Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Vihāras of Anurādhapura
... Although the chronicles mention that numerous secular buildings existed from a very early date in Sri Lanka, the state of preservation of such buildings at present does not provide information to understand the character of secular architecture at the time of the laying out of Sigiriya. On the other hand, the religious architecture of ancient Sri Lanka shows that it is essentially a mixture of deeply rooted local building tradition and the natural development of the forms introduced from mainland India during the Mauryan Buddhist missionary activity of the 3rd century BC (Paranavitana, 1967;Bandaranayake, 1974;Silva, 1988). Within a few centuries of the Christian era, architecture reached a very mature stage at Anuradhapura. ...
... Apart from documentation of the remains that are visible above ground level and are exposed due to archaeological excavation, and descriptive accounts of physical layouts, the studies on architecture proper of Sigiriya are largely limited to reconstruction of the superstructure of some monuments. Compared to the scholarly studies related to the reconstruction of the superstructure of monuments at Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva (such as Paranavitana, 1946;Bandaranayake, 1974Bandaranayake, , 1976Bandaranayake, , 1978Silva, 1988Nakagawa, 1990Nakagawa, , 1991, most of such attempts at Sigiriya by both heritage professionals, such as Karunaratne, L. K. (in 1960, see Bandaranayake, 2010a:figure 6), Ellepola (1990:204, 208), Amarasinghe (2003) and Gunawardhana (2008), and others such as Amarasekare (in the 1930s, see Bandaranayake 2010a:figure 5), Kirinda (in 1996, see Bandaranayake 2010a: figure 6) and Deepthikumara (1998Deepthikumara ( , 2000, could be regarded as pure conjectural reconstructions and/or artist impressions. With regard to the reconstruction of buildings on the rock summit, Bandaranayake (2010a:25-26) comments that 'few of these offer acceptable, impressionistic images; others are inelegant and bear scarcely any relation to the existing remains or to the fine sensibilities that inform all aspects of art and design at Sigiriya. ...
Besides the efforts that are of descriptive and celebrative nature, studies related to Sri Lanka’s historical built heritage are largely to view material remains in historical, sociological, socio-historical and semiological perspectives. But there is hardly any serious attempt to view such material remains from a technical-analytical approach to understand the compositional aspects of their designs. The 5th century AC royal complex at Sigiriya is no exception in this regard.The enormous wealth of information and the unearthed material remains during more than hundred years of field-based research by several generations of archaeologists at Sigiriya provide ideal opportunity for such an analysis. The present study is, therefore, to fill the gap in research related to Sri Lanka’s historical built heritage in general and to Sigiriya in particular. Therefore the present research attempts to read Sigiriya as a landscape architectonic design to expose its architectonic composition and design instruments.The study which is approached from a technical-analytical point of view follows a methodological framework that is developed at the Landscape Design Department of the Faculty of Architecture at Delft University of Technology. The study reveals that the architectonic design of Sigiriya constitutes multiple design layers and multiple layers of significance with material-spatial-metaphorical-functional coherence, and that it has both general and unique landscape architectonic elements, aspects, characteristics and qualities.The richness of its composition also enables to identify the landscape architectural value of the Sigiriya, which will help re-shape the policies related to conservation and presentation of Sigiriya as a heritage site as well as the protection and management as a green monument. The positive results of the study also underline that the methodology adapted in this research has devised a framework for the study of other examples of historical gardens and landscapes of Sri Lanka, which will eventually provide insight into the typological aspects of the possible Sri Lankan tradition of landscape design.
... These cave dwellings, which were natural rock shelters renovated with minimal human intervention and given as an offering to the bhikkhus, were not constructed with formal or geometric architecture. Bandaranayake (1974Bandaranayake ( : 2012 bears the view that such informality is a structural reflection of non-centralized social organisation. ...
Megalithism is a cultural phenomenon associated with mortuary rituals. Societies that practise megalithism construct burials and memorials using stone slabs in memory of the dead as a form of ancestor worship. Archaeological evidence shows that the remains of these cultural practices that originated during the Neolithic period, occur in various geographical zones around the globe. Across peninsular southern India and Sri Lanka megalithism is observed, reflecting the cultural identity of Early Protohistoric-Iron Age communities of South Asia and practised even today, in certain parts of India. In Sri Lanka, the Yān Oya macro region of the North Central Dry plains is a geographical region where megalithism is prevalent and visible on the landscape. Megalithic groups appear to have widely dispersed across the Yān Oya river basin from the early quarter of the 1st millennium BCE to the early quarter of the 1st millennium CE with their adaptive strategy contributing to the formation of the cultural landscape of the region. In this paper, the megalithic cultural complex in the Yān Oya macroregion is discussed using evidence from archaeological surveys and excavations, with a focus on territorial expansion, resource exploitation and land use pattern. Archaeological evidence points to a series of three patterns or phases where the megalithic community in the region developed from a nomadic or semi nomadic pastoral subsistence to a sedentary village based agro-pastoral subsistence.
A significant number of written sources report on the development of ancient dry zone water harvesting and water management systems in Sri Lanka. This paper attempts to address the lack of a systematic assessment of the information given by sources on the spatial–temporal development of the system, using methods of source criticism. After the removal of double entries, 255 text passages containing 837 different records on ancient irrigation were compiled as a database for the period from the fifth century BCE to the tenth century CE. The majority of the 625 analyzed records were derived from inscriptions, 212 records originated from chronicles. Geocoding was successfully performed for 40 records. It was possible to link 173 text passages to a specific king’s reign. Altogether 362 records (43.2%) mention a tank or its construction. The categories “grants of irrigation” and “irrigation incomes” are represented with 276 records (33%) and 75 records (9%). Records on canals and irrigation management occur with a share of 8.2% and 6.2%, equaling 69 and 52 records. The spatial distribution of records in general largely corresponds to the extent of the Dry Zone and northern intermediate zone. With 490 records, Anuradhapura district shows the highest density of information on the ancient water harvesting and management system. The analyzed data are not equally distributed throughout the investigated period and show a distinct peak in the second century CE. In conclusion, the conducted analysis documents the potential of the analyzed source genres for the derivation of information on different aspects related to the spatial, temporal and administrative development of the ancient water management system in Sri Lanka.
The dry-zone water-harvesting and management system in Sri Lanka is one of the oldest historically recorded systems in the world. A substantial number of ancient sources mention the management and governance structure of this system suggesting it was initiated in the 4th century BCE (Before Common Era) and abandoned in the middle of the 13th century CE (Common Era). In the 19th century CE, it was reused under the British colonial government. This research aims to identify the ancient water management and governance structure in the dry zone of Sri Lanka through a systematic analysis of ancient sources. Furthermore, colonial politics and interventions during reclamation have been critically analyzed. Information was captured from 222 text passages containing 560 different records. 201 of these text passages were captured from lithic inscriptions and 21 text passages originate from the chronicles. The spatial and temporal distribution of the records and the qualitative information they contain reflect the evolution of the water management and governance systems in Sri Lanka. Vast multitudes of small tanks were developed and managed by the local communities. Due to the sustainable management structure set up within society, the small tank systems have remained intact for more than two millennia.
Mandapa, a Sanskrit term, means a pillared outdoor hall or a pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture. The architecture of mandapa in Southeast Asia also shares similarities to that in India, for instance mandapas in Cambodia and Vietnam. These had a rectangular floor plan, were the site of ritual ceremonies, and were located to the front of an image shrine calledgarbha grihaor garbha grha. However, in Sukhothai a mandapa referred to a small building enshrining a Buddha image or sometimes multiple images. Its role was parallel to an image shrine (garbha griha) of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and Sri Lanka. A Sukhothai mandapa or mondop was often located to the back of aviharawhich corresponded to a mandapa in India where ceremonies were held. This paper aims to understand the term mandapa and compares the architecture of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Sukhothai, Thailand.Sukhothai mondopsrepresented a pavilion where the Buddha resided, and its function was equivalent to a gandakuti, a perfumed chamber, or akarerikutiwhere the Buddha dwelled in Jetavana monastery, India. The vihara to its front corresponded to a reception area. Mondop and its attached vihara of Sukhothai were also like adhammasalaordhammamandapain Pagan, Myanmar. The comparison of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand will provide indigenous architectural characteristics as well as links to the history, culture, and religion of the people.
Ancient rock quarries in the surroundings of the ancient city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka provide evidence of quarrying by splitting stone blocks. Bedrock outcrops with natural foliations or weathering fractures were preferred starting points for stone quarrying. Additionally, fractures were created artificially, removing bedrock material by channeling or heating the bedrock surface and imposing pressure on the rock through percussion. These quarrying techniques are mainly based on a series of chiselled holes set along the part of the block to be separated. These holes frequently appear as half holes in the separated rock fragments. This investigation explores the working procedure related to the chiselled holes and wedge quarrying technique, and aims to identify the tools used and to estimate the time necessary for the splitting. Investigations are based on observations of a stone craftsman still applying traditional techniques of quarrying.
The ancient city of Anuradhapura (4th century BCE to 10th century CE), established on the banks of the river Malwathu Oya in north-central Sri Lanka, is one of that country’s most important archaeological sites. Numerous ancient buildings and monuments occur throughout the entire settlement. The preserved parts of the Anuradhapura ancient built environment are mostly solid masonry constructions. However, foundations, floor areas, pillars, and entrance units of the buildings provide evidence that rock materials were prominently used in constructions. This study focuses on the investigation of former rock quarry locations in the surroundings of Anuradhapura, their distributional pattern and their classification according to their morphological and archaeological significance. The majority of quarrying traces detected in the survey are distributed along a central rock outcrop line which runs across the city area. Altogether, 65 ancient rock quarries were identified in the area and classified into six categories. Moreover, numerous of historic stone buildings in the monasteries are also situated along the exposed rock outcrops line.
The domed stupas are among the most distinctive of South Asia's religious monuments and have been shown to be sensitive indicators for their society. Since arguments for economic and political change depend on accurate dating, and since the stupas are largely composed of brick, the authors here assess the potential for dating building sequences by applying optically stimulated luminescence to brick fabric. As so often, good scientific dates obtained from specimens must be tempered by their context: brick may be replaced or recycled during repair and embellishment. Nevertheless, the method promises important insights by distinguishing different episodes of building, and so writing 'biographies' for stupas with different functions.
Key locations identified with the lives of important religious founders have often been extensively remodelled in later periods, entraining the destruction of many of the earlier remains. Recent UNESCO sponsored
work at the major Buddhist centre of Lumbini in Nepal has sought to overcome these limitations, providing direct archaeological evidence of the nature of an early Buddhist shrine and a secure chronology.
The excavations revealed a sequence of early structures preceding the major rebuilding by Asoka during the third century BC. The sequence of durable brick architecture supplanting non-durable timber was foreseen
by British prehistorian Stuart Piggott when he was stationed in India over 70 years ago. Lumbini provides a rare and valuable insight into the structure and character of the earliest Buddhist shrines.
This article examines British interventions in the traditional, hereditary crafts of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) during the colonial period. It assesses a set of Western assumptions in artistic and craft policy concerning local material culture in South Asia between 1850 and 1930. British interventions in local craft traditions are discussed in relation to Western conceptualizations of Ceylonese culture as being in a debased state (in contrast to a notional "golden age" of the distant past that was now lost). These assumptions are examined mainly through the writings of the prominent Euro-Sinhalese commentator, Ananda Coomaraswamy. This article also discusses the role of the vernacular crafts in relation to Ceylonese nationalism and the development of local cultural identity during the colonial era. The article concludes with an assessment of the legacy of local craft traditions (as well as the historic debates that surrounded these crafts) at the present time in Sri Lanka.
This paper discusses the landscape garden of Lunuganga, Sri Lanka, designed by the architect Geoffrey Bawa for himself after 1948. It assesses this space as a site of memory and a location where modernity and history are negotiated. The present paper theorizes the making of Lunuganga in relation to the production of modernity in Sri Lanka and negotiation of the island's relationship to colonial and pre-colonial histories. The island of Sri Lanka has a long history of the development of cultural landscapes. Bawa's landscapes can be located within these traditions. Furthermore, the time he spent in Europe furnished him with an understanding of the picturesque landscape tradition. Lunuganga could be described as a site where these (colonial) histories and vernacular traditions re-staged or re-presented the modern in contemporary Sri Lanka. Bawa's landscapes can also be ‘read’ as ‘sites of memory’, where, although of the modern era, the past is recalled. The landscape of Lunuganga references negotiations between adoption of a universal modern, with its taint of colonial subjugation, the neglect of this troubled past and the pursuit of an uncomplex indigenism and, in so doing, intervenes in the production of modernity in Sri Lanka.
The ancient Sri Lankan city of Anuradhapura is currently the subject of one of the world’s largest and most intensive archaeological research projects. Having traced its growth from an Iron Age village to a medieval city, the research team now moves to the task of modelling the surrounding landscape. Three seasons of fieldwork have located numerous sites of which the most prominent in the urban period are monasteries. Here is a clue about how the early urban hinterland was managed which has implications well beyond Sri Lanka.
L’arriere-pays du site d’Anuradhapura, capitale du Sri Lanka pendant 1500 ans classee au patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO, fait l’objet d’un projet de recherche visant a etablir la relation entre les etablissements ruraux et la ville. Le premier objectif est de modeliser les reseaux entre les communautes rurales et urbaines. Pour ce faire, une premiere phase de prospection a tout d’abord permis d’identifier des sites, evalues ensuite a l’aide de sondages, d’etudes geomorphologiques et d’analyses de laboratoire. L’etude a permis d’identifier plusieurs types de sites : de petites communautes rurales identifiees par la presence de tessons de ceramiques, dans lesquelles le metal est absent ; des monasteres rupestres comportant des inscriptions en brāhmī; des sites metallurgiques; des vestiges architecturaux probablement lies a l’activite monastique et des sepultures megalithiques. Si la typologie des sites correspond a celle des environs de Sigiriya, leur organisation s’en distingue, tout comme elle se distingue des modeles indiens.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.