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The Evolution of the White Ally- The Double Edged Sword of White Privilege

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Abstract

Evolution paved the way for many social constructs. Race is the social construct of evolution. Europeans are the least genetically diverse race thus resulting in their toxic individualism and white privilege. Europeans were the last race to settle. The Europeans are part of the Causcioids and diverged out of the Mongoloids. The Mongoloids had previously diverged out of the Negroids. Thus, emerged the two main political divisions of the Europeans, the conservatives and the liberals. The conservatives care less about nature. The liberals care more about nature. Such is the result of being removed from genetic diversity by mutations due to cold weather. The current threat of climate change is posed to global genetic diversity due to global warming. Europeans originate from decreased genetic diversity due to cooling. Thus, Europeans may instinctively know of the benefits of cooler weather towards them, so by the Lindy effect they created the Democratic party of the United States of America. The Democratic Party is the oldest voter based political party in the world and has always been about representing the common man. Capitalism was created and performed largely due to the individualism of Europeans. As such, Wagner's Law represents the move of many Europeans towards liberalism both socially and fiscally. Even if Europeans believe themselves to be conservatives, they still are part of a trend of increasing social and fiscal liberalism consciously or not. Rather exemplary are the three presidents of the progressive era. All racially European. All fiscally and socially progressive with respect to their era. Thus, white privilege is largely the benefits of individualism and the increased capability to have stronger political power as either a liberal or a conservative. White Privilege Theorem: (group theory), A theorem which proves that, given Plato's forms demonstrating the barrier between the abstract and the concrete, the Lindy effect supporting the Democrats because they are the oldest lasting voter based political party in the planet, the Fundamental theorem of calculus supporting the category fiscal being a derivative of the category social and their integration with their common category of liberalism, as well Europeans being privileged due to being the evolutionary derivative of all other races, and the physics of entropy barring the concrete from the abstract, and Wagner's Law further exemplifying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the Europeans have a privilege that they can either use for progress or regress of civilization. https://www.amazon.com/gp/aw/d/B0BQG94G2P?ref_=dbs_p_pwh_awm_anx_cl_1&storeType=ebooks.
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Alexander Ohnemus
No Professor
Evolutionary Biology/Applied Mathematics
16 December 2022
The Evolution of the White Ally: The Double Edged Sword of White Privilege
Evolution paved the way for many social constructs. Race is the social construct of
evolution. Europeans are the least genetically diverse race thus resulting in their toxic
individualism and white privilege. Europeans were the last race to settle. The Europeans are part
of the Causcioids and diverged out of the Mongoloids. The Mongoloids had previously diverged
out of the Negroids. Thus, emerged the two main political divisions of the Europeans, the
conservatives and the liberals. The conservatives care less about nature. The liberals care more
about nature. Such is the result of being removed from genetic diversity by mutations due to cold
weather. The current threat of climate change is posed to global genetic diversity due to global
warming. Europeans originate from decreased genetic diversity due to cooling. Thus, Europeans
may instinctively know of the benefits of cooler weather towards them, so by the Lindy effect
they created the Democratic party of the United States of America. The Democratic Party is the
oldest voter based political party in the world and has always been about representing the
common man. Capitalism was created and performed largely due to the individualism of
Europeans. As such, Wagner's Law represents the move of many Europeans towards liberalism
both socially and fiscally. Even if Europeans believe themselves to be conservatives, they still
are part of a trend of increasing social and fiscal liberalism consciously or not. Rather exemplary
2
are the three presidents of the progressive era. All racially European. All fiscally and socially
progressive with respect to their era. Thus, white privilege is largely the benefits of individualism
and the increased capability to have stronger political power as either a liberal or a conservative.
Humans are genetically very close so, there are more differences between individuals
than between races. "Race, as it is now generally accepted by scientists, is not a biological reality
but rather reflects the cultural and social underpinnings originally used to justify slavery and that
live on in a myriad of ways. Instead of race, geneticists now prefer the term genetic
ancestry"(Baker 2021). No gene has been identified to be racial. Populations are constructed
based on social trends of the past. Genetic ancestry is determined by population membership.
The most common traits of the Europeans are recessive because they are mutated and
products of a small enough gene pool to preserve them. "Inbreeding is useful in the retention of
desirable characteristics or the elimination of undesirable ones, but it often results in decreased
vigor, size, and fertility of the offspring because of the combined effect of harmful genes that
were recessive in both parents"(Britannica 2022). The racial Europeans do not seem to be
suffering due to inbreeding so they must have enough genetic variation to withhold from
diseases. That can be determined by an evolutionary development known as common sense. Plus
many psychological issues originate from the identity issues of being mixed race.
Europeans are offshoots from the Asians this explains the small size of the European
gene pool and their high possession of recessive lighter traits. "Surprisingly, the European
individuals did not form an independent clade, but branched within the East Asians. We then
estimated the divergence time of the root of the European clade as 41,000 years ago. These data
indicate that, contrary to traditional views, Europeans diverged from East Asians around that
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time"(Tateno 2014). The origin of Europeans is less surprising to other researchers. It is quite
intuitive that the population with the most recessive traits originated from another. The time
period of around 41,000 must have allowed for several mutations. Mutations paved the way for
white privilege. Traditional views have not been established. The definition of traditional can
often be subjective and arbitrary.
The citation in the paragraph above is supported more by the claim that Causcioids and
Mongoloids used to be the same group. " Genetic distance estimates suggest that among the three
major races of man the first divergence occurred about 120,000 years ago between Negroid and a
group of Caucasoid and Mongoloid and then the latter group split into Caucasoid and Mongoloid
around 60,000 years ago. It is also shown that the genetic identity between man and chimpanzee
corresponds to a divergence time of 4–6 million years if the assumption of constant rate of amino
acid substitution is correct"(Nei 1978). History is highly complicated so determining a point of
separation is most difficult. The more complicated a subject the more room to make mistakes.
The practice of following the money can be very beneficial in determining what information is
correct. People with skin in the game are more likely to tell the truth. With the Causcioids being
the least genetically diverse it is intuitive that they are the last group. Group movements of the
past were social and led to the social construct of race.
Many genetic researchers have concluded Europeans are more homogeneous. "FST
values are the variances of gene frequencies among populations divided by the variances due to
sampling [6]: they measure standardized between-population genetic differences. They are lower
in Europe than in other parts of the world, and this is initial evidence for the genetic homogeneity
of Europeans when compared with the populations of other continents"(Cavalli-Sforza 1993).
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Rationalist evidence has already indicated that European populations are more genetically
homogeneous. For one the recessive lighter traits that are present in Europeans. The phenotype
of the racial European is more recessive than any other. For two that they separated from every
other population in a bottle neck. Now there is the empirical evidence of the sampling.
According to a fact checking site for politics the Democrats are the oldest political party
in the world. " "(Dirr 2016). If something is mostly true then it is true for most
purposes. What would be the importance of this being true? Perhaps assessments that follow in
this essay.
Assuming the Democratic party is consistent enough that its agenda must be rather
desired by society thus summoning Lindy's Law. "Interestingly, aging applies to physical objects
in the real world, and anti-aging applies to abstract objects in worlds of human invention and
imagination. Indeed, Lindy’s Law holds in contexts such as technology, books, music, art, ideas,
and institutions: things that are around for long the wheel, the Bible, Beethoven’s ninth, La
Gioconda, money, the Catholic Church are also likely to stay around for long"(Eliazar 2017).
Thus, the Democratic party, and its agenda that has remained consistent, will likely remain
around for long. The Democratic Party is likely to remain a strong force. The abstract ideas of
the Democratic Party are likely to survive as well and to anti age. Perhaps because society has
determined some Democratic values as survival heuristics.
Economics, mathematics, statistics, philosophy, physics and psychology can jointly
describe the relationship that may have led to the growth and anti-aging of the Democratic
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Party's abstract ideas. "Until the 20th century, most societies devoted about 1.5% of their GDP to
social spending, and generally much less than that. In the last 100 years, that’s changed: today
the current global median of social spending is 22% of GDP"(Pinker 2018). This empirical
evidence backs Wagner's Law. Wagner's Law is increasingly liberal fiscal policy following
industrialization. The rise in the percentage of social spending has increased. The median
percentage of the GDP spent on social spending has increased. Perhaps the rationalist evidence
preceding that empiricism would be of contextual value. "The law[Wagner's Law] is based on
three claims: economic growth results in an increase in complexity requiring continued
introduction of new laws and development of the legal structure; urbanization increases negative
externalities, such as congestion and crime, which necessitate intervention; and the goods
supplied by the public sector have a high income elasticity of demand"(Oxford). The products
created can result in the need for new laws. Urbanization can create negative externalities. These
claims may be untrue in practice. However, Pinker's empirical evidence demonstrates that
Wagner's Law is rather effective despite possible paradoxes. Rationality and skeptical
empiricism are probably the most reliable ways to collect evidence.
Wagner's law can also be modeled by the fundamental theorem of calculus considering
that the fiscal is a derivative of the social. "This particularly elegant theorem[The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus] shows the inverse function relationship of the derivative and the integral
and serves as the backbone of the physical sciences"(Britannica 2022). Perhaps the fundamental
theorem of calculus is also applicable to the social sciences. The category of the fiscal is a
derivative of the category of the social. When a third category, liberalism, draws fiscal and social
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closer together, they begin to integrate. A correlation could further explain this application of the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. A correlation is "the state or relation of being correlated
specifically : a relation existing between phenomena or things or between mathematical
or statistical variables which tend to vary, be associated, or occur together in a way not expected
on the basis of chance alone"(Merriam-Webster). Statistics are the barrier that separates social
sciences from the humanities. The fiscal being a derivative of the social is reasonable because
society created money. Society decided to use money. The popular opinion leading to money use
is the result of social trends. Therefore, the third category of liberalism begins to cause a
correlation between social and fiscal trends.
Towards the philosophical evidence is Plato's theory of forms. "In this interpretation, the
“pure being” of the forms consists of their being perfect exemplars of themselves and not
exemplars of anything else"(Britannica). Plato's theory of forms is why theory does not match
practice. Or why ideas do not match the real world exactly. The difference between mathematics
and physics can be attributed to forms. The difference between the abstract and the can be
attributed to forms.
Entropy is an occurrence in the physical world that is the result of the theory of forms
being true. "entropy , Measure of a system’s energy that is unavailable for work, or of the degree
of a system’s disorder"(Drake 2022). Disorder causes the difficulty to abstract the concrete.
Disorder causes the concrete to have so many variables that are not easily abstracted. This can be
further exemplified by the theory of relativity and the illusion of time.
The theory of relativity further demonstrates the ongoing life of the Democratic
consistent abstract ideas. "relativity, Concept in physics that measurements change when
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considered by observers in various states of motion"(Perkowitz 2021). If time is relative then it is
also an illusion. Once someone dies time ceases to be an illusion for them and they go on to a
world of only forms. Upon death one enters the afterlife of forms. That is unless they are
reincarnated. As such, the connection exists that the correlation between two variables can be the
integration of two categories by another common category. The Lindy Effect also ties into that
by making it that imperishable entities anti age.
Assuming Democrats have had a set of consistent values then it makes sense that those
are liberal values. Liberal values are fairness and openness to experience (Haidt 2014). As such,
the Lindy effect of the increasing popularity of the Democratic party is also based upon the
consistent widely shared abstract ideas of openness to experience and fairness. Liberal abstract
ideas are very much supported by the Lindy effect.
More specific examples perhaps are essential to showcase the evolution of the White
Ally. "The presidents most associated with the Progressive Era are Theodore Roosevelt, William
Taft, and Woodrow Wilson. During the times these guys held office, trusts were busted, national
parks were founded, social programs were enacted, and tariffs were lowered"(Hostos 2022).
Theodore Roosevelt was a precursor to a white ally. William Taft was a precursor to a white ally.
Woodrow Wilson was a precursor to a white ally. They are all enacted to assist the most
vulnerable of the society which is progressive.
A useful practice is to note the precursor to a movement. "In 1897 he(McKinley) signed
the Dingley Tariff, the highest protective tariff in American history to that time"(Britannica
2022). Signing a protective tariff is a move to help the most vulnerable of a community. That is
progressive even if not in name. More tangible evidence is available to showcase McKinley as
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the precursor to the progressive movement. "In 1898 the USS Maine exploded and sank in the
harbor of Havana, Cuba, then a colony of Spain; believing the Spanish responsible, McKinley
demanded independence for the island, which Spain refused. The U.S. easily won the brief
Spanish-American War. McKinley supported ratification of the peace treaty that ceded the
Spanish possessions of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S., claiming that the
U.S. had an obligation to assume responsibility for 'the welfare of an alien people.' Following his
inauguration in 1901 he began a speaking tour of the western states, during which he urged
control of the trusts and commercial reciprocity to boost foreign trade"(Britannica 2022). The
timeline of 1898 to 1901 is three years outlining progressive forerunning. McKinley seeking
retribution for the USA after a suspected Spanish attack was a highly assertive demonstration of
his care for ordinary citizens. McKinley also demonstrated prudence by starting a war that was
easily won. His discretion must have been high. Assuming the responsibility for the welfare of
alien people is also progressive. The rise in progressivism is rather tangible. McKinley was
differently a precursor to the progressive era.
As is common knowledge, all the presidents of the progressive era and before were
racially European men. "Theodore Roosevelt, known as Teddy Roosevelt, (born Oct. 27, 1858,
New York, N.Y., U.S.—died Jan. 6, 1919, Oyster Bay, N.Y.), 26th president of the U.S.
(1901–09)"(Cooper 2022). Teddy Roosevelt was the president that followed McKinley.
Roosevelt was the first official progressive president according to many historians. The lindy
effect of progressivism could be observed during his term along with the integration and
correlation of the fiscal and social exemplified by Wagner's Law. "Square Deal , description by
U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt (served 1901–09) of his personal approach to current social
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problems and the individual. It embraced Roosevelt's idealistic view of labor, citizenship,
parenthood, and Christian ethics"(Britannica 2022). The Square Deal was one of Roosevelt's
social programs. The idea of it being a square deal arose from Roosevelt's framing implying
fairness. "Roosevelt characterized his actions as striving toward a “Square Deal” between capital
and labor, and those words became his campaign slogan in 1904 …"(Britannica 2020). Roosevelt
appeared to have fairness ranked high in his hierarchy of values. A square deal is the fairness
between capital and labor. He was probably in favor of labor unions.
Following Teddy Roosevelt was Taft who split from the progressive trend but still
remained in some issues and faced tremendous backlash and ultimate defeat for attempting to be
conservative. "He won the election but became allied with the conservative Republicans, causing
a rift with party progressives. He was again the nominee in 1912, but the split with Roosevelt
and the Bull Moose Party resulted in the electoral victory of Woodrow Wilson''(Britannica 2022).
Having been chosen by Roosevelt as a successor and contributor to the progressive agenda he
later allied with the conservative Republicans. Taft received much backlash. Roosevelt formed a
third party in an attempt to prevent Taft from winning the reelection. Perhaps Roosevelt noted
Woodrow Wilson was the nominee for the Democrats. Maybe Roosevelt wanted Wilson to win
so he divided the republican vote. Despite Taft's conservative shift and the backlash he received
for it, Taft is still considered a member of the progressive movement to a lesser extent than
Roosevelt and Wilson.
Woodrow Wilson was another precursor to white allies. "Woodrow Wilson, (born Dec.
28, 1856, Staunton, Va., U.S.—died Feb. 3, 1924, Washington, D.C.), 28th president of the U.S.
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(1913–21)"(Cooper 2022). Woodrow Wilson was a president. Wilson was the last president of
the progressive era. Wilson was the 28th president.
Wilson had an ideology known as New Freedom which recognized the difference
between freedom in practice and in theory and championed the former. "New Freedom, in U.S.
history, political ideology of Woodrow Wilson, enunciated during his successful 1912
presidential campaign, pledging to restore unfettered opportunity for individual action and to
employ the power of government in behalf of social justice for all"(Britannica 2007).
Opportunity is a result of freedom. Social justice would result in more freedom. Government
action was utilized by Wilson to increase freedom in practice and theory. "Supported by a
Democratic majority in Congress, Wilson succeeded during his first term in office (1913–17) in
pushing through a number of meaningful measures: tariff reduction, banking regulations,
antitrust legislation, beneficial farmer-labor enactments, and highway construction using state
grants-in-aid"(Britannica 2007). Giving people the economic basis to sustain themselves allows
them to access more of their potential. When potential is met with opportunity, human
flourishing mag begins. Tariff reduction is a liberal fiscal policy. Beneficial labor enactments are
socially liberal. Highway construction using State grants-in aid is fiscally liberal. Wilson was
fiscally liberal. The fiscal is a derivative of the social so he probably was socially liberal to a
great deal as well.
The modern day Democratic Party platform also aims to help the most common
individuals, thus the Racial Europeans can either utilize their privilege to increase or decrease
progress. "Physician Jonathan M. Metzl's quest to understand the health implications of 'backlash
governance' leads him across America's heartland.Interviewing a range of everyday Americans,
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he examines how racial resentment has fueled pro gun laws in Missouri, resistance to the
Affordable Care Act in Tennessee, and cuts to schools and social services in Kansas. And he
shows these policies' costs: increasing deaths by gun suicide, falling life expectancies, and rising
dropout rates. White Americans, Metzl argues, must reject the racial hierarchies that promise to
aid them but in fact lead our nation to demise"(Metzl 2019). The preview of Metzl's book offers
much rationalist evidence yet little empirical evidence. With white privilege being the product of
evolution, the whites can either recognize and implement the policies warranted by Wagner's
Law or face the consequences. Critical Race Theory is true as Europeans were the last to evolve
therefore became privileged by the social construct of race with their civilizations.
The history of the Democratic party should be consulted as it always has stood for
popular policies, that being those for the common man. "In the 1790s a group of Thomas
Jefferson’s supporters called themselves 'Democratic Republicans' or 'Jeffersonian Republicans'
to demonstrate their belief in the principle of popular government and their opposition to
monarchism. The party adopted its present name in the 1830s, during the presidency of Andrew
Jackson. Democrats won nearly every presidential election in the years 1836–60, but the issue of
slavery split the party"(Britannica 2022). The precursors to the Democrats, the Democratic
Republicans, were founded based off of popular policy. Popular policy stood for the common
people. The Democrats gained their present name under Andrew Jackson. Their popular policies,
rather intuitively, caused them to win nearly every presidential election slavery became an issue.
The abstract ideas of openness to experience and fairness have remained consistent with the
Democrats. Examples would be modern day Critical Race Theory and Wagner's Law directed
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policies. Lindy's Law causes democrats to enjoy a great deal of powerful metaphysics(abstract
ideas and principles).
Group Theory may be essential for the conclusion of this essay. "Group theory, in modern
algebra, is the study of groups, which are systems consisting of a set of elements and a binary
operation that can be applied to two elements of the set, which together satisfy certain
axioms"(Britannica 2017). Of course group theory is only a theory. As discussed earlier in this
essay, the abstract and the do not match because of entropy. Therefore, what is binary in theory
is most likely not binary in practice.
White Privilege Theorem:
(group theory), A theorem which proves that, given Plato's forms demonstrating the
barrier between the abstract and the concrete, the Lindy effect supporting the Democrats because
they are the oldest lasting voter based political party in the planet, the Fundamental theorem of
calculus supporting the category fiscal being a derivative of the category social and their
integration with their common category of liberalism, as well Europeans being privileged due to
being the evolutionary derivative of all other races, and the physics of entropy barring the
concrete from the abstract, and Wagner's Law further exemplifying the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, the Europeans have a privilege that they can either use for progress or regress of
civilization.
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Keywords: Lindy’s Law; Pareto’s Law; Zipf’s Law; Anti-aging; Power-law
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WARNING: GENETIC ENGINEERING IS DANGEROUS. 1)This ANTI-racist essay rejects both racialism and racial essentialism, beginning with epistemology, physics, chemistry, biology, and then social sciences, of course with some overlap. Humans have, AT LEAST PARTIAL, free will or they could not fundamentally choose to focus on life, thus all reason would be futile “And if humans lack free will then the reasoning behind anything would not exist”(Ohnemus 2023). Thus self-evident PARTIAL free will debunks biological determinism. Biological determinism, at least in this essay and many other senses, also means scientific materialism. Thus, humans probably have souls, OR AT LEAST hereditarianism is wrong. Science only approximately derives from philosophy because direct derivation would be a non-sequitur. Plus, the relationship between science and philosophy is very complicated. Philosophy speculates more and changes upon scientific discovery. Yet science rests upon philosophical postulates, such as the philosophy of science. 2) As a cohesive thesis elaborates, certain deceased Northwestern Europeans, who NEVER reproduced, either owe several reparations to the lesser privileged racialized populations OR were so enlightened, they deserve to have their traits expanded. Exact replication(both phenotypical and genotypical) not only is probably impossible, but also may excessively reduce diversity. Thus, 3D printing more progressive(traits and genes) and recessive(traits and genes) INexact replicas of those certain, and other, Northwestern Europeans is imperative for civilization and progress. Perhaps following the mass automated reproduction, to mitigate risks, the recessive and progressive privileges may be distributed to the consenting individuals, of racialized populations with lesser privileges. 3) Beginning from first principles does not mean reductionism. On the contrary, boiling down to the most fundamental truths and then reasoning up, while acknowledging and mapping nuance, may be the surest avoidance of both reductionism AND contradictions, if one simultaneously recognizes and charts counterintuitive reality. If diseases can reasonably correlate to genes with a parsimonious relationship then, other traits can too. Potentially one can describe a dead person’s traits to a machine(maybe through photos, recordings, verbally, etc.) then, the machine can at least create one of many possibly corresponding genotypes. Humans, at least typically, only have 46 chromosomes, so certain traits parsimoniously match with certain genes. Even humans with more, or maybe less, than 46 chromosomes probably still have a close enough number for their traits to be parsimoniously matched with corresponding genes. Plus if previous information on the dead subject’s genotype is available(DNA of relatives, lineage DNA, ethnic DNA, populational(maybe racialized) DNA, general human genome, genealogy, etc.) data, both of the particular deceased person, one can either clone that dead subject(having deduced the genotype) or 3D bio-print another human with the same traits the deceased is remembered for, plus silver lining, added genetic diversity. One could 3D bioprint an in-exact replica of the deceased individual through the deduced genotype, out of bioink materials composing DNA, RNA, and proteins(perhaps sugar or other elements that chemically make deoxyribonucleic acid), while a bioreactor reinforces the design, and rheology, of the intended human. If CRISPR can both cure, and accidentally cause, mutations, then it can potentially and intentionally distribute recessive and progressive privileges by both somatically, and germinally, mutating people. CRISPR could even distribute both recessive and progressive privileges, of being enlightened liberal Northwestern Europeans, to 3D bioprinted people before they are printed. 4) Selectively 3D bioprinting human individuals for humanitarian ANTI-racist reparations is key for preventing a phenotypic revolution because recessive ≠ useful to machines. Plus, by 3D bioprinting, in-exact human replicas, of deceased individuals, machines won’t be able to launch a phenotypic revolution, because the automated reproduction will lack the linearity. And the philosophy, of paying ANTI-racist reparations, requires a level of empathy that is uniquely human and not automatable.
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To study the male and female lineages of East Asian and European humans, we have sequenced 25 short tandem repeat markers on 453 Y-chromosomes and collected sequences of 72 complete mitochondrial genomes to construct independent phylogenetic trees for male and female lineages. The results indicate that East Asian individuals fall into two clades, one that includes East Asian individuals only and a second that contains East Asian and European individuals. Surprisingly, the European individuals did not form an independent clade, but branched within in the East Asians. We then estimated the divergence time of the root of the European clade as ∼41,000 years ago. These data indicate that, contrary to traditional views, Europeans diverged from East Asians around that time. We also address the origin of the Ainu lineage in northern Japan.
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1. Theoretical works on Nei's genetic distance and its extensions are discussed. New formulae for the sampling variances of genetic distance estimates are presented. Formulae for the genetic identity of genes at the electrophoretic level when the mutation rate varies from locus to locus are also presented. 2. Empirical data suggests that the rate of gene substitution or mutation rate per locus varies considerably among protein loci, and if this factor is taken into account, the rate of decline of genetic identity (I) is no longer constant but decreases with evolutionary time. Using both the infiniteallele model and the stepwise mutation model, the numerical relationship betweenI and evolutionary time is presented. This relationship may be used for estimating the time after divergence between populations. The value of genetic distance or genetic identity is also affected considerably by the bottleneck effect. The bottleneck effect generally accelerates the increase of genetic distance with time, and the effect remains for a long time after the population size returns to the original level. A method for correcting for this effect is presented. 3. Application of the theory of genetic distance to data on protein polymorphism in man indicates that the genetic variation between the three major races, Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid, is much smaller than the variation within them, despite the fact that there is a conspicuous difference in some morphological characters such as pigmentation, facial structure, and hair texture. It is proposed that the differentiation of these morphological characters was brought about by relatively strong natural selection through a small number of gene substitutions, whereas general protein loci are subject to little or very weak selection. Analysis of blood group gene frequency data gives essentially the same result as those from protein loci, though they are likely to have been affected by nonrandom sampling of the loci. It is also shown that at the protein level the racial differences in man correspond to those between local races in other organisms. 4. Rough estimates of the number of codon differences between an individual of man and his various relatives are presented. It seems that the mean number of codon differences between man and chimpanzee is about 10 times larger than that between second degree relatives in Caucasians or Japanese, but about 1/19 of that between man and horse. 5. Genetic distance estimates suggest that among the three major races of man the first divergence occurred about 120,000 years ago between Negroid and a group of Caucasoid and Mongoloid and then the latter group split into Caucasoid and Mongoloid around 60,000 years ago. It is also shown that the genetic identity between man and chimpanzee corresponds to a divergence time of 4–6 million years if the assumption of constant rate of amino acid substitution is correct. 6. Methods of constructing a phylogenetic tree from genetic distance estimates are discussed. For constructing the topology of a tree, Fitch and Margoliash's method is quite efficient. For estimating branch lengths, however, Nei's method of averaging distances seems to be better. 7. A phylogenetic tree for twelve races of man is constructed by using gene frequency data for 11 protein and 11 blood group loci. This tree roughly agrees with what we expect intuitively from the morphological characters and the historical record of these races.
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Using gene frequency data for 62 protein loci and 23 blood group loci, we studied the genetic relationship of the three major races of man, Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid. Genetic distance data indicate that Caucasoid and Mongoloid are somewhat closer to each other than to Negroid. Analysis of restriction site data for mitochondrial DNA also shows the same genetic relationship. It seems that the Negroid and the Caucasoid-Mongoloid groups diverged about 110,000 +/- 34,000 years ago, whereas Caucasoid and Mongoloid diverged about 41,000 +/- 15,000 years ago. The genetic relationships of various races in each group of Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid were also studied. All European populations are genetically close to one another except the Lapps, whereas many African, Oceanian, and Amer-indian tribes show large extents of genetic differentiation. The major cause for this differentiation seems to be the bottleneck effect. The Polynesians, Micronesians, and Indonesians are more closely related to the Asian Mongoloids than to the Australoids in Australia and New Guinea. There are also indications that migration played an important role in forming the current genetic relationships among human races. The extent of genetic differentiation between human races is not always correlated with the degree of morphologic differentiation. The genetic differentiation at protein loci seems to occur largely by mutation, genetic drift, and isolation, whereas morphologic characters are apparently subject to stronger natural selection than "average protein loci."
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Gene frequencies in Europe are intermediate with respect to those of other continents. A phylogenetic tree reconstructed from 95 gene frequencies tested on 26 European samples shows some deviant populations (Lapps, Sardinians, Greeks, Yugoslavs, Basques, Icelanders and Finns) and other weakly structured populations. This behavior may have a simple interpretation: Europeans have not evolved according to a tree of descent probably because of the major role played by migrations in prehistorical and historical times. The leading component of the European genetic landscape is a gradient that originates in the Middle East and is directed to the northwest. According to the hypothesis by Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza this gradient was generated by a migration of Neolithic farmers from Anatolia followed by continuous, partial admixture of the expanding farmers with local hunter-gatherers. Other leading components of the gene frequencies in Europe show correlations with possible movements of Uralic-speaking people and pastoral nomads from a region north of the Caucasus and Black Sea, which according to Gimbutas is the area of origin of Indo-European speakers. This analysis is based on classical pre-DNA genetic markers. The prospect of future research using DNA polymorphisms is discussed in the context of the Human Genome Project.
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