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East African Journal of Environment and
Natural Resources
eajenr.eanso.org
Volume 6, Issue 1, 2023
Print ISSN: 2707-4234 | Online ISSN: 2707-4242
Title DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/2707-4242
EAST AFRICAN
NATURE &
SCIENCE
ORGANIZATION
Original Article
More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy
Security within Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya
Stacey Waudo1*, James Koske1 & Fuchaka Waswa1
1 Kenyatta University, P. O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
* Correspondence ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9623-2196; email: waudostacey@yahoo.com
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278
Date Published:
30 June 2023
Keywords:
Tree Cover,
Biomass Options,
Energy Security,
Rural Household,
Kenya
ABSTRACT
To date, most rural households in the Navakholo constituency rely on wood
fuel for domestic energy requirements, especially cooking. The increasing
population is putting a lot of pressure on tree cover, its role in climate change
mitigation and biodiversity conservation notwithstanding. Switching to
energy alternatives within the biomass domain presents a policy option to
increase access to household energy. This paper reports on the emerging
trends in this regard. Spatial survey was used to track land use and tree cover
changes from 1990-2022. A questionnaire survey was used to collect data
from a sample size of 395 respondents selected through systematic random
sampling. A majority (78.9%) of the respondents indicated having adequate
(covering over 10% of the land) tree cover, with woodlots accounting for
39.8% and trees planted along fences at 37.3%. Nevertheless, 43.4% of the
households indicated that the fuelwood supply was not able to meet
household energy demand. Chi-square analysis indicated that there was a
significant relationship between household biomass usage, tree density and
adequacy of fuel wood in the area (p = .004 and p = .004), indicating that
firewood remains the choice energy source despite the apparent diminishing
tree cover. This paper calls for the need to increase tree cover and access to
alternative biomass options.
APA CITATION
Waudo, S., Koske, J. & Waswa, F. (2023). More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy Security within
Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya. East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, 6(1), 178-197.
https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278.
CHICAGO CITATION
Waudo, Stacey, James Koske and Fuchaka Waswa. 2023. “More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy
Security within Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya”. East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources 6
(1), 178-197. https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278.
East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2023
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278
179 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
HARVARD CITATION
Waudo, S., Koske, J. & Waswa, F. (2023) “More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy Security within
Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya”, East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, 6 (1), pp. 178-
197. doi: 10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278.
IEEE CITATION
S., Waudo, J., Koske & F., Waswa. “More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy Security within
Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya”, EAJENR, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 178-197, Jun. 2023.
MLA CITATION
Waudo, Stacey, James Koske & Fuchaka Waswa. “More Trees and More Biomass Energy Options for Increased Energy Security
within Households in Navakholo Sub-County, Kenya”. East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, Vol. 6,
no. 1, Jun 2023, pp. 178-197, doi:10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1278.
INTRODUCTION
Biomass has been used over the years as a source of
energy for households, particularly in developing
countries (Mugo & Gathui, 2010). Africa consumes
more renewables than any other energy source
mainly due to the high use of traditional biomass
resources in the continent (World Bioenergy
Association, 2018). Biomass is currently the most
widespread form of renewable energy and its
exploitation is increasing due to concerns over the
devastating impacts of fossil fuel and environmental
and health concerns associated with other forms of
energy (Tursi, 2019). Reliance on firewood for
cooking is still popular, largely due to the inability
to afford cleaner energy sources like electricity
(IEA, 2010; Belward et al., 2011). As compared to
the use of agricultural residues, which are generally
regarded as free, high prices of fuel wood at Kshs
800- 1200 per 0.65m3 of wood have exerted
pressure on households (Ndegwa, 2010). Biomass is
also a popular option due to the little capital that is
needed to use the resource. Traditional cookstoves
(three stones) are typically what is used for cooking.
This is hardly capital-intensive as compared to other
sources of fuel. Biomass use is closely intertwined
with poverty, and the energy poverty line begins to
rise with higher income (The World Bank, 2011;
Diaz-Chavez et al., 2015).
Biomass fuels are the largest source of primary
energy in Kenya with wood fuel (firewood and
charcoal) accounting for about 69% of the total
primary energy consumption and 90% of rural
household energy needs. About 55% of this is
derived from farmlands in the form of woody
biomass as well as crop residue and animal waste,
and the remaining 45% is derived from forests
(Government of Kenya, 2015). Government
ministries are supporting the sustainable production
of energy crops and the dissemination of improved
cook stoves. Despite the fact that biomass
dominates the energy landscape, little or no budget
is provided for research and development
The residential sector holds the majority of the
energy consumption in Kakamega. Main activities
include cooking, whose main energy source is solid
biomass (firewood and charcoal). Firewood is self-
collected, which implies no monetary cost but a
very low heating value. The average household
consumption is 6.8 kg (s, 2015). Charcoal
consumption is higher in regions with increased
income. The average household consumption of
charcoal per year is about 750 kg of charcoal per
year, translating to 62.5 Kg per month and 2 kg per
day. In Kakamega County, fuels used in the
household include firewood at 86.8%, charcoal at
8.9%, kerosene/paraffin at 2.3%, LPG at 0.8%,
electricity at 0.5%, Biogas at 0.4% and other energy
sources at 0.3% (Ngugi et al., 2013). Both firewood
and charcoal consumption depend on the cook stove
utilised and its efficiency.
Studies show a positive relationship between
population growth rates and energy demand
(Kabede et al., 2010). The increasing population
will lead to an increased demand for energy
resources and will eventually affect the availability
of biomass within households. According to the
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Ministry of Energy (2018), 70% of rural
households rely on biomass for their energy needs.
This is because it is an affordable and available
source of fuel as it is easily found practically
anywhere. The dependence on biomass is also
partially attributed to poor access to electricity
(Lusambo, 2016). The study addresses the
relationship between tree cover and access to
biomass. It addresses whether tree cover has an
impact on the availability of biomass in the
households and how households can sustainably
manage trees. The study will have an impact on the
use of biomass in relation to the available tree cover.
Households will benefit in terms of having adequate
tree cover and at the same time having adequate
access to biomass.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Site
Figure 1: Location of the study area
Source: Esri Eastern Africa, Garmin, National Geographic
This study was carried out in Navakholo Sub-
County in Kakamega County (Figure 1). Its
estimated population based on the 2019 national
census is 153,977 (Government of Kenya, 2019).
The five Sub-counties constituted the research sites,
thus: Bunyala West, Bunyala East, Bunyala Central,
Ingotse-Matiha, and Shinoyi-Shikomari-Esumeiya.
The popular food crops grown include maise,
sorghum, beans, and cassava. Expansion of
sugarcane in the past was responsible for significant
loss of tree cover and also agrobiodiversity. Study
Design
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The study adopted a mixed methods research
design. This is an approach to inquiry that combines
both qualitative and quantitative approaches (mixed
methods research design), as used by Mutuku
(2020). The qualitative approaches focused on
investigations on tree cover and land use changes
from the period covering 1990-2020 and household
characteristics influencing accessibility and
availability of biomass within Navakholo Sub-
County. The qualitative approach involved
investigations into perceptions of land use changes
over the years. Quantitative methods were used to
test for relationships between variables in the
results. The use of both methods ensures that the
overall strength of the study is greater than either
qualitative or quantitative research.
Spatial design using GIS procedures was used to
track land use and changes in tree cover being the
main environment descriptor. Ground truthing
necessitated the use of transect surveys and
environmental checklists to document the observed
status of the land. Standard Geographical
Information System (GIS) procedures were used to
map out the study area and to assess land use and
cover trends from 1990-2020. Satellite images
covering the years 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010,
2015 and 2020 were obtained from Landsat 8, 7 and
1-5. This was done through a ground survey, where
GPS coordinates were recorded and photographs
were taken. Secondary GIS data was used. Satellite
images were processed and classified. These images
were then subjected to accuracy assessment using
programmes like google earth to produce the land
cover maps.
Target Population and Samples Size
Table 1: Distribution of respondents in wards in Navakholo sub-county
Ward Name
Population
Area
in km2
Weighted
pop. ratio
Percentage of
Respondents
Proportionate
sample size
Ingotse-Matiha
22,091
34.4
1
16.1
52
Shinoyi-Shikomari-Esumeiya
25,352
48.4
1.4
18.5
74
Bunyala West
38,407
73.3
2.1
28
111
Bunyala East
22,122
45.1
1.3
16.1
68
Bunyala Central
29,193
56.8
1.7
21.3
90
Total
137165
228
7.5
100
395
From a target population of 32,315 households
(Government of Kenya, 2019), a sample size of 395
respondents was calculated based on the formula by
Yamane (1967) and Israel (2003) and allocated to
the wards proportionately (Table 1).
Focus Group discussions (FGDs) targeted ten
people in each ward, composed of men, women, and
youth, to get a unique perspective of their
interaction with biomass. Discussions were done to
address emerging issues from the questionnaire
survey. Consensus built on each key item was
presented as a narrative to support the discussion of
results.
Statistical Methods
Questionnaire data obtained from the 395
respondents were analysed for descriptive and
inferential statistics. Correlation analysis was used
to quantify the direction and strength of associations
between selected variables. Cross tabulations were
also used to compare the relationships between
various variables. The chi-square statistic was used
to assess the relationship between selected pairs of
variables key to the study. An environmental
checklist was used to document the status of tree
coverage, species, and biomass use in households.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Status of Tree cover in Navakholo
The year 1990 served as a baseline year from which
land cover changes were measured. Area
computation shows that 5689.78 hectares were
covered by woodland vegetation. (Figure 2). There
was a slight decline in the area covered by woodland
from 1995 to 2000, from 5195.77 ha to 5012.92 ha
(Figure 3, Table 2). This was attributed to
encroachment on indigenous forests. A similar trend
was observed for woodland and cropland between
2000 and 2005.
Figure 2: Land Cover in Navakholo May 1990
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Figure 3: Land Cover in Navakholo May 2000
The year 2010 saw a slight decline in woodland
(Figure 4). Area computation indicated that
4750.07 ha was covered by woodland. In 2015 there
was a slight increase in the area covered by
woodland. Area computation indicated that 4939.7
8 ha was covered by woodland. There has been an
overall decline in woodland at 12.02% in
Navakholo from 1990 – 2020 (Table 2). On the
other hand, there has been an unprecedented rise in
built-up areas and subdivisions of land by emerging
families. This can be attributed to the increase in the
human population that needs space for roads,
schools, houses, and more land to cultivate. This
would however pose a challenge when it comes to
the availability of firewood for domestic energy
requirements.
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Figure 4: Land Cover Navakholo May 2010
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Figure 5: Land Cover in Navakholo May 2020
Table 2: Trends in land use changes from (1990-2020) in hectares (Nearest whole number)
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
% Net
change
Cropland
19,514
19,518
19,450
19,249
19,227
18,844
17,232
-11.69
Woodland
5,690
5,196
5,013
4,864
4,750
4,940
5,006
-12.02
Settlement and other land
uses
696
1,187
1,437
1,787
1,923
2,116
3,662
425.87
There has been an overall decline in cropland in the
period covering 1990-2020 (Table 2). A similar
decline in woodland was observed in 1990-2010,
and in 2015 a slight increase in tree cover was
observed. Since 2015 there have been efforts to
improve the area under woodland coverage. The
overall decline in the two land use classes is
attributed to an increase in the area under the
settlement. This is due to an increasing population
that needs more land for their houses, roads, etc. The
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increase in settlements has led to increased land
subdivisions, thereby competing with other land
uses. Households rely on biomass, particularly
fuelwood, to sustain their energy needs. Most of this
fuelwood is derived from trees which have been
reported to be declining. This has implications for
the availability of biomass as demand outstrips
supply. It is also an opportunity to promote the use
of alternative fuel options to reduce the heavy
dependence on fuelwood as a source of energy.
There should be efforts to ensure a sustainable
supply of fuelwood through proper management of
woodlands and woodlots.
A growth spurt in population that is largely
dependent on the declining biomass continues to
create even more pressure on biomass. This will
result in a decline in tree and forest cover.
Increasing tree cover and the development of a
sustainable supply of fuelwood is thus imperative
going forward. This will enhance the availability
and accessibility of biomass. It is, therefore,
imperative that efforts go towards the introduction
of trees in farms in order to enhance the availability
of wood fuel. Conservation of forested areas, re-
afforestation and afforestation practices will
contribute to increasing the share of tree cover
within the sub-county (Mugo & Gathui, 2010). The
government, through the Kenya Forest Service, is
committed to achieving 10% tree cover in the
country (Netondo et al., 2010).
Based on the 2020 findings, cropland accounted for
a significant percentage of land in Navakholo Sub-
County (67%), while woodland, settlement, and
other land use activities accounted for 19% and
14%, respectively. Opportunities for increased tree
cover lies in agroforestry system and practices that
blend with cropland. Attention is being paid to
integrated farming systems involving different
components of agroforestry such as forest and fruit
trees, plantation crops, cereal and pulse crops,
medicinal and aromatic crops, depending on the
situation and requirement of the farmer (Dagar &
Tewari, 2017). For example, fruit tree species of
citrus, Psidium guajava are preferred along with
cereal crops. Tree cover on agricultural land has the
potential to contribute to climate mitigation (Zomer
et al., 2016).
Table 3: Trends in tree/forest cover in Navakholo constituency 1990-2020
Year
% Cover
%Net change
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015.
2020
21.97
20.06
19.35
18.78
18.34
19.07
19.33
-1.91
-0.71
-0.57
-0.44
0.73
0.26
Source: Landsat 1-5,7, 8, Kenya Land Cover Survey and KU GIS lab
The decrease in tree/forest cover in Table 3 shows
an increase in human settlements has a negative
implication on access to biomass as demand
surpasses supply. This will lead to challenges in the
access and availability of biomass energy options.
There have been efforts to increase tree cover from
the year 2015, but this does not correspond to the
increasing level of growth of human settlements.
Therefore, other measures to address the increasing
demand for fuel need to be incorporated including
value addition to biomass and the use of affordable
alternative fuels. The decline in tree cover between
1990-2010 is attributed to the expansion of
settlements through built-up areas and converting
woodland into agricultural and other uses. The
increase in woodland area from 2015 was attributed
to increased tree planting activities as a response to
positive environmental campaigns. However, due to
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the expected natural increase in population and
demand for settlement, appropriate management of
the area under woodlands through afforestation and
reforestation efforts may be implemented in the
study area. In addition to this, expanding the area
under woodlands and woodlots enhances tree cover.
This will be achieved through better management of
our protected areas, integrated farming systems to
adequately use the available land and proper
planning of the expanding settlements.
The environmental checklist showed that the
majority of the households had trees either in the
form of woodlots or planted along the fence.
Firewood was used for cooking. Most of the
respondents (78.9%) indicated that they had
adequate tree cover. This was observed by the
presence of trees and woodlots in the homesteads.
Figure 6: Tree cover practices among households
Woodlots occupied 39.8% of the tree cover patterns
within the homesteads, followed by trees planted
along fences at 37.3% (Figure 6). Trees planted
along the fence were used to mark boundaries, while
trees planted in woodlots, particularly eucalyptus,
were mainly for commercial purposes. Although
eucalyptus is prohibited within riparian areas in
Kenya, its ability to sprout profusely makes it a
good source of wood fuel for domestic energy
security. Land use planning at the household needs
to integrate this tree among other species for this
purpose and manage it in ways that enhance wider
livelihood and environmental benefits. A study in
Ethiopia on carbon content in agroforestry practices
showed that woodlots had significantly higher
above-ground tree carbon, total tree biomass
carbon, and total carbon, followed by home gardens
and parklands (Bajigo et al., 2015). Woodlots have
advantages including the fact that they require little
land and labour, e.g., weeding is only necessary
during early growth; furthermore, many trees
receive no cash inputs or only minimal amounts for
the purchase of seeds or seedlings as compared to
other agroforestry practices (Kiptot & Franzel,
2011). With the availability of woodlots,
respondents did not have to go far to access
firewood. Access to fuelwood from neighbouring
farms was hampered by the fact that one had to seek
permission to access fuelwood; therefore, it
depended on the relationship one had with their
neighbours. Tree growing on farms has been
acknowledged as a fundamental source of wood in
the country (Ministry of Environment, Water and
Natural Resources, 2013). Dynamic management of
woodlots with early maturing tree varieties with the
ability to sprout upon harvesting provides the way
forward for household energy security.
Status of Biomass Energy Options and Their
Relative Importance
3.6
28.2
39.8
37.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Strips
Scattered in compound
Woodlots
Along fences
Proportion of Respondents (%)
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Firewood was the most popular energy source that
was used very often at 90.4%, as expected for rural
farming households, followed by crop residue
(often used by 41.6%), followed by charcoal, which
was used often at 31.7% (Figure 7). This is in line
with studies on charcoal and firewood that state that
charcoal is predominantly used in urban areas as
opposed to rural areas (Sepp, 2014). Use of forest
biomass for charcoal making could be a threat to the
future of these resources, especially where there is
high demand and a lack of proper forest
management practices and regulations (Girard,
2002). Banning the sale and transportation of
charcoal, as is currently the case in Kitui County,
and a nationwide logging moratorium could be
counter-productive as bans do not infact, reduce
production but drive producers underground
(Gonzalez, 2020). Thus there is a need for
sustainable charcoal production through the use of
energy-efficient kilns.
Figure 7: Use of energy types in households
Firewood was most popular because it’s easily
available and has been used over the years. To
balance between the expected increased demand for
firewood and maintenance of envisaged trees and
forest cover, innovative tree stewardship in
households is inevitable. Tree stewardship at the
household level involves planting and nurturing the
trees such that they are able to grow to their full
potential, collecting dry branches and pruning as
opposed to cutting down the whole tree to reap
maximum benefits from the trees, growing trees that
serve different purposes such that trees are able to
effectively compete with other conflicting uses
within the farm. Value addition in terms of using a
by-product of wood such as sawdust, creation of
briquettes and use of energy-efficient stoves.
According to the study, crop residues included the
use of maise cobs and straws. Among the
households, 41.6% used crop residues often, while
38.6% used crop residues fairly often (Figure 7).
This shows that crop residues are also quite popular
within households. They are used when there is a
scarcity of fuelwood, thereby reducing pressure on
tree cover. Maise cobs are used as a component of
briquette production, thereby adding value, though
this does not happen in Navakholo. This concurs
with a study on crop use as a potential energy source
that stated that crop residues could meet 50% of
Malawi’s energy demand (Gondwe et al., 2017;
African Renewable Energy, 2014)).
According to the study, 59.4% stated that they had
not used briquettes. These statistics point to a
glaring gap in regard to knowledge and perception
of briquettes as a source of energy within the
household. Briquettes have not been widely adopted
in developing countries due to the high cost of
production, lack of awareness of their sustainability,
lack of ready market and poor packaging and
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Perentage
Energy Type
Very often
often
Fairly Often
Not at all
No idea
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distribution systems for the product (Emerhi, 2011).
Respondents were asked if they used dry cow dung
as an energy source. Up to 61.4% did not use cow
dung at all, and 33.2% had no idea of the use of cow
dung for energy (Figure 7). A study in India showed
that households relied on a combination of dung
cakes (flat disks of dried cow dung approximately
ten centimetres in diameter) and fuelwood for
cooking and use of a traditional clay stove known as
‘chulha’ (Stockholm Environment Institute, 2012).
The dung cakes were made in the cooler months,
whereby wet dung from buffalo is gathered, shaped
by hand into cakes and left to dry for three to seven
days and then stored in communal spaces. During
cooking, dung cakes are broken up by hand and fed
into the fire. According to SEI (2012), dung cakes
create a significant amount of smoke when its first
lit, but once it’s burning, the smoke subsides. The
dung does not burn as hot as wood and is used for
purposes such as boiling milk. Further, the majority
of the households, 44.7%, did not use twigs at all,
while 27.4% had no idea about the use of twigs as a
source of energy in the household (Figure 7). This
is explained by the fact that twigs are used in
combination with other fuel sources, and it was not
as effective as fuelwood. Therefore, the use of twigs
does not reduce pressure on tree cover. However, up
to 12.4% of the respondents agreed to use twigs
often as a source of fuel. The results show that the
use of twigs is not very popular in households.
Firewood, charcoal, and crop residues are relied
upon to cater for energy sources within the
household. This is due to their availability.
Briquettes were not popularly used due to a lack of
technical know-how on how to produce them. Cow
dung was not used as it is viewed as archaic. This
shows that households in Navakholo heavily rely on
biomass to cater to their energy needs.
Table 4: Mean rating of household access to biomass-based energy options
N
Mean
Std. Dev
Std. Error Mean
Briquettes
386
1.63
0.509
0.026
Cow dung
384
1.70
0.976
0.028
Twigs
388
2.15
1.015
0.052
Charcoal
392
3.09
0.985
0.050
Crop residue (cobs, straw)
390
3.17
0.976
0.049
Firewood
391
4.86
0.550
0.28
Table 5: Testing mean access to Biomass energy sources
Test Value = 2
t
Df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
95% CI of the Difference
Lower
Upper
Firewood
102.706
390
0.000
2.857
2.80
2.91
Charcoal
21.853
391
0.000
1.087
0.99
1.18
Crop residue
23.649
389
0.000
1.169
1.07
1.27
Twigs
2.851
387
0.005
0.147
0.05
0.25
Briquettes
-14.199
385
0.000
-0.368
-0.42
-0.32
Cow dung
-10.622
383
0.000
-0.302
-0.36
-0.25
The mean rating of respondents’ access to biomass-
based energy ranged from 1.63 to 4.86 on a five-
point Likert scale (Table 4). This implies that an
average individual from the sampled population is
likely to be accessing firewood very often (4.86 = 5
on the Likert scale). Access to charcoal (3.09 = 3 on
the Likert scale) and crop residue (3.17= 3 on the
Likert scale) by an average individual from the
sampled population is rated fairly often. However,
twigs (2.15 = 2 on the Likert scale), briquettes
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Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
190 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
(1.63= 2 on the Likert scale), and cow dung (1.7 =
2 on the Likert scale) are not used by an average
resident of Navakholo Sub-County. Twigs are not
used as a fuel option in the household because of the
long time it takes to gather the twigs and also in the
event that you light the fire, longevity is not
guaranteed. Respondents did not use briquettes as
they were not aware of their use and the fact that
they were not easily available.
The mean access to firewood, charcoal, crop
residue, and twigs was significantly different from
2 (Not used at all) as hypothesised (Table 4).
Further, the respondents’ access to biomass energy
sources had p-values of p=.000. (Table 5). This
means that an average resident rated their access to
the different sources of biomass above 2 (Not used),
except for briquettes and cow dung. As shown
above, 2 on the Likert scale implies zero access to
the energy resource. Therefore, residents were
accessing firewood, charcoal, crop residues and
twigs. Therefore, the null hypothesis that farm
households in Kakamega County do not access
quality biomass-based energy is rejected.
Relationship between Tree and Forest Cover and
Preference of Energy Option
A relationship between forest cover and the
preferred energy option was established using
Pearson correlation tested at P≤ 0.05. In homesteads
where residents often preferred firewood, there was
significantly no appropriate tree cover (r = 0.104, P
= 0.040). In homesteads where residents often
preferred charcoal, gas, electricity, briquettes, cow
dung or twigs, tree cover was rated as appropriate
(P < 0.05) (Table 6). Charcoal is normally
purchased or acquired from sources outside the
home, which also indicates the need for households
having some kind of income security. To sustain
this income flow, trees planted within the home
were used for other commercial purposes not
necessarily to cater for energy needs within the
household.
Table 6: Relationship between appropriate tree cover and preference of energy option
Does your homestead have an appreciable tree cover
Firewood
R-value
0.104*
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.040
Charcoal
R-value
-0.282**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
Kerosene
R-value
-0.073
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.154
Gas
R-value
-0.152**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.003
Electricity
R-value
-.154**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.002
Solar
R-value
-0.099
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.051
Briquettes
R-value
-0.201**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
Crop residue, e.g., cobs
R-value
-0.024
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.632
Cow dung
R-value
-0.196**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
Twigs
R-value
-0.161**
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.001
N
389
East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2023
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
191 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Responses to Potential Firewood Crisis
When there is a total lack of firewood in a
homestead, most of the residents (40.6%) indicated
that they would switch to the use of kerosene and
gas (24.9%) and solar energy (Table 7). The
affordability of these energy sources would still be
a challenge to many households due to their initial
high investment cost.
Table 7. Residents fall back on energy sources when there is a total lack of firewood
Fallback energy source
Frequency (N = 394)
Percentage
Kerosene
160
40.6
Gas
98
24.9
Solar
49
12.4
Electricity
14
3.6
Biogas
2
0.5
Non-committal
71
18.0
In this regard, deliberate efforts to increase tree
cover should merit serious consideration at the
household level, as shown in respondent options in
Figure 8. Planted trees would then require certain
management practices to prolong their life and thus
guarantee the availability of fuelwood (Figure 9).
Figure 8: Strategies to enhance tree cover
To ensure a continuous supply of charcoal, the
residents mainly sell specific weights, practice
regular tree planting, and extinguish fires after
cooking. For continuity of supply of sawdust, they
ensure dry storage (13.3%) and extinguish fire after
cooking. These practices were also noted for the
management of firewood, where most of the
residents (66.7%) practice regular planting of trees.
Pollarding (60%), coppicing (53.3%), dry storage
(63.35%), and selling of specific weights (63.3%)
were strategies used to ensure continuous supply
(Table 8). Pollarding and coppicing of trees were
practised to enhance the continuous supply of
firewood among households. Pollarding is a pruning
system which involves the removal of the upper
branches of a tree, which promotes the growth of a
dense head of foliage and branches. This leads to
early harvest of wood, fodder or other biomass. A
study in Ghana showed that rural households used
coppicing where planted or harvested trees are
harvested stump high to allow for fast sprouting and
harvesting of branches of live trees (Amoah et al.,
31.8
8
5.1
0.3
4.4
2.3
0.8
2.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Planting more trees
There is massive afforestation
Maintaining the same tree cover
Road reserves availability
Practicing reforestation
Allocated land for planting trees
Increased awareness to plant more tress
There is household woodlot
Respondents (%)
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Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
192 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
2015). These strategies have been found useful as
firewood can be periodically collected from the
same stand.
Table 8: Management of biomass for continuous supply
Firewood
Biomass
Briquettes
Husks
Dung
Saw dust
Charcoal
dust
Pollarding
18 (60.0%)
-
-
-
3 (10.0%)
Coppicing
16 (53.3%)
-
-
-
-
-
2 (6.7%)
Pruning
16 (53.3%)
-
-
-
-
-
1 (3.3%0
Regular
replanting
20(66.7%)
-
-
-
-
-
6 (20.0%)
Dry storage
19(63.35)
-
-
-
-
4 (13.3%)
5 (16.7%)
Chopping to fit
17(56.7%)
--
-
-
-
-
1 (3.3%)
Extinguishing
after cooking
8 (26.7%)
-
-
-
-
2 (6.7%)
6(20.0%)
Selling specific
weights
19(63.3%)
-
-
-
-
1(3.3%)
8(26.7%)
Figure 9: Strategies to ensure the continuous supply of energy for domestic use
According to FGDs carried out within the wards in
Navakholo, strategies to ensure continuous energy
supply include the use of alternatives such as
charcoal, sawdust, maise cobs and stalks, sugarcane
stalks, continuous tree planting, continuous
collecting, drying, and stocking of firewood and
pruning (Figure 9). Other measures include the use
of energy-saving jikos and pressure cooker;
avoiding frequently cooking food that requires more
energy to cook, and use of Improved Cooking Stove
(ICS); the planting of fast-growing species that are
suitable for firewood; harvesting and preserving
wood through drying and stocking in advance. The
management of firewood within the household
involves value-additional strategies such as drying
and storage for future use. Pruning is also used to
increase the availability of wood. Alternative
energy types are used to substitute the available
fuelwood. This is useful in reducing the high
dependency on fuelwood as a source of fuel.
The tree planting initiatives in Navakholo Sub-
County may not be able to address the increasing
demand for biomass. Therefore, there is a need to
scale up tree planting in order to sustain future
fuelwood supply. Management of household
woodlots is critical to enhancing fuel wood supply.
0123456
use of alternatives like charcoal, gas, maize
stalks, saw dust
continuous collecting, drying and stocking of
firewood
continuous tree planting
pruning
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Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
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Declining tree cover could be attributed to increased
demand for wood products, encroachment of
forested areas and conversion to other land uses and
land tenure. Decreasing land available for trees is
due to the increasing population and the competing
land uses such as agriculture and settlements that are
taking over available land, thereby leading to
inadequate wood fuel supply. This is in line with a
study on fuel consumption in Nigeria that stated that
the depletion of forests and harvesting of trees and
shrubs for biomass are the reasons for fuelwood
inadequacy (Momodu, 2013).
Challenges and Opportunities in the use of other
Biomass Options
A total of 83.5% of those interviewed found it
difficult to invest in biomass energy. High expenses
were identified as the main obstacle, while not
having own land was the least hindrance (Figure
10). Expenses (49.7%) are a challenge due to the
initial capital needed to invest in these solutions.
Lack of knowledge on value addition (39.3%) is a
challenge as respondents were familiar with age-old
practices of using firewood. There were few if any,
value-addition initiatives. Such initiatives include
the production of briquettes which was not easily
adopted among households. This could be attributed
to the cultural significance of using firewood and
the lack of awareness of the benefits of value-added
fuels. Biogas is perceived as expensive due to the
high installation costs associated with its use and a
lack of awareness of its use. The use of briquettes
was a challenge due to the lack of technical know-
how of its production. For biofuels, there is not
much awareness of crops for biofuel production.
Available land needed for other uses was a
challenge due to the competing needs and used for
the available land. With the rising population, most
of the land has been set aside for settlement, and the
rest has been used as cropland. There remains a
challenge as to whether to put available land under
agricultural uses or grow plantations for the
production of biomass. Lack of own land remains a
challenge of investing in biomass. This is attributed
to land tenure issues. A 2012 review of Household
Clean Energy Technologies in Kenya and Tanzania
by the Africa Biodiversity Collaborative Group,
USAID, GVEP concluded that lack of financing by
the consumer and cultural reluctance to change were
major constraints to investing in biomass energy
solutions (Clough, 2012). If the cost of investment
in biomass energy solutions continues to be a
challenge, value addition for popular biomass
energy sources should be encouraged.
Figure 10: Reasons for not investing in biomass energy solutions
6.6
4.6
25.1
39.3
49.7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Others
Lack own land
Available land needed for other use
Lack knowledge on value addition
Expensive
Proportion of Respondents (%)
East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources, Volume 6, Issue 1, 2023
Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
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In order to invest in clean energy alternatives, most
respondents (77.4%) indicated the need to create
awareness of their benefits. Ease of access to
alternative energy sources was identified by 51% of
the respondents while training in value-addition was
proposed by 42.9% of the respondents (Figure 11).
Awareness creation on the use of alternative sources
is critical to reducing overreliance on biomass,
specifically, on the benefits of gas and solar as
clean, safe, and efficient energy sources that do not
cause harm to the environment. Ease of access to
alternative energy options should be promoted by
the introduction of subsidies to address the
challenges of initial capital requirements. Credit
facilities can be provided to encourage the uptake of
these energy sources. For example, the connection
fee for electricity connection has been reduced to
enhance connectivity to the grid. This is a good
initiative to encourage the uptake of electricity as an
energy option in households.
Value addition increases the market value of a
product. In this case, solar packages have been
introduced that serve as a source of fuel, have
charging stations and offer lighting solutions for
households. This way, the uptake of solar within
households will increase. If people are trained in
value addition, it could be a source of livelihood for
those that deal in those products. Value addition
also ensures efficiency, reduces wastage and is
favourable to the environment. The design of
appropriate products for the market, introduction of
clean energy technologies, access to financing,
education, information and awareness creation, and
creation of favourable policies to develop the
market enhances access to clean energy
(Government of Kenya; United Nations
Development Programme, 2016).
Figure 11: Facilitating households to invest in clean energy
CONCLUSIONS
Although there is a general decline in tree cover in
the study area due to changing land use, the
adequacy of fuelwood varies across households.
Households which indicated having adequate tree
cover attributed it to having secure woodlots and
trees along fences, mostly exotic varieties that grew
fast and matured early. Having appreciable tree
cover in one’s compound did not, however,
necessarily translate into the adequacy of fuelwood
within the household. Trees in homes were used for
other purposes other than supplying biomass
energy. Decreased availability of wood fuel at
household levels was attributed to the government’s
restriction to protected forests, private property
rights that restricted open harvesting and or
collection of firewood, increase in activities that
consumed bulk fuelwood such as brick-making and
charcoal burning, clearing of tree cover to create
2.8
13.2
42.9
24.9
77.4
51
010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Others
Integrate energy services in extension services
Train people on how to add value
Provide technical training on their use
Increase awareness on alternative energ sources
Ease access to alternative energy sources
Proportion of Respondents (%)
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Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1242
195 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
room for settlement, limited planting of trees and
commercial use of timber.
In cases of severe shortage of firewood, most of the
residents preferred to use kerosene stoves. Overall,
fuelwood remains the preferred energy source. It is
declining availability was attributed to an increase
in income generation activities that consume it in
bulk, such as brick making and charcoal burning,
clearing of trees to create room for settlement and
commercial use of timber. The future of household
energy security lies in afforestation practices that
are suitable for declining land sizes and more efforts
in promoting the use of other biomass energy
options that reduce pressure on tree cover.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Data for this paper was obtained from the first
author as part of the author’s PhD study still
ongoing.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The Authors confirm that there is no conflict of
interest in this article
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