs than the leeward side.
A lakelike lagoon of various sizes and shapes, rang-
ing from irregular dinnerplates to shallow or deep
bowls, is surrounded by islands forming a rim, and to
a large degree, the nature of that rim determines the
lagoon’s characteristics. When essentially sealed from
regular oceanic exchange, the lagoon can exhibit
fewer species or even biological impoverishment. Al-
ternatively, they can be enriched and diverse as pro-
tected habitats, especially if islands develop channels,
passes, and a more open structure. ese dynamics
are just beginning to be unravel, but the specics of
lagoon circulation are unknown for most atolls.
Atolls have served as human steppingstones in ex-
ploration and migration across equatorial oceans and
have been the homeland for millions of migrants for
millennia, but with nutrient-poor soils, few edible
plants can be grown. And freshwater, another es-
sential requirement for the support of human life, is
by no means a guaranteed characteristic of the atoll
environment. At the same time, because of their pre-
carious position, commonly a few meters above sea
level, inhabited atoll islands are often prone to ood-
ing and contamination of water supplies by sea-level
rise. Accordingly, some atoll residents are among
those who have or may yet become ‘climate refugees’.
Developed from recently available satellite data, A
Global Atlas of Atolls presents high-quality details of
476 atolls across the globe, characterizing aspects of
the atoll rim, the lagoon, and their coral reef commu-
nities in unprecedented detail. In synthesizing and
enhancing our understanding of these unique sea-
scapes, this volume provides a distinct compendium
of descriptions and images as well as documentation
of the environmental conditions of winds, waves, and
tides and a summary of the background literature for
each atoll area. ere is no comparable work. After
an introduction that includes a glossary of terms,
each atoll is documented in the form of an atlas writ-
ten for scientists but accessible to any diver or reader
interested in these spectacular reef-island habitats.
is book also describes some current challenges and
perspectives on the future. It will be useful as a ref-
erence work for marine scientists while providing a
minimum of technical jargon for those who are not
scientists but who enjoy reading about exotic places
with unusual attributes.

Acknowledgments
We thank the knowledgeable individuals listed below
for their expertise and their eort for reviewing the
chapter areas of their expertise. is book is better
for their insights. e responsibility for the contents,
however, is ours and ours alone.
Serge Andréfouët
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France
Pat Colin
Coral Reef Research Foundation, Palau
Charles (Chip) Fletcher
University of Hawai’i, USA
Murray Ford
University of Auckland, New Zealand
Rodrigo Garza-Perez
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico
Eberhard Gischler
Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Eko Haryono
Research Center for Marine Science and Technology,
Indonesia
Kirby Morejohn
Ministry of Marine Resources, Cook Islands
Patrick Nunn
University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Mick O’Leary
University of Western Australia, Australia
Mika Perez
Department of Economic Development, Natural
Resources and Environment, Tokelau
Tomas Tomascik
Independent research scientist
Tion Uriam
Ministry of Information, Communications &
Transport, Kiribati
Georg Warrlich
Shell Global Solutions International
Arthur Webb
Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project (TCAP); Resilience
& Sustainable Development Unit, United Nations
Development Programme
Jody Webster
University of Sydney, Australia
We are grateful to DHI for access to and use of
atmospheric and wave data from the Metocean Data
Portal (https://www.metocean-on-demand.com/#/
main) and the Global Tide Model (via MIKE 21).
Remote-sensing data - PlanetScope, Sentinel, or
Landsat data - were generously provided through
Planet‘s Education and Research Program.

Authors
Walter M. Goldberg graduated from the American
University, Washington, D.C. with a Bachelor of Bio-
logical Science degree and was awarded a Ph.D. in Bi-
ological Oceanography by the University of Miami’s
School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences. He is
currently a Professor Emeritus at Florida International
University in Miami, where he was a faculty member
for 40 years and the youngest in the Department of Bi-
ological Sciences to begin his career there at the age of
27. While on the faculty, he taught a variety of courses
ranging from Electron Microscopy for graduate stu-
dents to Marine Science for non-majors. In addition
to teaching and research, Walter served as a depart-
ment chair at a time when Biological Sciences at FIU
was half the size it is now. He is the author of more
than 50 professional papers, mostly on the formation,
structure, and biochemistry of coral skeletons. He has
also written two books in addition to this one: e
Biology of Reefs and Reef Organisms (UChicago Press,
2013) and e Geography, Nature and History of the
Tropical Pacic and its Islands (Springer World Re-
gional Geography, 2018). After retirement, he taught
scientic writing at FIU for an additional decade. He
now lives in Stuart, FL with his wife Rosalie whom he
met when she was a freshman at AU. ey have two
boys and two granddaughters. Walter has always been
involved in sports. At AU, he was the captain of the
wrestling team and was a conference champion at 123
lbs. He played racquetball and squash for 25 years and
now is an avid pickleball player. His nom du sport is
Walt, not Wa lter.
Eugene C. Rankey is a Professor of Geology at the
University of Kansas, where he has taught since
2008. A geologist by formal training, Gene’s research
program focuses on understanding geological, chem-
ical, physical, and biological aspects of the oceans,
how they shape the seascapes of tropical marine and
coastal systems, and expression of comparable pro-
cesses in the ancient rock record. In addition to re-
mote-sensing analyses from around the globe, eld
eorts have ranged from the South Pacic (including
the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, and Kiribati),
Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean and included nu-
merical modeling of dynamics of shoreline and atoll
systems. Gene graduated with a B.S. degree from
Augustana College (IL), a M.S. from University of
Tennessee, and a Ph.D. from University of Kansas;
he worked at Exxon Production Research Company,
Iowa State University, and the Rosenstiel School of
Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at the University
of Miami before returning to Kansas. He has written
more than 60 nerdy scientic papers, edited several
volumes, and served as an editor and/or an associ-
ate editor for ve journals. He lives in Paola, Kansas,
near the geographic center of the U.S., and far from
the ocean, where he claims to be a soccer (football)
star in the city’s adult league, straightens headstones
in the church cemetery, and lifts modest weights. His
four kids are grown and scattered across the globe,
but his dogs miss him when he travels to see his is-
land friends.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003287339 -1
1
A Global Atlas of Atolls
Atolls are low to the water, conned, and often
distant from other more hospitable places. e Lapita
people (Chapter 3), the rst atoll colonists, came to
the atolls from the nearby Solomon Islands, perhaps
as an experiment about 2,700 years ago, bringing
with them familiar foods from larger islands that did
not exist on atolls. At that time, the Tuamotu group
and others in the central Pacic were still underwater
and would require about another 1,700 years before
being occupied (Chapter 3; Spriggs, 1991; Dickin-
son, 2023). Europeans ‘discovered’ atolls more than
two millennia later, and the rst to lay eyes on them
were less than impressed with islands having a salt-
water lake in the center. Long journeys required
re-provisioning, and atolls were typically not the best
places to take advantage of natural resources.
After sailing for more than two months we nally
espied land. e two islands were small, uninhab‑
ited, and aorded neither water nor sustenance of
any kind‑only birds, trees, and many sharks. We
named them the Unfortunate Islands.
–Antonio Pigafetta aboard Magellan’s ship
Trinidad January 24, 1521.
By contrast, Charles Darwin was stunned with the
beauty of atolls:
Everyone must be struck with astonishment,
when he rst beholds lagoon islands, vast rings of
coral‑rock, often many leagues in diameter, here
and there surmounted by a low verdant island
with dazzling white shores, bathed on the outside
by the foaming breakers of the ocean, and on
the inside surrounding a calm expanse of bright,
pale green water.
—Charles Darwin aboard HMS Beagle, 1842
Charles Darwin was fascinated by atolls even though
he had only seen one of them. During his voyage
aboard HMS Beagle, he began laying a founda-
tion for describing and interpreting how atolls may
have formed, generating a series of important scien-
tic papers on the subject, along with controversies
that continue to this day. In the post-Darwinian era
(assuming there is such a time), we have learned quite
a bit about atolls, but have become no less enchanted
by them. Scientic interest in atolls is not surprising
even if they occupy a mere fraction of the ocean oor
area constituted by other kinds of coral reefs. Atoll is-
lands are at, eliminating all the variables commonly
associated with altitudinal dierences. ey are tropi-
cal or subtropical and oceanic, eliminating signicant
temperature dierences. ey are formed of calcium
carbonate derived from plants and animals, eliminat-
ing signicant geological dierences. ey are struc-
turally simple, minimizing complexities of hydrology
and rainfall. eir terrestrial ora and fauna are
numerically small and simple, and even though that
is not the case underwater, they are spatially limited.
Other factors including island size and distance from
neighbors, the impact of waves, storms, and tides
all point to atolls as natural laboratories. If overlaid
with human occupation, culture, and history, atolls
become fascinating places.
Much of the initial 20th century scientic inter-
est in atolls was generated by the testing of nuclear
weapons. at process, however, began classic scien-
tic work that served as the foundation of modern
reef science, especially on Enewetak and Bikini in the
Marshall Islands. Atoll geology and mapping of la-
goons as well as interest in the formation of spur and
groove systems and the role of coralline algae in reef
building began with Tracey et al. (1948) and Emery
et al. (1954). e rst successful drilling to an atoll
volcanic basement on an atoll was documented in
Ladd and Schlanger (1960). e structure of sh com-
munities on Enewetak, including their habitats and
an analysis of their diets (Hiatt and Strasburg, 1960),
was among the rst of many such studies carried out
on atolls. e discovery that symbiotic relationships
allow a highly complex but isolated reef ecosystems
to exist while surrounded by nutrient-poor water also
began there (Odum and Odum, 1954). A scientic
journal called Atoll Research Bulletin, dedicated to
their study and cited profusely herein, began in 1951
and continues to the present as a valuable reference,
broadening our knowledge of atolls worldwide.

A Global Atlas of Atolls
A Global Atlas of Atolls
2
Figure 1.1 A Dove nanosatellite with its telescope,
camera, solar panels, and communication antenna in
operational mode. Courtesy of Planet Labs. (https://www.
satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/other-satellite-
sensors/dove-3m/.)
et al. (2020), Roelfsema et al. (2021) and Kennedy
(2021).
e Atlas primarily uses data from Planet Labs,
which has developed constellations of about 130 na-
nosatellites called Doves (Figure 1.1) that have been
launched with continual improvement from the In-
ternational Space Station (Planet Labs, 2017). Each
Dove is solar powered, weighs 5 kg (11 lbs), and col-
lectively, they can take multispectral images with a
resolution of less than 4 m
2
/pixel for an area of ~200
million km
2
every day. Each image in the Allen Atlas
is a single image or a mosaic selected for sparse cloud
cover and the highest levels of water clarity. Images
also are subjected to a number of analytical adjust-
ments including orthorectication, in which they
are corrected for distortions from the sensors and
from the angle between the satellite and the imaged
position on Earth, to accurately position features.
Algorithms are also applied to mask clouds and cor-
rect for atmospheric distortion, surface reection,
and sun glint. Corrections for water conditions in-
clude those for light attenuation due to absorption
with increasing depth, light scattering, and reec-
tion from the bottom. e optical images presented
here use the visible spectrum (red, green, and blue
wavelengths), which corresponds with human per-
ception. More information on this technology can
be found in Sayn (2020) and Kopacz et al. (2020).
e Atlas has mapped nearly all coral reef areas
within 30° north and south of the equator. In addi-
tion to providing optical satellite images (Figure 1.2a),
the Atlas provides classied geomorphic attributes
(thematic maps) of each reef. Using all four spectral
bands (blue, green, red, and near infrared) of the Dove
satellite system, spectral reectance properties of land
and marine areas can document atoll benthic (bot-
tom) properties objectively and over large areas. us,
changes in concentrations of photosynthetic pigments
in coral, algae, and seagrass, as well as light scattering
by inorganic materials and sand or rubble derived from
A quick search online will reveal lists of famous at-
olls, as well as those designated as the largest, most cap-
tivating, and the most beautiful. Many of these locales
are advertised as exotic diving destinations that are iso-
lated and untouched. Others are privately owned and
have become commercial destinations as on Gaafaru in
the Maldive Islands, or Île Desroches in the Seychelles
where one can be married at a Four Seasons hotel. Oth-
ers are touted for the privacy they aord, including the
Brando on Tetiaroa in French Polynesia, where actor
Marlon Brando wanted to ensure that his atoll would
be a model of ecological consciousness (Sachet and
Fosberg, 1983). And it is, but it is also a very expensive
way to be alone.
Atolls include coral reefs that host some of the
most diverse and complex ecosystems on the Earth.
But unlike the vast expanses of more famous barrier
reefs, atolls are comparatively small and composed of
islands strewn like dots in the ocean across the broad
expanses of tropics, most of which are seldom visited
by outsiders and are poorly known to the wider world.
We identify 476 atolls in this volume in the pages that
follow, along with descriptions of dierent types of at-
olls illustrated in the following chapters. We approach
the subject of atolls visually, one-by-one, archipela-
go-by-archipelago, and from the broad perspectives of
geography, biology, and geomorphology, to produce
the rst world atlas of atolls. Beyond describing each
atoll, we document the physical factors, including
wind, waves, and tides, and summarize the scientic
literature for each archipelago. is atlas is based on
science and is intended to be a reference work useful
to the scientic community. However, we attempt to
minimize jargon and write for a wide audience in-
cluding divers, armchair travelers, those with an in-
terest in natural history, and people who enjoy maps,
as well as reading about and seeing beautiful places.
Satellite imagery
We have made extensive use of the Allen Coral Atlas
(‘the Atlas’), and attempted to be consistent with it
wherever possible, but we also referred to the satellite
imagery for guidance. e Atlas is a unique collec-
tion of satellite images and technologies that map and
analyze important elements of the world’s coral reef
environments (Allen Coral Atlas, 2022). e team is
managed by the Arizona State University Center for
Global Discovery and Conservation Science, along
with partners from Planet Labs, the University of
Queensland, the University of Hawai’i, and the Na-
tional Geographic Society, all of which are funded
by the charitable contributions of the late Paul G. Al-
len and his philanthropic organization, Vulcan Inc.
More information on this eort is included in Lyons

A Global Atlas of Atolls
A Global Atlas of Atolls
2
3
organisms, permit use of spectral reectance data to
determine the nature of atoll reef and reef-associated
habitats. is process yields color-coded thematic maps
(Figure 1.2b) that dene the geomorphic regions, includ-
ing deep outer reef slope, the reef crest and rim, the
reef at, and the attributes of the lagoon including its
patch reefs, pinnacles, and reticulate reefs (all of which
are dened below). Not every atoll includes every geo-
morphic class recognized by the Atlas. e geomorphic
maps of the Atlas display these data for water depths
up to approximately 15 m. Areas that have a dened
class are referred to as ‘coded’ in the following chapters:
other undened or unmapped areas are ‘uncoded’.
Similarly in the Allen Atlas, zones are mapped as
benthic habitats (Figure 1.2c), with colors describing
the extent of coral and coralline algae development
(collectively), and other bottom types. In the descrip-
tion of individual atolls, we distinguish reefs that
are shallower than the geomorphic deep outer reef
as the shallow outer reef. We also report the widths
Figure 1.2 Views of Allen Atlas data. Vuladdore Atoll, Paracel Chain, South China Sea displayed in (a) satellite imagery, with
the Allen Atlas overlay of the thematic maps of (b) geomorphological classes and (c) benthic habitats. (See also Vuladdore
Atoll, Chapter 19.) Image credit for parts b and c: Allen Coral Atlas.

A Global Atlas of Atolls
A Global Atlas of Atolls
4
of these reef zones with the understanding that such
measurements do not indicate biological diversity. We
generally describe the biological communities where
the literature is sucient. e Atlas also distinguishes
seagrass, rock, rubble, and sand (Roelfsema et al.,
2002); as with the geomorphic classes, not every atoll
includes every dened benthic habitat. e depth de-
lineated by these biological zones is limited to about 10
m below sea level limited by the penetration of light.
e details of the analytical methods can be found
in Lyons et al. (2020) and Kennedy et al. (2021). e
imagery is also capable of detecting reef stress, in the
form of coral bleaching, in real time (Xuet al., 2020).
With all that being said, we note that the Atlas is a
work in progress. ere are places in the text that at
the time of this writing are miscoded including atolls
where the lagoon is shown extending to deep water,
and areas that are uncoded where they should be ac-
cording to reported depths or from observation by us
or others. We attempt to reconcile the Atlas data with
the satellite imagery where possible.
Atoll structure and formation
An atoll can be loosely described as an annular reef
and its islands that may protrude a few meters above
sea level and encircle a deeper lagoon. is skeletal
denition deserves more esh, and the one oered
by Wiens (1962) provided some: an atoll is a more
or less continuous coral reef that emerges from the
open ocean or is slightly submerged and surrounds
a distinctly deeper lagoon or several lagoons without
volcanic islands, and whose upper seaward slopes
rise steeply from a generally volcanic foundation too
deep for the light-dependent growth of reef corals.
Because the greatest number of atolls are formed
atop deep, subsiding volcanic platforms in the Pa-
cic Ocean, this denition is a good start (but see
below).
Darwin conceived of a theory of atoll formation
aboard HMS Beagle in 1836. His idea was that atolls
formed on volcanic islands that became dormant,
which then began to cool and slowly sink, a process
known as subsidence. e Pacic Ocean has aligned
chains of submarine volcanoes called seamounts,
some of which almost reach the surface or even be-
come active volcanic islands. ese features form
from arguably stationary ‘hot spots’, places where
small, hot plumes rooted deeply in the Earth’s man-
tle rise through oceanic crust. Much of the Pacic
Ocean is on the Pacic tectonic plate, which is mov-
ing, and trails of volcanic seamounts and atolls record
its absolute motions over several stationary hotspots.
In the case of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamounts, the
chain is nearly 6,000 km long and has lasted for at
least 82 million years (O’Connor et al., 2013). e
island of Hawai’i, near the southeastern end of the
chain, is the current active site for this hotspot, and
islands, atolls, and seamount become progressively
older to the northwest. Other chains and hotspots
exist but are not as easily followed.
Nothing was known about plate motions or hot-
spots in Darwin’s lifetime, but the idea of subsidence
made sense, and if Darwin was right, it should be
possible to show that old atolls have the calcareous
remains of shallow-water reef organisms hundreds of
meters below the sea surface, in water depths where
they cannot have lived or grown. To test this pre-
diction, boreholes that collected core samples were
drilled by the Royal Society of London on Funafuti
Atoll (Tuvalu Archipelago) between 1896 and 1898,
14 years after Darwin’s death. One of them reached
a depth of 340 m, and although it encountered no
volcanic material, it was clear that the core con-
tained shallow-water calcareous remains at its base.
Darwin’s theory was probably correct! e volcan-
ic-basement hypothesis remained unconrmed until
the U.S. drilled two boreholes on Enewetak Atoll
(Marshall Islands) in 1952 in preparation for nuclear
testing. ere, volcanic material was nally encoun-
tered below the reef debris at a depth of nearly 1,500
m below sea level (Figure 1.3). Darwin was right!
ere was a second part to Darwin’s observations
and interpretations. While visiting Tahiti, a high
volcanic island in French Polynesia, in November
1835, Darwin climbed a local peak for a better view
and saw nearby Moorea with its surrounding bar-
rier reef, lagoon, and central volcanic island. At that
moment, he thought of subsidence as the starting
point for what is now the classic view of atoll for-
mation—that dierent types of reef morphologies
form in a succession that ends with atolls (Figure
1.4). Coral reefs initiating growth at sea level on the
anks of volcanic islands are called fringing reefs.
He anticipated that with subsidence of the conical
volcano, the area of the volcanic island above sea
level would shrink. Simultaneous vertical growth
of the reef would form a lagoon between the is-
land and the now-oshore barrier reef. He consid-
ered an atoll to represent a nal stage, when the
volcanic peak sank beneath the sea surface, leav-
ing only a lagoon in the center, surrounded by a
reef that grew on the outer surface (Figure 1.3).
ere are clear instances where such a succession
can be inferred. For example, Aitutaki in the Cook
Islands (Figure 1.5a) is an example where the vol-
canic structure, 119 m high, still protrudes from
the lagoon. Presumably, when the volcano nally
subsides completely, Aitutaki will be an atoll, but
right now it is an almost-atoll, and that is an actual

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5
Figure 1.3 After an initial failure to reach volcanic substrata on Tuvalu in 1896, 56 years later, boreholes drilled on Enewetak
Atoll succeeded penetrating through shallow-water coral growth of nearly 1,500 m thick to reach the volcanic base.
(After Goldberg, 2013 as cited.)
Figure 1.4 The origin of atolls envisioned by Darwin. A fringing reef on a volcanic shore is followed by subsidence and
development of an offshore barrier reef with the development of a lagoon. With continued subsidence, the volcanic island of
an almost-atoll may ultimately be submerged, resulting in an atoll. (Modied from and courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey.)

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term used by scientists. ere are other islands on
the southern portion of the reef that are composed
of both volcanic basalts and coral material suggest-
ing that coral growth began occurring here before
volcanic activity had entirely ceased (Stoddart and
Gibbs, 1975).
On Maupiti (Figure 1.5b and c) in the Society Is-
lands (French Polynesia), the central island is 372 m
high and represents the eroded tip of a shield volcano
that formed 4.5 million years ago. It is currently sur-
rounded by a lagoon 1,500 m wide and is separated
from the open ocean by a barrier reef as Darwin
might have predicted. Indeed, Darwin was able to
see all three reef types (fringing, barrier, and atoll) in
several places near Tahiti so that subsidence and the
sequence of reef formation that stems from it became
known as Subsidence eory.
Exploring Isles (Vanuabalavu; Figure 1.5d) is an-
other almost-atoll in the Lau Islands of Fiji, but it
has had a complex history. e largest island is 4.8
by 22.5 km long and 283 m high at the western side
of the lagoon (Agassiz, 1899), but the oldest exposed
rocks are limestone followed by an alternation of vol-
canic and limestone strata that underwent subsidence
beginning some 4 million years ago. However, the
layers of this rocky pousse café also demonstrate con-
siderable uplift and tilting. e result, at least for the
largest island, is a confusing geological picture with
volcanic rock exposed only at the center. Nonethe-
less, other islands on the rim of Exploring Isles (e.g.,
Munia on the south side) are clearly volcanic (Nunn,
1987; Nunn et al., 2002).
Lastly, there is Clipperton Island, an almost-
atoll in the Eastern Pacic that would qualify as an
atoll but for a 29 m high volcanic rock at the SE mar-
gin (Figure 1.5e). e rest of the island is carbonate
rock and sand that is only a few meters above sea level
but is closed to ordinary tidal exchange. us, the
lagoon tends to be dominated by evaporation and is
hypersaline (Sachet, 1962).
Coral reefs require warm, clear tropical waters
and abundant sunlight for their growth due to the
near-universal presence of microscopic photosyn-
thetic algae called zooxanthellae that occur within
coral tissue. ese symbiotic plants are required by
their coral hosts and are key factors to the survival of
both since they are sensitive to warmth and sunlight
among other environmental factors. erefore, ex-
tensive and diverse reef-building corals typically are
limited to the upper 20 m of water, and lesser con-
struction by reef communities is largely restricted to
the upper 80 m, limited by light availability.
Darwin was aware that reef corals are limited to
shallow-water environments. However, the discovery
of glacial episodes during the Pleistocene epoch (~2.6
million yea rs to ~12,00 0 years ago) and t he recognition
that ice grow th led to sea levels about 125 m lower than
present during the most recent glacial period about
18,000 years ago were not known. is discovery led
to what was referred to as the Glacial Control eory
(Daley, 1915) in which wave erosion and abrasion of
volcanic platforms during past low sea levels (glacial
episodes) caused sculpting and planation on atolls
and volcanic islands. is model posited that erosion
was independently responsible for dierent types of
reef morphology, suggesting that as sea level rose
again during glacial melting, reefs covered the ero-
sional landscapes. Barrier reefs were thought to have
formed on erosional terraces, whereas atolls were
preceded by platforms that had become leveled.
By contrast, the alternative Antecedent Platform
eory holds that any high spot that occurs in shal-
low water within the tropics is a potential coral reef
foundation if ecological conditions permit. ese
reef foundations or platforms might be formed by
erosion, volcanic eruption, or other geological pro-
cesses or combinations of processes, and accordingly,
they may occur independently of sea-level changes.
e interesting aspect of these ideas is not only the
distinction from glacial control but also that dier-
ent atoll shapes may be determined or inuenced
by the conguration of the pre-existing platform
(Homeister and Ladd, 1944). A modication, the
Antecedent Karst eory (Purdy and Winterer, 2001,
2006), suggests that reef types are unrelated and that
antecedent platforms are the result of karst, a land-
scape formed by limestone dissolution and erosion by
the acidic rainwater (and groundwater) during low
stands of sea level. In this model, reefs around the
edges of islands or atolls are less prone to solution
than the atoll interior, and this dierentiation leads
to barrier lagoon formation on exposed continental
or island margins, or a bowl-like depression in the
center parts of islands. An atoll is thought to form
with subsequent marine ooding during global warm
periods. ese erosional foundations may control the
morphology of modern reefs. Subsidence theory and
its genetic sequence of reef development were being
challenged. However, despite numerous examples
of three types of reefs in the same area, a sequence
showing the transformation of a fringing reef to a
barrier reef and then into an atoll is rare. However,
recent drilling in Tahiti has documented a geologi-
cal record that conrms a transition from fringing to
barrier reef associated with the post-glacial rise in sea
level (Blanchon et al., 2014).
Atoll scientists today recognize that no one model
alone can explain the genesis and growth of all atolls
through the millennia. A general conceptual model
recognizes that reef and atoll initiation requires some

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7
Figure 1.5 An assembly of almost-atolls. (a) Aitutaki, southern Cook Islands. The large island at the north is volcanic and
rises to an altitude of 119 m; the others include a mix of volcanic islands and islands made of reef-derived fragments. (b)
Maupiti, Society Islands group, French Polynesia. The central island is 372 m high and is the eroded tip of a shield volcano
that formed 4.5 million years ago. (c) Field photo from ank of volcano, Maupiti (almost-atoll), French Polynesia. View to the
south and east includes the barrier reef and low motu of Pitiahe and Tiapaa. (Photo by Gene Rankey.) (d) Exploring Isles, Lau
Islands of Fiji, aka Vanuabalavu: The elongated, 283-m-high island on the western side is a subsided volcano that has re-
cently been uplifted and tilted along with a reef limestone coating, now exposed above sea level. Southernmost Munia Island
is more clearly volcanic. (e) Clipperton Island in the Eastern Pacic technically qualies as an almost-atoll due to volcanic rock
that is 29 m high and located at the SE side (white arrow). Otherwise, the atoll surface is composed of carbonate. Images a,
b, d, and e © 2021-2022, Planet Labs PBC.

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mechanism to produce a shallower-water platform
in the surrounding deeper, open ocean. is relative
high spot can be a subsiding volcanic foundation, as
postulated by Darwin (as on Funafuti and Enewetak
described above), a non-volcanic foundation
(e.g., Alacrán in Mexico and Hogsty in the
Bahamas), or even the isolated, vestigial highs
of older, once-more-extensive reef systems (e.g.,
the Maldive Islands; Droxler and Jorry, 2021).
Sea-level rise and fall during interglacial and
glacial periods can also provide foundations from
eroded or partly dissolved reef platforms.
Atoll structure
We use a number of geological and biological de-
scriptive terms in this atlas that dene the composi-
tion and structure of atolls (Figure 1.6 and Table 1.1).
We also dene dierent types of atolls and attempt
to distinguish atolls from other atoll-like structures.
Classic atolls, occasionally called Darwinian atolls,
already have been described as mid-ocean reefs with
a central lagoon above a subsiding volcanic platform
surrounded by deep water. In the Allen Coral Atlas
and in this volume, the term reef platform refers to
the underlying substrate upon which coral growth
occurs, and we operationally dene the platform as
the portion of the reef that supports coral growth
and is visible in satellite imagery. Although the extent
of this area that is visible depends on water clarity
among other factors, it is generally limited to depths
of up to 15 m in the geomorphic views of the Allen
Atlas. We include that area in the reported measure-
ments in cases where the visible platform is wider
than what the Atlas has coded.
The reef rim
A portion of the reef platform projects into shal-
low water less than a few meters deep and includes
islands (if any are present). is region forms a
calcareous barrier separating the lagoon from the
open ocean and is referred to here as the rim of the
reef, which we dene for atolls as the shallow-water
Figure 1.6 Overview of atoll zonation and rim terminology as described in the following pages and the glossary. (Illustration
by Elena Hartley, elabarts.com.)

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9
Table 1.1 Glossary of Reef Terminology
Almost-atoll: An atoll-like structure with residual volcanic material, sometimes residing on the rim, but more often as
a volcanic peak protruding from the lagoon. The presumption is that continued subsidence of the volcanic platform will
ultimately result in a true atoll.
Channel: A shallow cross-reef opening, often between islands or groups of islands, that may allow exchange of open-
ocean water into and out of the lagoon. Large channels may be hundreds of meters wide, but they are shallow.
Closed atoll: An atoll rim in which there are no passes, shallow channels, or functional hoa. Water exchange is dependent
on percolation through the rim, storm activity, or atmospheric exchange.
Crustose coralline algae: Reef-building red algae that can form dense sheets of calcium carbonate over and around
other reef-building organisms, forming a durable and resistant reef binding agents. They can also form ‘rhodoliths,’ round,
mobile balls of encrusting red algae.
Drowned atoll: Reef with an atoll rim morphology, but at a depth below 25 m, suggesting that it is unable to keep up
with sea-level changes and likely exhibits limited coral growth. Atolls at these depths are not commonly visible in satellite
imag ery.
Flat (reef at): An extensive area of shallow water behind the reef crest, often composed of rubble cemented by reef
organisms, especially crustose coralline algae. Shallow depressions in the reef at, such as tide pools, moats, or troughs,
may allow for the development of small coral-associated communities despite the open and unprotected condition of these
environments.
Forereef or outer reef slope: The portion of the reef platform including spur and groove systems at the shallow end,
and extending into deeper water, commonly with an increasing angle, to the dropoff. The outer reef at the deeper end may
extend to depths of 60 m or more; eroded terraces may mark the position of past lower sea levels.
Hoa: Polynesian term for storm-excavated channels across the reef rim that allows water to ow into and out of the lagoon,
especially at higher tide levels. Hoa are typically 50–100 m wide and no more than 2–3 m deep (Stoddart and Fosberg,
1994). As used here, hoa occur between motus or between a motu and an island.
Karst: A landscape formed by carbonate rocks that have partly dissolved or eroded due to exposure to rainwater. Many
karst systems are highly porous.
Lagoon slope: Area of increased gradient, from several degrees to near the angle of repose, passing from shallower
water near the rim into the deeper water of the lagoon. The term ‘back reef slope’ is sometimes used synonymously but is
generally inappropriate for an atoll where there is no back side. Shallow lagoons may lack a pronounced lagoon slope, and
others may lack the development of coral communities at the lagoon slope. At the ank of the lagoon and deeper than the
sand apron, coral communities may occur and can be referred to as a lagoon slope.
Leeward: Atolls commonly develop an asymmetry due to the inuences of varied intensities of wind and waves from
different directions. The leeward side is that margin of an atoll that is more protected from these inuences and generally
faces a lower energy environment. As a result, the leeward margin is typically less well cemented, develops fewer or
smaller islands, and is commonly lower in biological diversity.
Motu: Polynesian term for islets that are separated by shallow, narrow hoa. Motus are small, commonly are less than
a hectare in area, and may be rounded or elongated perpendicular to the margin. On non-Polynesian reefs, we refer to
such structures as islets. They are typically vegetated and consist of coarse-grained sediment, coral gravel, and cobbles.
Other more extensive subaerial vegetated features on the rim are common on atolls and are simply referred to as islands.
Larger islands are oblong, follow the contours of the underlying reef rim, and are usually concave toward the lagoon. Wider
breaks between motu or islands, e.g., areas that are ooded at high tide, are referred to as channels, or if sufciently widely
spaced, the reef at. Unvegetated sand islands are referred to as cays (Stoddart and Steers, 1977).
Open atoll: An atoll rim that is open to exchange with the surrounding seawater, typically through deep passes and hoa,
or an incomplete rim.
Outer reef: A synonym for the forereef.
Passes: They occur naturally as deep entrances through the atoll rim into the lagoon through which there are major
exchanges of water that cycle in and out of the lagoon with the tides. Passes, sometimes called ava in Polynesian, are
arbitrarily dened by us as ≥5 m deep. Shallower gateways to the lagoon may referred to as hoa (in Polynesia) or channels
elsewhere.
Pavement: Reef and reef-derived material cemented by exposure to freshwater, commonly shaped by sea-level changes
over thousands of years. The pavement can form a hard, rocky substrate that is exposed on the seaoor or be covered by
sediment or islands.
Pinnacle: Steep, cone-like projections thought to be the product of erosion during low stands of sea level but can be
enhanced by coral growth in their shallow depths. Pinnacles may rise from even the deepest parts of the lagoon and may
exhibit recent coral growth or may be covered with sediment.
Platform: The underlying foundation upon which atolls, their coral growth, islands, and lagoon are built. All zones
described here occur on the platform. The platforms that are measurable in Allen Atlas Imagery are limited to a depth of
roughly 15 m.
(Continued)

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portion of the platform extending from the reef
crest and reef at to the lagoon. e rim is the
shallowest portion of the atoll, and it can vary
considerably in spatial, or map-view, morphology.
e classic denition of an atoll rim stems from
Darwin’s view that they are annular, and this de-
scription is commonly used to describe them even
though we nd only a few where such a geometry
can be applied. Indeed, even if we include oval or
egg-shaped atolls, the total comes to about 50. At-
oll rim morphology is more often ellipse-like (Stod-
dart 1965) including elongated, bent, pointed, or
otherwise modied ellipsoids as we describe them.
However, the atoll rim often deviates signicantly
from an ideal geometric form because morphology
is dependent on the nature of the antecedent plat-
form or modications to it such as instability due to
erosion and fracture of the limestone cap, collapse
due to submarine landslides (Terry and Go 2013;
Poupardin et al. 2017), or spatially variable rates of
lateral reef expansion. e result is a range of rim
shapes that cannot be characterized by a single con-
guration or even by a narrow range of geometric
forms. In that respect, we agree with Wiens (1962)
who came to the same conclusion in his treatise on
atolls. For example, Rose and Nikufetau atolls are
square (American Samoa and Tuvalu, respectively).
South Minerva (Tonga) forms a gure eight, Nu-
pani (Santa Cruz Islands) is pentagonal (with a
tail); Pukapuka (Northern Cook Islands) has a tail
as well but is triangular. In addition, there are those
that are shaped like a bonnet (Arno, Marshall Is-
lands) or a spindle (Barque-Canada Atoll, South
China Sea). With a little imagination, it is possible
to see some that resemble a ballerina’s shoe (Hao,
Tuamotu Islands), a shark (Karang Kaledupa, In-
donesia), a fedora (Likiep, Marshall Islands), a hot
water bottle (Ninigo, north of New Guinea) and
even a uterus (Mioswundi, West Papua).
e rim, including the islets and larger islands, lies
upon a foundation of cemented or lithied coral and
carbonate gravel referred to as a pavement. is rocky
Table 1.1 (Continued) Glossary of Reef Terminology
Reef crest: The surf zone and the shallowest portion of the reef that approaches atoll islands or the reef at. Reef crests
in the Indo-Pacic often are capped with crustose coralline algae and may pass oceanward into spur and groove systems.
Caribbean atolls may also include reef crests, but red algae commonly are replaced by other wave-resistant organisms
such as robust corals.
Remnant lagoon: Small inactive, pond-like lagoons found on islands that have been uplifted or are otherwise limited
in their capacity to exchange water with the open ocean. Remnant lagoons can be diluted with rainwater and become
brackish or may become hypersaline or dry brines during droughts.
Reticulate reefs: A series of interconnected, net-like ridges found in some lagoon systems. Many represent karst that
formed during lower sea level but now are covered with corals or a sediment veneer. Some lagoons form only partial
reticulations, whereas others form ridges that do not intersect. These structures may represent spatial self-organization,
related to feedbacks during reef growth.
Rim: As dened here, the shallowest portion of the reef platform that extends from the surf zone to the edge of the lagoon,
including the reef crest, reef at, and islands, if any. Some classications include the sand apron or inner reef at as part of
the rim as well.
Sand apron: The inner, lower energy part of the rim in which sediment typically accumulates and coral and red algal
growth is less common. This term is used by some to represent the shallowest area of the lagoon system and by the Allen
Coral Atlas as the innermost portion of the reef at. The apron can reach above the range of local tides, and in the case of
shallow lagoons, the apron may be hundreds of meters to kilometers wide.
Shelf atoll: Non-Darwinian atolls that have formed on continental shelves.
Shingle: Reef-derived sediment of size coarser than sand, commonly formed of rounded fragments of broken corals.
Many high-energy beaches and islands consist of shingle or sand-shingle mixes.
Slope atoll: Atolls that occur on continental slopes.
Spur and groove system: Shallow portion of the forereef that develops a regular promontory (spur) and valley (groove)
arrangement that is heavily solidied by crustose coralline algae and other encrusting organisms. These structures are
thought to form in response to hydrodynamic forces and serve as breakwaters for the reef rim.
Submerged atoll: Atolls that do not form signicant islands or whose rim fails to project above the level of the tides.
Submerged atolls described in the Allen Atlas are no deeper than 15 m, although on occasion some may in sufciently
clear waters to greater depths.
Waveward: The side of an atoll system exposed to the most energetic wind and storm-generated waves, typically the
opposite of the leeward side. Also referred to as the windward or upwind side, although the windward and waveward
margins are not necessarily the same.
Table reef: Reefs with islands that rise from the deep sea to intertidal levels, where they are typically covered with
seawater at high tide but are nearly at and do not possess a lagoon.

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11
substrate can extend slightly above high tide and may
be up to 2 m thick. Pavements are typical of the ex-
posed (waveward) side of Pacic atolls, although they
may occur on the leeward side as well. e compo-
nents are thought to be the product of storm debris
that has become cemented by exposure to freshwa-
ter during sea-level changes that have occurred over
the last 1,000–3,000 years (Woodroe et al., 1999;
Montaggioni et al., 2021).
Atoll rims are aected by waves generated by a va-
riety of forces, from local wind waves to large swells
generated over thousands of kilometers away by ma-
jor wind belts, such as the trade winds, to local or dis-
tant low-pressure systems or cyclones (Hoeke et al.,
2013; Wasserman and Rankey,2013; Shope et al.,
2016). Because dominant local wind direction and
the direction from which the largest waves propagate
may not correspond, here, the more active side of the
atoll is referred to as the waveward side.
Because reefs grow best where there is vigorous
water movement and open-ocean water of low tur-
bidity with consistent temperature and salinity, they
usually are better developed on the waveward sides
of atolls than on the more sheltered, leeward sides.
ese more protected sides of atolls tend to lack a
high coral population density, and reefs are more
poorly consolidated by crustose coralline algae and
other binding agents. In addition, there tend to be
fewer or smaller islands, which contribute to rim
asymmetry that is often readily visible in aerial and
satellite imagery. By contrast, there are atolls, such as
South Maalhosmadulu in the Maldives, that are in-
uenced by monsoonal wind reversals that may form
more symmetrical atolls (e.g., Kenchetal.,2009).
Over time, the waveward rim may accumulate
sediment above sea level to form reef islands. ese
range from simple, unvegetated accumulations of
sand called cays, although they can include coarser,
less mobile carbonate material called shingle as well. If
these combinations of sand and shingle are stable for
some time, they can form the beginnings of v egetated
islands (Stoddart and Steers, 1977). On Pacic atolls
and elsewhere, these vegetated islands commonly in-
clude iconic coconut palms, Pandanus (screw pine),
and broadly branched Pisonia trees which, if not re-
moved for coconut plantations, serve as nesting hab-
itat for many island bird species (e.g., Burger, 2005).
Islands can be elongated and continuous, stand up
to 2–4 m above sea level, and occupy large parts of
the rim. Alternatively, they can be broken up into a
series of smaller islets called motu in the Polynesian
Pacic (Figure 1.7). Atoll islands are dynamic features
whose shorelines respond to changing wave conditions
on decadal or even seasonal timescales (Kench and
Brander, 2006; Rankey, 2011).
Figure 1.7 Motu and hoa on Rangiroa Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia. Ocean water from surf (right) is carried
by narrow channels called hoa in Polynesian through to the lagoon (left). (Image courtesy of © Philippe Bacchet French
Polynesia. See also Rangiroa, Chapter 3.)

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Between the motu are shallow, narrow furrows
called hoa in Polynesian, and they are thought to be
the product of excavation by cyclonic storms (Stod-
dart and Fosberg, 1994). Hoa are typically 50–100
m wide and only 1–2 m deep, but they often are vital
to lagoon circulation, especially if they allow seawa-
ter to be ushed from the lagoon during tidal cycles
(Figure 1.7). ey also contribute to the transport of
sand into and out of the lagoon.
ere is an extensive hoa vocabulary. ere
are functional hoa that readily exchange water
with the open ocean or allow water transport to
the lagoon only during high tides. ese contrast
with semi-functional hoa that are active only dur-
ing storms due to blockage by sediment at the la-
goon end. Conversely, dry hoa, sometimes called
paleohoa, are non-functional and are blocked by
cemented sediment, uplifted islands, or the depo-
sition of ridges by storms (Stoddart and Fosberg,
1994).
In contrast to hoa, passes occur naturally as deep en-
trances through the atoll rim into the lagoon through
which there are major exchanges of water that cycle in
and out of the lagoon with the tides. Passes, sometimes
called ava in Polynesian, are arbitrarily dened by us
as ≥5m deep. e Allen Atlas provides a view of a nat-
ural pass 2 km wide and 54 m deep (Colin et al., 1986)
on the western side of Helen Reef in Palau, western
Caroline Islands. Other large, natural passes include
the northern end of Majuro which is 46 m deep, and
the multiple passes through South Malé in the Mal-
dives that range from 30 to 70 m depth (Yamano et al.,
2002; Suzuki and Kawahata, 2003). By contrast, rela-
tively shallow gaps between islands or island groups are
referred to here as channels. Some channels have been
articially created or enhanced and it can be dicult
to distinguish origins in satellite imagery. Several atoll
rims have been excavated or blasted across the reef to
provide access for small to large boats (‘boat channels’)
from the open ocean to the lagoon as in Funafuti Atoll
in Tuvalu (Yamano etal., 2007).
Rims with passes that are suciently open to
oceanic water exchange and are ushed with some
degree of frequency may develop signicant com-
munity structure including reefs composed of coral
or other calcifying organisms. Reef rims that allow
such exchanges are referred to as open atolls. ose
without passes and with rims that are well dened
are referred to as closed atolls. However, local condi-
tions including higher tides or wind and storm surge
may carry ocean water across low-lying reef ats or
through channels and low spots in the rim with a
degree of frequency that may allow the development
of signicant reef communities even if there are no
passes through the rim. is may be especially true
of atolls with relatively deep lagoons. On the other
hand, the nature or health of the lagoon biota is of-
ten unknown. erefore, we often presume that any
atoll whose rim is low to the water and is apparently
closed (no passes, low spots or channels) is likely to
undergo some exchange with oceanic water. If the
rim of such atolls projects above normal tides, it may
be referred to here as semi‑closed, especially if it pre-
sents a relatively deep lagoon. ere are several ex-
amples of these in the Tuamotu Archipelago and the
South China Sea among other places.
Submerged rims
On some atolls, including most in the Fijian Archipel-
ago, on the North West Australian Shelf, among oth-
ers, the rim surrounding the lagoon may not project
above mean high tide, but their shoal waters still dene
a clear separation of shallow- and deep-water ocean ar-
eas, typically with passes, channels, and low areas that
commonly surround a shallow lagoon. In this regard,
we may dier from some authors who exclude atolls
from those whose rims are within a few meters of the
surface but fail to emerge above it. Such reefs have been
described using a variety of names (Goldberg, 2016),
but we refer to them here as submerged atolls. ere are
also atoll-like forms that fail to exhibit vigorous reef
growth and are at depths that are typically ≥25 m or
more (Abby and Webster, 2011). ese relatively inac-
tive reefs are distinguished as drowned atolls. However,
with satellite resolution limited to about 15 m, we do
not report on many such atolls here. We note, however,
that intermediate cases exist. ese include atolls that
are submerged and yet have a few small terrestrial ar-
eas that project from a considerably larger rim, much
of which is submerged or deeper than 25 m. Bellona
and Chestereld atolls in the eastern Coral Sea are
excellent examples (Chapter 12), as well as Polowat,
Pulusuk, and Minto in the Caroline Islands (Chapter
14). Others such as Cato and Mellish reefs (western
Coral Sea) develop single islets on a larger rim that we
classify as ‘essentially submerged’ whereas many oth-
ers without islands are likely ooded at high tide. We
also referred to these as submerged without creating a
special category for them. In addition, there are partly
drowned atolls such as the Chagos Bank in the Indian
Ocean or Ayawi north of West Papua that develop one
or more small islets on one end, whereas the rest of the
platform is much larger and is submerged to depths of
more than 25 m (see Chapters 13 and 20).
Reef rim zonation and terminology
In general terms, the reef rim represents the shallow-
est areas of atolls and includes islands. ese areas are

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13
characterized by hard substrates dominated by coral
or red algal growth or lithied rocky surfaces such as
the reef pavement described above. ere are a num-
ber of terms used to describe dierent reef zones of
the rim, areas that dier in their degree or energy
and tidal exposure, depth, and the morphology of the
underlying reef platform. We use the terminology of
Kennedy et al. (2000), or modications thereof as
described below, to describe reef zones in order of oc-
currence from the lagoon to the deep ocean.
e Reef Flat is typically a rubble-strewn, gently
sloped or level intertidal platform that generally is
composed of coral gravel cemented by coralline algae
and other calcareous reef organisms. Flats occur adja-
cent to beach sand if islands are present (Figure1.8a)
or extend close to the lagoon if islands are absent. A
narrow at may be tens of meters wide, but in atoll
groups such as the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, they
often extend to 500–1,000 m, and in the Tuamotu
and the Maldive Islands, reef ats as wide as 2,000 m
are common (Blanchon, 2011). Energetic, wave-ex-
posed reef ats may develop narrow inlets called
surge channels, as well as coarse sediment, rubble,
and blocks of coral limestone, that have been depos-
ited by storms (Figure 1.8b and c). All of these are
commonly bound together by biotic or abiotic agents
(Montaggioni et al., 1987 and as described below)
and may be exposed at low tide depending upon the
gradient, rubble size, and tidal amplitude. At low
tide, the reef at may also be only partially exposed
or covered with a few centimeters of water. Hardy
corals and shes and other organisms may survive
brief exposure or may be restricted to tide pools or
larger troughs or moats if they can tolerate large vari-
ations in temperature, salinity, rainfall, and sediment
deposition. is zone represents the upper physical
limit for vertical coral reef growth and further devel-
opment is limited to lateral growth, as allowed by the
extent of the platform. e Allen Atlas distinguishes
an inner reef at that diers from this description by
having a lower direct exposure to waves that leads
to calmer conditions, the accumulation of sediment,
and a lower suitability for corals and algae (see dis-
cussion of reef sand apron below).
e Reef Crest is the seaward break point for
incoming waves and may be considered as the out-
ermost part of the reef at (Figure 1.9a). It extends
from shallowest parts of the reef system, where ver-
tical coral growth has proceeded to the maximal ex-
tent allowed by water depth and tidal variation, out
through the area where breaking waves occur. Reef
crests dissipate an average of 86% of the open-ocean
wave energy and 70% of that from incoming swells
and are therefore important in protecting islands and
lagoon communities from the direct impact of storms
(Ferrario et al., 2014; Kennedy et al., 2020). In the
Indo-Pacic, the waveward reef crest is composed pri-
marily of certain red algae that lay down thick and
dense calcareous sheets and are uniquely resistant to
abrasion, breakage, and the crushing forces typical of
this zone (Figure1.9b). ese reef-forming agents are
referred to as crustose coralline algae (CCA) and their
importance in reef construction is well known (Lit-
tler and Littler, 2013). Such wave-resistant calcareous
structures extend into other shallow-water portions
of the rim, including surge channels in the reef at
(Figure 1.8c), and most signicantly, below the reef
crest as described below. In much of the Caribbean,
in contrast, this red algal portion of the rim is absent,
and the organisms that compose the crests in that re-
gion are more variable and dependent on the degree
of wave exposure (Geister, 1977).
e Reef Slope is the outer, seaward sloping reef,
also referred to the forereef. is zone extends from
below the reef crest and into deeper water gradually
or more rapidly in the case of many atolls. e reef
slope is often broken into subzones that are depend-
ent on conditions of wave energy, depth, and light,
but on the waveward sides of many Indo-Pacic at-
olls, the transition from the reef crest to the reef slope
is accompanied by spur and groove systems that include
regular comb-like CCA-covered (Figure 1.9c) reef
promontories meters to tens of meters high (spurs),
and rubble- or sand-lled notches called grooves.
Corals become a more conspicuous component of
spurs below the level of the tides and in deeper water
(Figure 1.9d) where they act as natural breakwaters
that absorb considerable wave energy (reviewed by
Duce et al., 2016). However, despite their promi-
nence, the details of the formation and maintenance
of these structures are still debated and are beyond
the scope of this work. is highly energetic region
is often obscured in satellite imagery by breaking
waves and marks the outermost seaward point of the
reefrim.
Below the shallow portion of the reef slope,
wave energy decreases but light levels remain
high. e result is typically an increase in coral
diversity, and at a depth of approximately 15–30 m,
the highest diversity of corals and their branching,
mound-like, and plate-like forms are found (e.g.,
Huston, 1985). is Goldilocks zone is depicted in
Figure 1.10a. However, the Allen Atlas geomorphic
view extends to only 15 m and thus characterizes only
the upper portion of this high diversity region. Be-
yond 30 m, the slope of the atoll forereef increases, in
places to near vertical, where corals assume a predomi-
nantly plate-like form to capture light more eciently.
is deep reef zone is called a wall or dropo (Fig-
ure1.10b). Corals and certain algae in this subzone

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Figure 1.8 Character of reef rims. (a) Beach and reef at with reef debris exposed at low tide. Beru Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiri-
bati. (b) Coarse rubble on the reef at close to the reef crest. Aranuka Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. (Photos (a) and (b) by Gene
Rankey.) (c) Reef rim at Reao Atoll, including a satellite view of the reef at and adjacent environments on the waveward side of
Reao. Note surge channels extending into the reef at (*) and to the submerged spur and groove system (S & G), described in
more detail in Figure 9.1. (Aranuka and Beru atolls are further described in Chapter 9 and Reao in Chapter 3.)

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15
persist on steep slopes to depths of more than 100 m as
on Enewetak Atoll (Colin et al., 1986).
Lagoons: variation and zonation
e presence of a lagoon inside the rim is characteristic
of atolls and is the reason why they were once called la-
goon islands. ese features vary considerably in both
area and depth, and this information is documented
for each atoll in the following chapters of this volume
where the data are available. In most cases, the lagoon
accounts for the largest proportion of atoll area, and
larger lagoons are commonly deeper than smaller ones,
but this is not always the case. As an example, the la-
goon of Rangiroa Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago
(French Polynesia) has a lagoon area of 1,580 km2 and
a maximal depth of 70 m. By contrast, the lagoon of
Sapwuahk Atoll in the eastern Caroline Islands is far
smaller with an area of 86.5 km2, but the lagoon is up
to 159 m deep (Purdy and Winterer, 2001) and may be
the deepest of any atoll.
e shallower pa rts of lagoons may var y in compo-
sition. On many atolls, the rim behind the reef crest,
the reef at, and islands is a shallow, lower energy
zone where sediment including rubble, gravel, and
especially sand produced on the reef crest is driven
toward the deeper lagoon or its periphery by waves,
tides, and currents. is area is often referred to
as a reef sand apron, which can be more than a km
wide and covers 20% of the reef platform on average
(Rankey and Garza-Pérez, 2012). Many geologists
and geomorphologists include the sand apron as
part of the reef at (see the above discussion of that
area), whereas others consider it as part of the la-
goon; all agree that it is a transitional zone. It can be
partially exposed depending on the amplitude of the
tide, storm conditions, and angle into deeper water.
It may develop sediment bars, dunes or ripples in
response to wave and current forcing ( Figure 1.11a).
Atolls with shallow lagoons commonly include
wide sand aprons as on several atolls including
Kure at the end of the Hawaiian Island chain and
Midway Atoll whose lagoons appear to be lling with
sediment (Isaack and Gischler, 2015). Conversely, on
many of the Caroline and Marshall Islands where
deep lagoons are found, the sand apron is narrow
and is an apparent testimony of the ability of such la-
goons to accommodate considerable sand transport.
Figure 1.9 Spur and groove systems. (a) Satellite view of the spur and groove system of Vahanga Atoll (Tuamotu Islands,
French Polynesia) as it projects above the tide, into the reef crest breaker zone, and below low tide. (b) Crustose coralline algae
at the reef crest form thick, reddish-pink sheets of dense, wave-resistant calcium carbonate, shown here exposed at low tide on
Aranuka Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. (Photo by Gene Rankey). (c) Several species of coralline red algal growth on spur growth
at Starbuck Island, Southern Line Islands, Kiribati. (Courtesy of Maggie Smith, Scripps, UC San Diego.) (d) Underwater view of
spur and groove system, Palmyra Atoll, Northern Line Islands, Kiribati. (Image courtesy of JS Rogers, Stanford University.)
(See Vahanga (Chapter 3), Aranuka and Starbuck (Chapter 9), and Palmyra atoll (Chapter 10), respectively, for details.)

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However, there is additional evidence to suggest a
reverse process of transport of sediment from the
lagoon toward the reef platform, indicating the dy-
namic nature of the apron (e.g., Ortiz and Ashton,
2019; Rankey, 2021).
Coralline features within the lagoon (and else-
where) generally include patch reefs, which refer
to isolated areas of reef that are detached from the
main reef system perhaps by sand, erosion, mortal-
ity, or growth, and they are generally small but large
enough, perhaps at least 40–50 m2, to be distin-
guished individually by satellite imagery. However,
patch reefs may also be dened by morphology (e.g.,
single, coalesced, linear, or reticulate). ey can also
be dened by location (e.g., lagoon patch, reef at,
outer reef patches) or by morphology (e.g., knolls,
mounds, bommies) or even by their pinnacles if they
arise from deep lagoon waters (Kennedyetal.,2020).
We refer to discrete reef areas as patches and elon-
gated linear patches as ribbons. We may also use the
Figure 1.10 Outer reef slope, Swallow Atoll (aka Pulau Layang-Layang or Danwan), Spratly Chain, South China Sea (Chapter
19). (a) Shallow outer reef slope (below reef crest) with diverse coral groups including platy and branching forms. (b) Deep
outer reef slope showing the edge of the wall or dropoff. (Photos by Gene Rankey.)

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17
term ‘patchy’ to describe discontinuities in atoll fea-
tures such as sand deposits, the reef crest, or deep
outerreefs.
Atolls with suciently protected areas including
the lee side of shorelines, islands, or lagoons may de-
velop seagrass meadows like in several of the north-
ern Gilbert Islands (Figure 1.11b). Extensive seagrass
areas have also been reported from inner lagoons or
behind vegetated islets of Kwajalein and several other
atolls in the Marshall Islands (McKenzie et al., 2021).
Indonesian atolls may form extensive seagrass mead-
ows in the lagoon or in protected areas of the reef at
(Tomascik et al., 1997; this volume). In the Western
Atlantic, large areas of Alacrán, Glovers, and Light-
house atoll lagoons are covered with seagrass, and
on Turnee Atoll, the largest in the Caribbean, the
lagoon contains 36,643 ha of these owering plants
(Wabnitz et al., 2008; Fedler, 2018). Seagrasses host
a greater abundance of burrowing organisms than
surrounding bare soft bottoms because the extensive
root systems serve as refuges from predation, provide
greater habitat complexity, increased food supplies,
more stable substrata, and create hydrodynamic
conditions that are especially favorable for larval
settlement. Bivalve molluscs are especially abundant
in these habitats, including those that are exploited
for human consumption (Paulay, 2000).
On some atolls with shallow and protected lagoon
shorelines, mangrove communities may become
well developed. On Turnee in the Caribbean, al-
most all of the lagoon is red mangrove habitat, and
due to restricted circulation, there are no lagoonal
patch reefs (Gischler and Hudson, 1998). While at-
olls are more often bereft of mangroves (e.g., most
of French Polynesia), some form more modest man-
grove communities on reef ats, inland, and on the
margin of lagoons (Spalding et al., 2010). Inland
mangroves occur on the islands of Tuvalu and are
particularly extensive in the protection of reef-
top islands or in and around some of the almost
land-locked lagoons (Woodroe, 1987). On Beru
Atoll in the southern Gilbert Islands, a well-devel-
oped mangrove community occurs in the shallows
of the lagoon as it does elsewhere in Kiribati
(Figure 1.11c). Mangroves provide signicant bene-
ts for atoll environments that include shoreline and
sediment stabilization by their extensive root systems,
which in turn provide resistance to the erosive eects
Figure 1.11 Shallow lagoon environments. (a) Ripples and small dunes indicate sand transport on the sand apron, here
exposed at low tide. Aranuka Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati (Chapter 9). (b) Nearshore seagrass meadow in a shallow water
lagoon, Aranuka Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. (c) Nearshore mangroves, Beru Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. Mangroves can
stabilize shorelines and prevent erosion. (d) Ghost shrimp mounds with scattered seagrass in the deeper water, low-energy
lagoon, Aranuka Atoll, Gilbert Islands, Kiribati. (Photos by Gene Rankey. See details in Chapter 9.)

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18
of wind, waves, and currents. e roots also provide
a ltration eect that improves lagoon water quality.
e high production of leaves and leaf litter addition-
ally promotes food web complexity and ultimately
serves as a source of resources for local communities.
However, they are also vulnerable to human impacts,
especially increasing population densities, and
because mangroves are primarily intertidal,
they are additionally vulnerable to sea level rise
(Ellison et al., 2017).
e oors of lagoons protected from strong wind,
waves, and currents represent the lowest energy envi-
ronment of many atolls, and in these quiet areas, ne
sediment accumulates. Lagoon soft-bottom commu-
nities commonly are dominated by small gastropods,
polychaete worms, and various crustacean groups
that dier in their feeding habits, but all are burrow-
ers that intensely rework the sediment. One group,
‘ghost’ shrimp of the family Callianassidae ejects sed-
iment from burrows that often reach depths of two
meters. is creates the irregular hallmark mounds
on the lagoon oor, which can reach reach a height of
up to 20 cm as shown in Figure1.11d (e.g., Suchanek
et al., 1986). Due to intense sediment turnover, these
organisms contribute signicantly to both lateral and
vertical sediment mixing. ey also increase oxygen
levels within the sediment and can inuence ecosys-
tem functions including lagoonal nutrient exchange
and community structure (Koike and Mukai, 1983;
Posey, 1986).
Where lagoon waters are suciently circulated,
a shallow patch reef community can develop in the
shallower parts of the lagoon. Some authors refer
to this region as a back reef, but reef communities
that develop behind the reef crest are given the same
name. We use lagoon slope (= back reef slope of the
Allen Atlas which does not pertain to atolls) to de-
scribe the shallow margin of lagoon and the slope into
the deeper parts of the lagoon system. Patch reefs are
common in lagoon shallows, especially near openings
through the rim or in the lee of a submerged rim where
there is enhanced exchange of seawater. However,
they vary extensively in area, vertical relief, and coral
diversity, according to local conditions. Glovers Reef
lagoon is 5–18 m deep and is studded with more than
860 randomly distributed patch reefs (Figure 1.12)
that vary in composition and are open to ocean ex-
change due to three windward channels through the
Figure 1.12 Well-developed patch reefs in the of Glovers Reef, Belize, western Caribbean. (See Chapter 22.) Image ©2021,
Planet Labs PBC.

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19
rim (Gischler and Lomando, 1999). Patch reefs on
atolls with deeper lagoons may continue downslope
to a typical depth of about 20 m where they may be
widely dispersed or coalesce into larger ridge- or rib-
bon-like structures (Blanchon, 2011).
Many atolls develop steep, cone-like projections
called pinnacles that may rise from even the deepest
parts of the lagoon. e Allen Atlas shows that many
of the Tuamotu Atolls prominently display these
peaks, and Andréfouët etal.(2020) count 1,618 of
them in Raroia Atoll (Figure 1.13a). e abundance
of pinnacles in this region and the species richness
of corals, molluscs, and other organisms are corre-
lated with a lagoon that freely exchanges seawater
through openings in the rim, especially passes and
submerged reef ats. Atolls with larger, open lagoons
in the Tuamotu group are particularly well suited to
high pinnacle numbers and lagoon species diversity
(Adjeroud et al., 2000). Wherever they occur, these
structures are either covered with sediment and are
depicted in yellow by the Allen Atlas or they exhibit
relatively recent coral growth and are encircled or
covered by coral/algae. Pinnacles are thought to have
formed during the last glaciation or earlier but are
likely to be the result of successional growth during
interglacial periods and erosion by waves during gla-
cial-stage low sea levels (Montaggioni et al., 2019).
Some atoll lagoons display a series of ridges that are
sometimes interconnected in a honeycomb-like pat-
tern creating separate basins within the lagoon referred
Figure 1.13 Lagoon pinnacles and reticulate reefs. (a) Raroia Atoll (Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia), displaying
>1,600 reef pinnacles in the deep lagoon. See also Raroia, Chapter 3. (b) Caroline Island (aka Millennium) with well-developed
net-like pattern of reticulated reefs in its lagoon and other benthic features as described by the Allen Coral Atlas. (See also
Kiribati, Chapter 9.)

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20
to as cells or pools. ese are referred to as reticulate
reef structures (Figure 1.13b). While found on fringing
reefs and in barrier reef lagoons, this arrangement is
so distinctive and common among Pacic atolls that
Guilcher (1988) recognized them as a distinct group.
Examples include Atafu (Tokelau), Manihiki (Cook
Islands), Mataiva (Tuamotu Islands), Kanton (Kiri-
bati), and Pearl and Hermes (Hawai’i) among many
others. Reticulate reefs are also present on Alacrán reef
in the Yucatan region of the Gulf of Mexico. ere is
considerable variation among such reticulate systems.
Some display intersecting ridges that are incomplete
and occupy part of the lagoon, while others form more
or less parallel ridges that do not intersect and do not
form pools. We describe such lagoons in the context
of each atoll in the chapters that follow. While a karst
origin has been proposed for these formations, some
authors have suggested that reticulate reefs emerge as
a result of feedbacks between organisms and their en-
vironments, as a process of self-organization (Schlager
and Purkis, 2014).
Many islands are former atolls whose small
and shallow lagoons have lled with sediment
(Figure 1.14a) as part of their natural life cycle.
Tikei (Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia)
is one of several small atolls with shallow lagoons
that have been lled with coral blocks and sand
due to cyclonic and other storms during the last
few 1,000 years (Salvat, 2009). e center remains
as a shallow sink that collects freshwater, but the
rim is only slightly higher than the interior (Agas-
siz, 1900). A discontinuous ring of coral occurs on
the outer reef along the northern half of the island
(Allen Coral Atlas). In other cases, the lagoon may
become isolated as one or several ponds that have
become isolated from the surrounding ocean. De-
pending on location and perhaps the season, these
ponds may become brackish or hypersaline. Some
authors refer to islands with these characteristics as
table reefs, although this term originally referred to
reefs with islands that rise from the deep sea to in-
tertidal levels, where they are typically covered with
seawater at high tide but are nearly at and do not
possess a lagoon (Tayama, 1935). We refer to islands
with reduced or diminished lagoons as atoll islands
with remnant lagoons, and we classify them sepa-
rately from other such atolls. Likewise, some small
islands may arise from reefs but neither the reefs nor
the islands develop an interior lagoon. Kili, Jabat,
and Jemo in the Marshall Islands are examples of
such landforms that are not atolls.
Uplifted atolls are on the other end of the at-
oll scale where lagoons typically do not exist (al-
though there are exceptions presented in Section
1.2). e island of Makatea, for example, (also in
the Tuamotu group) is uplifted as much as 113 m
above sea level (Figure 1.14b). ere are prominent
clis on all sides up to 75 m high that began about
2 million years ago, associated with the activity of
the nearby Tahiti volcanic complex. Makatea is now
a favorite destination for rock climbers. e fore-
ground shows the rubble-strewn reef at ~10 m wide
solidied with coralline algae; pools remain at low
tide, while seawater covers the reef at from about
0.3 m (as shown) to about a meter deep. e pla-
teau-like summit is replete with large solution features
(karst) that range from potholes to large sinkholes
75 m deep, testifying to long periods of exposure to
rainwater. Phosphate mining that continued until
the 1960s added to the moonscape-like quality of
the island’s upper surface. A fringing coral commu-
nity surrounds the island on the outer reef extending
100 m from the cli base (Montaggionietal., 1987;
Montaggioni and Camoin, 1997).
Non-Darwinian atolls
Shelf and slope atolls
As outlined above, classic Darwinian forms oc-
cur on deep-water, open ocean, subsiding volcanic
platforms, and to some workers, these are the only
true atolls. However, there are relatives of the atoll
family that have become widely accepted as atolls,
whereas others are confused with them and should
be separated. In general, there are two additional
classes of atolls that do not form on open-ocean,
volcanic foundations, but have the same morpho-
logical characteristics. e most common of these
are atolls that occur on continental shelves. Aus-
tralia’s North West Shelf, for example, developed
a large barrier reef about 10 million years ago,
when it subsequently underwent rapid subsidence.
Growth on much of the reef complex could not
keep up with subsidence, and although most reefs
drowned, the barrier did provide a foundation for
the growth of several existing atolls (e.g., McCarey
et al., 2020), as described in Chapter 17.
Some shelf atolls oshore Belize, western Carib-
bean, include reef-associated deposits more than 500
m thick formed from an ancient submarine ridge
that broke into fault blocks and began to subside
(Gischler and Hudson, 1998). Others grow rapidly
from a gently dipping carbonate substrate, including
Alacrán reef in the Gulf of Mexico on the Yucatan
continental shelf, which rises from water 50 to 60 m
deep (Liddell and Tunnell, 2011). In addition, there
are two Caribbean atolls (Courtown and Albuquer-
que cays) that arise from volcanic foundations at a
depth of 1,000 m (Diazetal.,1996).

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21
Figure 1.14 Filled lagoons and uplifted atolls. (a) The lagoon of Tikei (Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia) has lled
and is now a subtle low point in the center of the island. Image © 2022, Planet Labs PBC. (b) The former atoll Makatea
in the Tuamotu Archipelago, French Polynesia, uplifted by nearby volcanic activity about two million years ago, now
displays cliffs up to 75 m high and a total elevation of 113 m. Note the rubble-strewn reef at with darker tide pools in the
foreground. Photo courtesy of C. Serra and © La Direction de l’Environment de La Polynésie française (DIREN).)

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Other atoll-like features are quite varied. e
platforms that form the bases of many atolls in the
South China Sea initially developed during rifting
and block faulting of the continental shelves, where
they were once-more-extensive reefs and paleo-atolls
(Steuer et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2016). Many pres-
ent-day atolls there represent the hearty survivors of
several drowning events since the Miocene (~23–5.3
million years ago). Most of these features in that re-
gion are shelf atolls, although Wang (1998) describes
ten that formed on continental slopes and are called
slope atolls. Likewise, Tomascik et al. (1997) describe
a large number of atolls on the continental shelves
of Indonesia, a geologically complex region where
there have been relatively few studies. Muraras At-
oll, 90 km o the coast of Borneo, rises from a depth
of 300 m and is an example of an Indonesian slope
atoll, and there are several others on the North West
Shelf of Australia (Wilson, 2013). Additionally, the
Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean appear to have
formed on non-volcanic, at-topped carbonate ter-
races on the continental slope that developed coral
communities in response to multiple changes in sea
level related to ice sheet formation and melting over
the last few million years (Droxler and Jorry, 2021).
Banks, shoals, and other problems
of terminology
In his monograph, e Coral Reef Problem, Davis
(1928) categorized any coralline buildup lying back
from the edge of continental shelves as a bank reef.
e term ‘bank’ is also often applied to reefs and
other shallow areas of the seabed that fail to reach
the surface. Geomorphically, a bank can be dened
as an isolated or cluster of elevations of the sea oor
over which the water depth is relatively shallow but
is safe for navigation (Ban and Sung, 2019). is
general denition often does not work well for coral
reefs. Some coral banks occur in cold or deep water
and never were tropical or shallow (Freiwald, 2002).
Conversely, atoll-like structures with submerged
rims in warmer waters are sometimes also described
as banks or bank atolls, whether they are hazards
to navigation or not (Vecsei, 2000; Woodroe and
Biribo, 2011). In addition, there are traditional
nautical descriptions that have been applied to sub-
merged atolls that include naming them as shoals
or reefs, neither of which adequately distinguishes
them, but these names are indelibly applied to
standard maps and charts. e eect of this elastic
and vague terminology is considerable. More than
90% of the atolls in the South China Sea, nearly all
of those in Fiji, and eight of ten in the Western At-
lantic include few or no islands, but whose rims and
lagoons are clearly dened (Goldberg, 2016). Such
cases are included in the imagery and descriptions
presented here.
Categorization of partially rimmed atolls on con-
tinental shelves is even more vexatious. For example,
partly rimmed atolls including Chinchorro, Ron-
cador, and Serrana in the Western Atlantic are still
referred to as banks, as well as three in the South
China Sea, among others. ere are also atolls such
as Ayawi in Indonesia that present a small island on
one end, while most of the remaining rim lies at a
depth of 28 m or more. is might be called a partly
drowned atoll. Velasco Reef in Palau is partially
rimmed as well, but while it reaches sea level to the
south, the rim is generally 15 m deep and it is consid-
ered a drowned atoll (Guilcher, 1988, Colin, 2008).
Portland Bank in the Gambier Islands (French Pol-
ynesia) is currently at a depth of −50 m and contin-
ues to sink (Pirazzoli, 1985). is is more clearly a
drowned atoll, but these distinctions are sometimes
dicult indeed.
A note on oceanographic terms
and processes
Oceanographic inuences on atolls are quite varied
across the globe. us, in addition to describing the
distribution of atolls and providing remote sensing
images of each of them, we also provide data that
characterize wind, waves, and tides for examples
from each area. Methods are described in detail in
Chapter 2, but here we provide a brief overview.
Wind data are discussed in the context of wind
roses. ese graphs illustrate the direction from
which winds blow (azimuth) and the speed of those
winds (by color). Wave data are documented as peak
waves or the most energetic waves of the entire wave
spectrum. Akin to wind data, waves are displayed as
plots documenting the direction from which waves
propagate and their signicant wave height, a stand-
ard oceanographic metric representing the average
height of the largest 1/3 of waves.
Tides are illustrated for a representative month.
Tides are complex, but can be classied as semidi-
urnal, diurnal, and mixed. Semidiurnal tides include
two high tides and two low tides every 24 hours and
50 minutes (a lunar day). In contrast, diurnal tides
have only one high and one low tide during a lunar
day. Mixed tides describe those with a mixture of di-
urnal and semidiurnal, expressed as two highs and
two lows each day, but exhibit a marked inequality
(e.g., a low tide and a high low tide each lunar day).
Most atolls experience semidiurnal tides, and a few
have strictly or dominantly diurnal tides (e.g., the
South China Sea, the central Caroline Islands, and

A Global Atlas of Atolls
A Global Atlas of Atolls
22
23
the Gulf of Mexico). However, mixed tides also oc-
cur across wide areas with atolls (e.g., NW Hawai’i,
parts of the Caroline and Indonesian islands, and ar-
eas around the Solomon Islands).
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