Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Among Students in Tertiary Institutions in Abuja, Nigeria

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World Journal of Public Health
2023; 8(2): 187-194
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/wjph
doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230802.32
ISSN: 2637-6040 (Print); ISSN: 2637-6059 (Online)
Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV)
Among Students in Tertiary Institutions in Abuja, Nigeria
Emmanuel Adewale Ojo
1, *
, Ebenezer Obi Daniel
2
, David Segun Adeniyi
3
, Adewuyi Ojo
4
,
Patrick Ikani
5
, Paul Olaiya Abiodun
1
, Michael Avwerhota
6
, Ahmed Mamuda Bello
1
,
Israel Olukayode Popoola
7
, Friday Iyobosa Igbinovia
1
, Michael Olabode Tomori
1
,
Christiana Asibi-Ogben Inegbebon
1
, Oladapo Michael Olagbegi
8
1
Department of Public Health, Texila American University, Georgetown, Guyana
2
Department of Public Health, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
3
Directorate of Laboratory Services, APIN Public Health Initiatives, Jos, Nigeria
4
Department of Data and Information Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
5
Department of Research and Development, Institute of Communications, Development and Innovations LTD/GTE, Abuja, Nigeria
6
Department of Public Health, Atlantic International University, Hawaii, United States of America
7
Department of Epidemiology and Community Health, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
8
South African National Bioinformatics Institute, University of the Western Cape, Western Cape, South Africa
Email address:
*
Corresponding author
To cite this article:
Emmanuel Adewale Ojo, Ebenezer Obi Daniel, David Segun Adeniyi, Adewuyi Ojo, Patrick Ikani, Paul Olaiya Abiodun, Michael Avwerhota,
Ahmed Mamuda Bello, Israel Olukayode Popoola, Friday Iyobosa Igbinovia, Michael Olabode Tomori, Christiana Asibi-Ogben Inegbebon,
Oladapo Michael Olagbegi. Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Among Students in Tertiary Institutions in Abuja,
Nigeria. World Journal of Public Health. Vol. 8, No. 2, 2023, pp. 187-194. doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230802.32
Received: May 26, 2023; Accepted: June 13, 2023; Published: June 27, 2023
Abstract:
Gender-based violence (GBV) is a growing problem in Nigeria, with reports of cases increasing across different
regions of the country. This menace has been identified to be associated with different public health challenges and problems.
GBV encompasses various forms of abuse, including physical, sexual, and psychological, and it disproportionately affects
females, including minors. Understanding GBV among students is vital in addressing the issues relating to GBV because of the
influence of education in addressing social challenges. This study, therefore, investigates the prevalence, of GBV, and identifies
the causes, and perpetrators of GBV among students of tertiary institutions in Abuja, Nigeria. The study adopts a descriptive
cross-sectional survey research design to study the prevalence of all forms of GBV among the study population. The study was
conducted among students of tertiary institutions in Abuja, representing the three major types of tertiary institutions in the
location. The sample size of 440 respondents was calculated using a scientific sample size formula for cross-sectional studies and
stratified sampling was used to ensure adequate representation. A pre-tested well structured standardized questionnaire with open
and closed-ended questions was used to collect data, which was analysed using simple descriptive statistics. The prevalence of
gender-based violence (GBV) among tertiary institutions in Abuja, Nigeria was found to be high, with 61.9% for physical abuse,
56.4% for psychological abuse, and 25.3% for sexual abuse. The most prevalent form of physical abuse is slapping, while the
most prevalent form of sexual abuse is forceful kissing, and the most prevalent form of psychological abuse is insults/criticism.
Teachers/instructors were found to be the most significant perpetrators of physical abuse, while non-relatives are the most
significant perpetrators of sexual abuse, and fellow students/learners are the most significant perpetrators of psychological abuse.
The major causes of GBV are gender norms which include traditional beliefs and practices, religious beliefs and practices, and
the belief that males are superior to females. This study highlights the need for a comprehensive strategy to combat GBV
effectively. It recommends an urgent approach to combat the prevalence of GBV among the study population, engaging major
stakeholders and policymakers.

188 Emmanuel Adewale Ojo et al.: Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Among Students in Tertiary
Institutions in Abuja, Nigeria
Keywords:
Gender-Based Violence, Prevalence, Causes, Tertiary Institutions Student
1. Introduction
Gender-based violence (GBV) is any type of abuse or
violence perpetrated against people or groups based on their
gender or sex. This can include harassment and other types of
discrimination, resulting in physical, sexual, or psychological
abuse. GBV can occur in many contexts, including families,
schools, workplaces, and public areas. It is frequently
entrenched in cultural norms and power inequalities that harm
particular genders or sexes [1]. Millions of individuals
throughout the world are affected by gender-based violence,
and statistics show that 1 in 3 women could suffer physical or
sexual abuse in their lifetime [2]. Gender-based violence has
significant impacts on society, the economy, and the health
sector. It undermines social cohesion, hinders economic
development, and can cause physical and mental health
problems [3]. It has become a significant concern in public
health with its impact across the globe. Gender-based violence
is a pervasive human rights violation that affects females
worldwide, regardless of their social, economic, age, ethnicity,
or national background. It is a serious issue that compromises
the health, dignity, security, and autonomy of women [4]. It is
rooted in discriminatory gender norms and legislation and
veiled in impunity, which happens in all communities as a
method of control, enslavement, and exploitation ultimately
promoting gender inequality [5].
GBV can be associated with various health challenges and
problems. GBV has been linked to several health issues with
the resultant effect of "robbing women of their vitality,
jeopardizing their physical health, and undermining their
sense of self-worth. It could also result in women's long-term
risk of a variety of additional health issues, such as chronic
pain, physical impairment, drug and alcohol dependence, and
depression [6]. Additionally, unexpected pregnancies,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unfavorable pregnancy
outcomes, and death are also more common among women
who have experienced either physical or sexual abuse [7].
This menace can be expressed in many dangerous
behaviours against women and girls because of their gender,
which includes wife abuse, domestic servitude, sexual assault,
dowry-related murder, Sexual exploitation and abuse, marital
rape, sexual slavery, selective malnourishment of female
children, forced prostitution, female genital mutilation, and
sexual abuse of female children [7].
GBV is a major global policy concern with serious social,
economic, and individual repercussions. This is
disproportionately burdened in low- to middle-income nations
in the Global South, where rates of gender-based violence are
also much greater. However, the majority of worldwide
research on GBV is based on urban communities' experiences
in wealthy, English-speaking nations, primarily in the
worldwide North [8]. GBV especially among young people is
a global issue with serious implications for public health [9,
10]. In many diverse societies, it has a major negative impact
on men's and women's avoidable morbidity and death [11].
Understanding GBV among students is vital in addressing the
issues relating to GBV because of the influence of education
in addressing social challenges. Afolabi. [12] asserts that
many students do not well understand what gender-based
violence is, therefore, they may not be able to educate their
peers about the issue or defend themselves against its
occurrence.
Several attempts have been made to conceptualize GBV,
however, scholars admit, that it is a complex phenomenon,
that will require the use of various models that considers
several factors that operate at the individual, relationship,
community, and societal levels as an appropriate framework
[13]. Atwell, [14] describes GBV as damaging behaviors that
are carried out against the victim's will and are motivated by
socially constructed gender disparities between men and
women. GBV include all acts of violence, whether they take
place in the public or private domain, and cause or are likely to
cause bodily, sexual, or psychological pain or suffering to an
individual, including threats of such actions, coercion, or
arbitrarily restricting freedom [10]. Therefore, any physical or
psychological injury committed against a person because of
his or her sex or gender might be considered gender-based
violence.
The European Institute for Gender Equality reports that
GBV is enacted under different manifestations, from its most
widespread form; intimate partner violence, to acts of violence
carried out in online spaces. These different forms of violence
are not mutually exclusive and multiple incidences of violence
can be happening at once. Inequalities experienced by a
person based on their race, (dis)ability, age, social class,
religion, and sexuality can also drive acts of violence. This
invariably means women are not just exposed to violence and
discrimination based on gender, rather some women
experience multiple and interlocking forms of violence based
on other factors [15].
GBV can manifest in different types of violence such as
rape, sexual assault, physical assault, forced marriage, denial
of resources, opportunities, or services as well as
psychological or emotional abuse [14].
Physical violence can be defined as any act which may
cause any kind of physical harm to a person (partner; in the
case of intimate partner violence) as a result of unlawful
physical force [16]. The United Nation Department of
Economic and Social Affairs categorized this form of GBV to
include; slapping, throwing object at a person, pushing,
shoving, pulling hair; hitting, kicking, dragging, beating,
choking, use of weapons against an individual etc. [17].
Sexual violence just like every other form of GBV is
expressed in various forms but refers to any kind of sexual
activity with a person (victim) without their consent. It can
take the form of rape or sexual assault and covers a wide
variety of sexual acts [18].

World Journal of Public Health 2023; 8(2): 187-194 189
Psychological violence falls into the following acts;
Verbal/emotional abuse, humiliation, discrimination, denial of
opportunities and /or services, spouse confinement (domestic
violence) etc. which may have some sort of psychological
effect on a person [16].
In Nigeria, a study of public and private secondary schools
in Ilorin [19], shows that 89.1% of students in public
secondary schools and 84.8% of students in private secondary
schools reported having encountered GBV of some sort. The
most prevalent kind of GBV encountered by these students
was psychological violence: 72.5% of public and 69.2% of
private secondary schools. For sexual violence, 41.4% of
Public and 37.4% of private school students have experienced
some sort of sexual violence and for physical violence, 67.2%
of public and 70.2% of private secondary schools have
experienced one or more kinds of physical violence.
Similarly, Afolabi, [12], discovered that among tertiary
institution in Ekiti state, Nigeria, sexual-related violence is the
most frequent. And a vast majority of the students in higher
institutions have never heard of or have poor knowledge of
gender-based violence. Also, this study identified lecturers,
strangers, and fellow students as the major perpetrators of
GBV.
In the study of Oladepo et. al., [20], It was discovered that
26.9% of the respondent have been the victims of physical
assault, including 353 men (11.8%) and 453 women (15.1%).
Also, as many as 364 respondents reported having
experienced sexual violence, 221 (7.4%) of whom were men
and 143 (4.8%) of whom were women.
Gender-based violence has been confirmed as a common
experience in many schools. Fawole et al/., [19] found a high
proportion of Nigerian students to have experienced GBV. A
relative challenge in understanding and addressing the
prevalence of GBV in low-income and developing nations is
the limited number of researches being carried out in these
nations. Unfortunately, estimates of the prevalence of
gender-based violence based on information from the health
system or from police records may be too low, to truly
understand the prevalence of GBV [21]. Therefore, there is a
need to empirically investigate gender-based violence.
This study, therefore is aimed to determine the prevalence
and the major causes of Gender-based violence among tertiary
institution students in Abuja, Nigeria. This study addresses the
question:
1. What is the prevalence of gender-based violence among
students of tertiary institutions in Abuja, Nigeria?
2. What are the major causes of Gender-based violence
among students of tertiary institutions in Abuja,
Nigeria?
2. Methods
2.1. Study Setting
The study was carried out among students of tertiary
institutions in Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria. Abuja
is the capital city of Nigeria. It is located right in the Centre of
the country and is also one of the area councils of the Federal
Capital Territory (FCT). It lies on approximate latitude
09°4′North and longitude 07°29′East and has a population of
about 776,298 according to the 2006 population census [25].
2.2. Data Collection Methods
Pre-tested and standardized questionnaires from previous
studies were adopted and administered to the selected study
participants. This method of data collection was adopted for
its flexibility, the type of respondent, being students, and also
considering the number of expected participants involved in
the study. Participant from the selected schools were
administered the instrument at different location and at
different time. A total of four hundred and forty (440)
questionnaires in all were shared, and four hundred and
thirty-one (431), were returned, completed, and found valid.
2.3. Study Participant
The study was carried out among the students of selected
tertiary institutions in Abuja. These academic institutions
were selected to represent the three major types of tertiary
institutions in the location (University of Abuja, College of
Education and School of Nursing), all located in the Abuja
metropolis.
Being a cross-sectional study, the sample size for this study
was calculated using a scientific sample size formula for
cross-sectional studies. To ensure representativeness,
respondents were selected using stratified sampling.
Stratification was based on school/institution and
faculty/college, and then the respondents in each level of the
class were chosen randomly from each of the selected schools.
A total sample size of 440 was used for study with appropriate
sample frame for each institution involved in the study.
2.4. Ethical Considerations
Ethical clearance and approval (with approval number
FCT/CON/RC/2022/001) was obtained from the Ethics &
Research Committee of FCT School of Nursing, Gwagwalada
– Abuja, Nigeria, moreover written consent was obtained from
the selected schools and the study participants were briefed on
the questionnaire before they were enrolled in the study. The
consent letters were written stating the study's objectives, the
nature of participants’ involvement, and the confidentiality of
the data. Students were requested to read the consent letters
carefully before answering the questionnaire. They were given
clear options regarding voluntary participation.
2.5. Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the collected
data using frequency, percentage, mean, and standard
deviation, the analysis summarizes the collected data using
the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version
20.0. This analysis was further presented in table for proper
presentation.

190 Emmanuel Adewale Ojo et al.: Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Among Students in Tertiary
Institutions in Abuja, Nigeria
3. Results
The demographic information of the study of 431
respondent, reveals the gender of respondents, 168 (39.0%)
being Male and 258 (59.9%) of the respondent to be Female.
As many as 339 (78.7%) of the respondents are students of the
University of Abuja, 26 (6%) of the respondents are students
of FCT School of Nursing, and 66 (15.3%) of the respondents
are students of FCT college of education.
3.1. Forms of Gender-Based Violence
Table 1 below shows the prevalence of the major forms of
gender-based violence among students of tertiary institutions
in Abuja, Nigeria. It revealed a prevalence of 61.9% for
physical abuse, followed by Psychological abuse at 56.4% and
sexual abuse at 25.3%.
Table 1. Prevalence of different Forms of Gender-Based Violence.
Types of GBV (n=431) Frequency Percentage (%) Ranking
Physical Abuses 267 61.9 1st
Psychological Abuse 243 56.4 2nd
Sexual Abuses 109 25.3 3rd
3.2. Types of Gender Based Violence
Table 2 below shows the different types of gender-based violence experienced by student of tertiary institutions categorized by
the major forms (physical, psychological and sexual).
Table 2. Specific Types of GBV Experienced by Each Gender.
Specific Types of GBV Male (n=170) Female (n=261) Total (n=431) X2; p-value
F (%) F (%)
Physical abuses
Hit/ Punched 66 (38.8%) 70 (26.8%) 136 (31.6%) 6.868; 0.009
Kicked 57 (33.5%) 48 (18.4%) 105 (24.4%) 12.804; 0.000
Slapped 86 (50.6%) 116 (44.4%) 202 (46.9%) 1.560; 0.212
Beaten with an object 64 (37.6%) 92 (35.2%) 156 (36.2%) 0.256; 0.613
Bitten 44 (25.9%) 54 (20.7%) 98 (22.7%) 1.580; 0.209
Pushed 63 (37.1%) 83 (31.8%) 146 (33.9%) 1.271; 0.260
Used Weapon 24 (14.1%) 17 (6.5%) 41 (9.5%) 6.916; 0.009
Sexual abuses
Touched private part 23 (13.5%) 34 (13.0%) 57 (13.2%) 0.023; 0.880
Kissed against wish 24 (14.1%) 35 (13.4%) 59 (13.7%) 0.044; 0.835
Forced to watch sexually explicit materials 12 (7.1%) 10 (3.8%) 22 (5.1%) 2.214; 0.137
Attempted forced sex 16 (9.4%) 38 (14.6%) 54 (12.5%) 2.489; 0.115
Forced to have sex 14 (8.2%) 15 (5.7%) 29 (6.7%) 1.016; 0.314
Psychological abuse
Insulted/criticized 81 (47.6%) 121 (46.4%) 202 (46.9%) 0.068; 0.794
Forced to end pregnancy 1 (0.6%) 11 (4.2%) 12 (2.8%) 5.002; 0.025
Belittled 34 (20.0%) 80 (30.7%) 114 (26.5%) 6.004; 0.014
Spite 23 (13.5%) 15 (5.7%) 38 (8.8%) 7.755; 0.005
Humiliated 47 (27.6%) 67 (25.7%) 114 (26.5%) 0.207; 0.649
Threatened to kill 13 (7.6%) 20 (7.7%) 33 (7.7%) 0.000; 0.995
As seen Table 2, slapping is the most prevalent physical
abuse among both genders in the category of physical abuse
among students of tertiary institutions in Abuja, Nigeria, with
202 (46.9%) respondents having a record of being slapped.
However, between the gender category, it appears that more
males have been slapped with 86 (50.6%) respondent
comments, than their female counterparts with 116 (44.4%)
respondent comments.
In the category of sexual abuse; “Kissed against wish” is
the most prevalent sexual abuse with 59 (13.7%) respondents
having being kissed against wish. However, between the
gender category, it appears that more males have been kissed
against wish with 24 (14.1%) respondent comments, than
their female counterparts with 35 (13.4%). Also, looking
closely, considering the individual prevalence of the different
types of violence in the category, it appears that attempted
forced sex was more prevalent among females with 38 (14.6%)
in the sexual abuse category.
In the case of Psychological abuse; “Insult/Criticism” is
the most prevalent Psychological abuse among both genders
with 202 (46.9%) respondents having a record of being
insulted or criticized. However, between the gender category,
it appears that more males have been insulted/criticized with
81 (47.6%) respondent comments, than their female
counterparts with 121 (46.4%) respondent comments.
3.3. Perpetrators of GBV (Physical Abuse)
Table 3 below shows the prevalence of perpetrators of
GBV for physical abuse among students of tertiary
institutions in Abuja, Nigeria.

World Journal of Public Health 2023; 8(2): 187-194 191
As seen in Table 3, Teachers/Instructors with 101 (23, 4%)
responses are ranked as the highest perpetrators of physical
abuse. This is followed by mothers with 75 (17.4%)
responses ranking second, and fellow students with 67
(15.5%) responses ranking third among perpetrators of
physical abuse.
Table 3. Perpetrators of GBV (Physical Abuse).
Perpetrators of Physical Abuse Physical Abuses (n=431) Ranking
Frequency Percentage (%)
Teacher/Instructor 101 (23.4%) 1st
Mother 75 (17.4%) 2nd
Fellow student/Learner 67 (15.5%) 3rd
Father 65 (15.1%) 4th
Friends 63 (14.6%) 5th
Siblings 58 (13.5%) 6th
Non-relatives 39 (9.0%) 7th
Relatives 35 (8.1%) 8th
Guardian 25 (5.8%) 9th
Partner/boy-friend/girl-friend 24 (5.6%) 10th
Stepmother 12 (2.8%) 11th
Stepfather 5 (1.2%) 12th
3.4. Perpetrators of GBV (Sexual Abuse)
Table 4 below shows the prevalence of perpetrators of
GBV for sexual abuses among students of tertiary institutions
in Abuja, Nigeria. As seen, non - relatives with 20 (4.6%)
responses are ranked as the highest perpetrators of sexual
abuse, closely followed by relatives with 19 (4.4%) responses
and partners with 17 (3.9%) responses.
Table 4. Perpetrators of GBV (Sexual Abuse).
Perpetrators of Sexual Abuse Sexual Abuses (n=431) Ranking
Frequency Percentage (%)
Non-relatives 20 (4.6%) 1st
Relatives 19 (4.4%) 2nd
Partners 17 (3.9%) 3rd
Friends 13 (3.0%) 4th
Lecturers 12 (2.8%) 5th
Fellow student/Learner 10 (2.3%) 6th
Guardian 5 (1.2%) 7th
Mother 3 (0.7%) 8th
Father 2 (0.5%) 9th
Stepfather 2 (0.5%) 9th
Siblings 1 (0.2%) 10th
Stepmother 1 (0.2%) 10th
3.5. Perpetrators of GBV (Psychological Abuse)
Table 5 below shows the prevalence of perpetrators of GBV for psychological abuse among students of tertiary institutions
in Abuja, Nigeria.
Table 5. Perpetrators of GBV (Psychological Abuse).
Perpetrators of Psychological Abuse Psychological Abuses (n=431) Ranking
Frequency Percentage (%)
Fellow student/Learner 64 (14.8%) 1st
Teacher/Instructor 56 (13.0%) 2nd
Friends 54 (12.5%) 3rd
Non-relatives 38 (8.8%) 4th
Father 37 (8.6%) 5th
Relatives 34 (7.9%) 6th
Mother 32 (7.4%) 7th
Siblings 23 (5.3%) 8th
Partner/boyfriend/girlfriend 22 (5.1%) 9th
Guardian 20 (4.6%) 10th
Stepfather 8 (1.9%) 11th
Stepmother 7 (1.6%) 12th

192 Emmanuel Adewale Ojo et al.: Prevalence and Causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Among Students in Tertiary
Institutions in Abuja, Nigeria
As seen in Table 5, Fellow students/learners with 64
(14.8%) responses are ranked as the highest perpetrators of
psychological abuse. This is followed by Teacher/Instructor
with 56 (13.0%) responses ranking second, and Friends with
54 (12.5%) responses ranking third among perpetrators of
psychological abuse.
3.6. Causes of Gender-Based Violence
Table 6 below shows the causes of Gender Based Violence
among students of tertiary institutions in Abuja, Nigeria.
The table shows that 221 (74.4%) of the study participants
believed that GBV is caused by traditional beliefs and
practices, 41 (13.8%) respondents disagreed, while 35 (11.8%)
said they do not know. Also, 178 (60.8%) respondents agreed
that GBV is caused by religious beliefs and practices, 79
(27.0%) respondents disagreed, and 36 (12.3%) said they do
not know. As many as 258 (80.9%) respondents affirmed that
the belief that males are superior to females is a major cause of
GBV, but 41 (12.9%) respondents disagreed to this, while 20
(6.3%) do not know. Likewise, the majority of the respondents
247 (76.7%) agreed that the belief that females should obey
and not argue is a major cause of GBV, 47 (14.6%) do not
agree, while as few as 28 (6.5%) respondents do not know.
Noticeably, 241 (75.3%) respondents also agreed that peer
pressure could cause GBV, but 44 (13.8%) respondents
disagreed, while 35 (10.9%) respondents do not know.
Table 6. Causes of Gender-Based Violence.
Causes of gender-based violence Yes (%) No (%) I Don’t Know (%)
Traditional beliefs and practices 221 (74.4%) 41 (13.8%) 35 (11.8%)
Religious beliefs and practices 178 (60.8%) 79 (27.0%) 36 (12.3%)
Belief that males are superior to females 258 (80.9%) 41 (12.9%) 20 (6.3%)
Believes that Females should obey and not argue 247 (76.7%) 47 (14.6%) 28 (6.5%)
Wearing revealing clothes 202 (66.7%) 67 (22.7%) 34 (11.2%)
Drunkenness 195 (68.2%) 53 (18.5%) 38 (13.3%)
Peer pressure 241 (75.3%) 44 (13.8%) 35 (10.9%)
4. Discussions
4.1. Prevalence of Gender-Based Violence Among
University Students in Abuja Nigeria
The prevalence of GBV across various educational levels
and every gender has been shown by various research carried
out in Africa, especially Nigeria. This violence can come in
different forms ranging from physical, psychological, and
sexual violence. It has not only proven to affect the student in
their academic pursuit but could affect their general
well-being.
A comparison between this study and Fawole et al [19],
found some differences in the prevalence of GBV among
student. While the other study found psychological violence to
be more common, followed by physical violence, this study
found physical violence to be more prevalent, followed by
psychological abuse. The difference could be due to age and
education level differences of the respondents. Both studies
found sexual violence to be the least common form of violence,
indicating a need for policymakers and stakeholders to
consider these findings when addressing gender-based
violence among students [19].
According to the findings of this study, teachers are the
major perpetrators of physical violence in Abuja's tertiary
institutions, which is consistent with a similar study in Ekiti
state by Afolabi [12]. However, Fawole et al [19], identified
friends as the major perpetrators of physical violence in
secondary schools. Also, the most common act of physical
violence identified in this study is slapping and beating, this
suggests that students may have experienced physical abuse
from teachers in their previous level of education,
outweighing every other kind of physical abuse they have
experienced.
The findings of the study regarding psychological abuse
perpetrated by fellow students is consistent with previous
research by Fawole et al [19] who also found that friends were
the primary perpetrators of psychological abuse among
secondary school students. These results suggest that
Psychological abuse is prevalent across different levels of
education, emphasizing the need for interventions that target
peer relationships and social dynamics within schools, and
creating safe and supportive school environments to
encourage students to speak out against abusive behavior.
This study suggest that non-relatives are the major
perpetrators of sexual violence. This is contrary to the findings
of Fawole et al [19], which discovered partners as the major
perpetrator of sexual violence among secondary school
students. The difference in the findings could be attributed to
the fact that students at tertiary institutions give consent to sex
and do not consider it as a violation as compared to students in
secondary schools. It could also be that students at a higher
level of education are more aware of how to prevent
themselves from sexual molestation as compared to younger
students who might easily be taken advantage of by their
partners.
4.2. Causes of Gender-Based Violence
The major causes of GBV among students of tertiary
institutions in Abuja as shown by the findings of this study can
be linked to; traditional beliefs and practices, religious beliefs
and practices, the belief that males are superior to females,
believes that females should obey and not argue, wearing
revealing clothes, drunkenness, and peer pressure. However,
among the various factors identified, the belief that males are
superior to females and the belief that females should obey and

World Journal of Public Health 2023; 8(2): 187-194 193
not argue ranks as the highest cause. These two factors are
indeed interrelated and can be best described as primitive. Itegi
and Njuguna [22] attribute the major cause of gender-based
violence (GBV) to the disadvantage faced by women compared
to men. This partially agrees with the finding of this study that
males are seen as superior to females, but disagrees with Badri
[23] notion that the major cause is due to guiding children. The
study also finds that discriminatory treatment against girls at
home contributes to GBV. Other causes of GBV identified by
Uyanne [24] are poverty and drug abuse, and by Muzavazi et al
[26] are child marriage and spouse dominance behavior. These
varying results indicate the need for tailored interventions and
the influence of context on GBV causes.
Gender inequality and discrimination, with males being
viewed as superior to females and having greater privileges
and opportunities, are deeply ingrained in many cultures. This
can lead to the justification of violent behavior towards
women and perpetuates harmful social norms and practices
that contribute to gender-based violence. It is important to
note that these beliefs are not innate to any specific culture or
religion, but are constructs that must be challenged and
dismantled through education and awareness-raising
initiatives. Such initiatives may involve educating students on
gender equality and healthy relationship dynamics, while also
addressing harmful social norms and practices that contribute
to gender-based violence.
5. Conclusion
Gender-based violence (GBV) is prevalent in tertiary
institutions in Abuja, Nigeria, and across different levels of
education. The violence can come in various forms, such as
physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, affecting students'
academic pursuit and general well-being. The study reveals
that teachers are the major perpetrators of physical violence,
while friends and non-relatives are major perpetrators of
psychological and sexual violence, respectively. The major
causes of GBV among students are traditional and religious
beliefs and practices, male superiority complex, obedience
and submission expectations of females, revealing clothes,
drunkenness, and peer pressure. Therefore, tailored
interventions and education on gender equality, healthy
relationships, and harmful social norms and practices are
crucial to combat GBV in educational institutions.
6. Limitations of the Study
The limitation to this study, is that even though, the study
included all the major types of tertiary institution in the Abuja
metropolis, it focused on the public tertiary institutions. This
study would have been more comprehensive, if it included the
private tertiary institution and covered more states in the country.
7. Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following are
recommended to address the prevalence of gender-based
violence among student:
Urgent action is advised for tertiary institutions in Abuja to
combat gender-based violence. This includes domesticating
the VAPP act in schools, implementing a comprehensive
policy to prevent and respond to violence and offering support
services for victims.
Strengthening awareness creation on the need to promote
breaking the silence by improving on reporting so that
survivors can access care and treatment services.
Interventions that target peer relationships and social
dynamics within schools should be implemented to reduce the
prevalence of psychological abuse among students.
Students should be educated on gender equality and healthy
relationship dynamics to prevent gender-based violence,
including sexual violence, regardless of their age or level of
education.
Schools should develop curriculum-based activities that
teach students about safe behaviour and protecting themselves
from abuse. Lecturers and school staff should also be trained
in recognizing violence and asking students in a responsible
way about violence.
Tailored interventions should be developed to address the
various causes of gender-based violence identified in the study,
including traditional beliefs and practices, religious beliefs and
practices, and discriminatory treatment against girls at home.
Acknowledgements
Sincere gratitude to the authorities of University of Abuja,
FCT School of Nursing Gwagwalada, and FCT College of
Education for granting the permission and providing
necessary support to carry out the study.
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