Neurodiversity and Inclusivity in the Workplace: Biopsychosocial Interventions for Promoting Competitive Advantage

Abstract

Research has demonstrated that diverse teams perform better and are more creative and innovative. As such, many firms in industry have established DEI programs, especially those where forward-thinking design cognition are competitive advantages. These efforts correspond with a global talent and worker shortage and align with the realization that neurodiverse populations are eight times as likely to be unemployed, while most actively desire and seek work opportunities. The technology sector has been the first to consistently identify, build, and promote programs supporting the neurodiverse population, leveraging a largely untapped resource. With an estimated 15-20% of the global population considered to be neurodiverse, greater attention is being paid to the different needs and skills of this growing and diverse. To promote a potential competitive advantage, and address the needs of a neurodiverse workforce, certain firms are adopting biopsychosocial interventions in the workplace, including integration of behavioral education, redesigning hiring, resource training for managers, and environmental adaptations.

Full text

Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023 1
Neurodiversity and Inclusivity in the Workplace:
Biopsychosocial Interventions for Promoting Competitive Advantage
Piper Hutson
Lindenwood University
James Hutson
Lindenwood University
Research has demonstrated that diverse teams perform better and are more creative and innovative. As
such, many firms in industry have established DEI programs, especially those where forward-thinking
design cognition are competitive advantages. These efforts correspond with a global talent and worker
shortage and align with the realization that neurodiverse populations are eight times as likely to be
unemployed, while most actively desire and seek work opportunities. The technology sector has been the
first to consistently identify, build, and promote programs supporting the neurodiverse population,
leveraging a largely untapped resource. With an estimated 15-20% of the global population considered to
be neurodiverse, greater attention is being paid to the different needs and skills of this growing and diverse.
To promote a potential competitive advantage, and address the needs of a neurodiverse workforce, certain
firms are adopting biopsychosocial interventions in the workplace, including integration of behavioral
education, redesigning hiring, resource training for managers, and environmental adaptations.
Keywords: biophilic design, Neurodiversity, sustainability, wayfinding, smart cities, occupational health,
productivity
INTRODUCTION
Studies of neurological or developmental conditions such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in the
workplace have received increased attention over the past decade largely due to increased social awareness
(Schall, 2010; Scott et al. 2018; Bury et al. 2020; Scott et al. 2022). Aligning with the concept of
biodiversity, the idea of Neurodiversity asserts neurological development outside of the atypical “normal”
human thinking is a biological variation, deserving both understanding and support. The term
Neurodiversity was established in 1998 by Judy Singer, an Australian social scientist (Deakin, 2022).
Baron-Cohen (2019) notes that proponents of the framing “argue that in a highly social and unpredictable
environment some of the differences may manifest as disabilities, while in more autism-friendly
environments, disabilities can be minimized allowing other differences to bloom as talents.” In other words,
environmental considerations are necessary as the nature of a typical workplace with open-concept
floorplans and lack of sensory adjustments are disabling for a neurodiverse population (Gaudion, 2016;
Harnett, 2019). Therefore, many who self-identify as neurodiverse do not consider the nature of their
thinking a disability, instead, they argue environmental conditions are disabling from a learning and

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performance standpoint. While the most well-known symptoms of Neurodiversity are specific to ASD –
impaired communication, impaired or restricted social interactions, and repetitive actions or behaviors-
there is a great deal of diversity of experiences and need for the broader population.
Neurodiversity encompasses many different types of brain functions and behavioral traits, including
social communication, ability to recognize and express emotion, levels of attention, and other mental
functions (Dawson, Franz, & Brandsen, 2022). Initial research on the topic concentrated on adopting the
medical model of investigation, which calls for prevention and a focus on finding a cure to the serious
impairments that are often associated with the conditions listed above. Discussions of the disabling
symptoms found in psychological and medical resources evolved out of defining “the other” in the context
of deficit highlighting from normative educational social history (Rogers & Vismara, 2008; Doyle, 2020).
For example, Dyslexia appeared when the focus on literacy became mainstream (Politi-Georgousi &
Drigas, 2020); ADHD issues emerged alongside the required sedentary lifestyles following the industrial
revolution (Olsson & Hibbs Jr, 2005); autism concerns appeared with the ever-growing frequency of social
communication and requirement of being immerse in controlled sensory environments of the office
(Lawson, Mathys, & Rees, 2017). The very etymological origin of the term “disorder” derives from the
unknown and is used when the symptoms behind the dysfunction have no known diagnosis (Wedgwood &
Atkinson, 1872). At the same time, the use of the term “disability” suggests that diagnosed individuals are
actually below the average expectation for neurological or physical functioning. Examples include
comorbidities in the neurodiverse population. For instance, a recent study found that 50% of patients
diagnosed with ASD also commonly have no less than four co-occurring conditions that may include
learning difficulties and language disorders. 75% of individuals with autism also show tendencies aligned
with ADHD, which is one of the most common neurological challenges, relating to working memory,
impulsivity, prioritizing, focusing, remembering plans, multitasking, coping with stress and organization
(Baron-Cohen, 2019).
Such frequency of overlapping conditions makes traditional career trajectories challenging for the
neurodiverse community. According to the University of Connecticut Center for Neurodiversity and
Employment Innovation, rates of unemployment for adults with neurodiverse conditions is 30-40%. The
rates are three times that of other disability groups (Harper, 2022). Furthermore, figures from the National
Autistic Society show that despite 77% desiring to work, there are only 16% of adults with autism working
full-time as opposed to 47% of other disabled people (National Autistic Society, 2021). One of the issues
faced by neurodivergent adults who are eager to have a career are non-inclusive hiring practices, lack of
retention programs and supervisor training, and perceptions that their skills do not align with those needed
in a given firm. Issues which most often arise include the inability to initiative or maintain a conversation
and inability to keep eye contact during the interviewing process immediately takes many out of the running
for employment (Anderson, Butt, & Sarsony, 2021). Many aspects of neurodiverse experiences influence
all parts of the individual’s life, including their talents and struggles as interwoven into personal and
professional life goals. In essence, occupational success or failure is often out of the control of a population
that is highly motivated, intelligent, and eager to work.
At the same time, a neurodiverse workforce is a panacea for challenges faced by industry today. Career
development is no longer a linear trajectory and many variables have led to labor shortages. For instance,
Lindstrom et al. (2007) noted that career decisions are tied to roles within family units and often dictate
when and if individuals enter or re-enter the workforce. The non-linear progression has also been
highlighted in research and the news recently with the belief that younger generations, starting with
Millennials, change careers earlier and more frequently, leading to a labor shortage in many areas (Sian,
2013). Recently, another trend has emerged that concerns employers known as “quiet quitting” and has
been cited among Gen Z workers (Strahilevitz, 2022). A reconsideration of priorities and work-life balance
has led many employees to avoid going beyond their basic job requirements and functions. The struggle to
attract and retain young talent has serious economic consequences when turnover is high (Ji et al. 2022).
With a shrinking talent pool, industry needs to consider a new strategy. Studies show neurodiverse
employees were found to be more motivated and more productive than neurotypical employees under
specific conditions. For instance, research has demonstrated professionals with autism are more productive

Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023 3
than average employees (up to 140%, in fact) (Bury et al. 2020). It should be noted, programs flourish after
adapting to meet the needs of the neurodiverse community. Raymaker et al. (2022) report in a study of
autism in the workplace that destigmatizing neurodiverse conditions is paramount to ensure a safe working
environment. Supervisors are also central to facilitating office culture and working conditions. When
interviewed, not surprisingly, neurodiverse participants defined success the same way most workers do and
desire work-life balance, opportunities for professional growth, a sense of community, financial
independence and having work that is meaningful. To support this population, strategies require a
biopsychosocial approach focusing on the whole individual- their environment, as well as psychological
and biological factors (Raymaker et al. 2022). Attending to all three areas results in much lower attrition
and turnover with neurodiverse employees compared to average workers.
The integration of neurodiverse employees has resulted in lower defect rates and higher productivity,
not to mention improved sales, services, and products. Companies have seen overall improvement in
communication for such employees when policies are set to avoid unnecessary and ambiguous
communication, such as nuances of irony, colloquialisms, and sarcasm (Jones, 2015). Even neurotypical
employees report their involvement with these programs has improved their morale and made their work
more meaningful (Morris, Begel, & Wiedermann, 2015). The appreciation of the experience creates a
workforce that is loyal with low rates of turnover in both populations. The low churn also confers program
resiliency and confers reputational benefits (Kwon & Rupp, 2013). Therefore, in order to promote a
potential competitive advantage, and address the needs of a neurodiverse workforce, firms should adopt a
biopsychosocial model in the workplace. The model emphasizes the interconnected nature of our work lives
in biological, psychological and socio-environmental areas. Addressing just one will not result in a value
proposition as programs require staffing, overhead, administrative support, and employee buy-in- all of
which take resources, time, and money. But the return on investment has already been realized by many
firms in sales, revenues, and human capital retention. The following review of theories and best practices
is designed to assist human resource professionals and employers support a neurodiverse workforce.
Programs which restructure hiring practices, educate supervisors, adapt to environmental requirements, and
demonstrate empathy towards worker needs result in greater career commitment, reduced turnover, as well
as improved self-esteem, self-efficacy and job performance among personnel.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Understanding Neurodiversity
Given that the potential pool of global neurodiverse workers number around 1.2 billion, efforts should
be made by firms to better understand their unique needs, skills, challenges, and aspirations (CDC, 2022).
In the last two decades, approaches to neurodiversity have shifted from treatment to support and from
diagnostic to identity-first language (ASAN, 2022). Many who self-identified as neurodiverse questioned
the negative bias instilled in early terminology, leading to Neurodiversity replacing the category of
“Specific Learning Difficulties” within educational psychology in 2000 and within occupational
psychology in 2010 (Dwyer & Sadhbh, 2022). Before 2000, studies on autism spectrum disorders (ASD)
sought to mitigate the “burden” those diagnosed would have on caretakers and society in general. The goal
of treatment, such as with Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) therapy was to identify non-desirable
behaviors and set them for “extinction” to ensure patients could be “normal” (Senokossoff, 2016). The
current language, on the other hand, prefers alignment with the notion of “difference,” and not denigration,
when referring to variations in a trait. This supports the consideration of natural differences in the way the
human brain interprets information (Griffin & Pollak, 2009; Murray et al. 2022). The terminology aligns
with the scientific understanding that five to fifteen percent of autism may be attributed to rare genetic
variances or mutations. These variances do not only cause autism, but other developmental delays that may
be categorized as disorders. Moreover, 10-50% percent of the variance in autism is attributed to common
genetic variances such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, as Wosniak et al. (2017) point out. These are
the most common type of genetic variation in humans and are not unusual but can lead to different forms
of Neurodiversity (Wozniak et al. 2017).

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ADHD and Neurodiversity
One of the most common forms of Neurodiversity is attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
In fact, ADHD is so common in popular culture as a diagnosis among children, that the disorder is often
not included in discussions of neurodiverse populations (Sonuga-Barke & Thapar, 2021). Despite this,
employers should certainly take note of the characteristics in order to support their workforce. In research
on ADHD, differences in the size and productivity of the regions of the brain vary. For example, areas in
the brain, such as the amygdala, have been found to be larger in neurodiverse populations in childhood and
relate to an increased hypervigilance as the region is the survival part of the brain that controls the “fight or
flight” instinct (van Harmelen, 2013). Other studies of ADHD individuals revealed more neurons located
in the frontal lobe, which suggests neural pruning of connections and reduced apoptosis which has been
used to argue for replacing the “D” in ADHD with “difference” instead of “disorder” (Shelton et al. 2011;
Hess et al. 2018). The categorization of ADHD is marked by tendencies of the inattentive type, epitomized
highly energetic and active hyperactivity and impulsivity, or ADD, which manifests as inattentive, where
the individual appears shy and does not focus as society requires (Filipe, 2022). Along with the previously
mentioned neurological implications, scientists have observed that levels of dopamine are different in
people with ADHD, leading to the initial hypothesis that ADHD occurs because of low levels of dopamine
(Xing et al. 2022). Dopamine is a neurotransmitter stimulated in our brains which gives a positive surge to
an individual after receiving external validation. This may be the culprit behind why many ADHD
individuals with dopamine deficiencies have a history of being considered “needy” or “demanding”, traits
we are socialized to see as deficits in character and more often attributed to women (Will, 2022). Modern
socialized gender constraints which require masking potential negative behaviors contribute to many cases
of undiagnosed ADHD, particularly with women who were previously misdiagnosed as having anxiety or
depression. Masking is quite common in neurodiverse individuals and includes concealing the physical and
emotional symptoms of their conditions (Radulski, 2022). It is important to note there was a great disparity
in the early bias of diagnosis toward white men. As well, most of the initial spectrum researchers were older
white men, which led to a biased focus in the research on male autistic characteristics (Santos et al. 2022).
The belief those with ADHD have a dearth of attention, however, is misplaced. There are efforts in the
neurodiverse community for replacing “deficit” with “disorder” (from the negative pathology disease
perspective), as the notion of a “lack of” is inaccurate as most individuals have abundance of attention, but
struggle controlling it (Yavari Barhaghtalab et al. 2022). Instead, the acronym VAST or “variable attention
stimulus trait” has been proposed as a more accurate and descriptive diagnosis (Hallowell & Ratey, 2022).
ADHD/ADD individuals are known for having difficulty with executive task functioning, which leads to
difficulty maintaining emotional and impulse control, task initiation, prioritization, working memory and
flexible thinking. The positive aspects of ADD and ADHD are these individuals can become hyper-focused
with intense levels of productivity for extended periods, are usually creative, inventive, spontaneous, and
energetic (Fabritius, 2022). All traits currently sought after by companies trying to create better cultures
and invigorate the return to office efforts.
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and Neurodiversity
ASD is more visible now than ever thanks to popular culture. Representation, however, has unnaturally
biased an association of autism with white males. The stereotype was established with films such as Rain
Man (1988) where socially awkward or inept men demonstrate genius-level abilities. Hollywood has since
continued the association and identification with characters such as Sheldon Cooper from The Big Bang
Theory television series (2007-2019) and Christian Wolff from the film The Accountant (2016). These
examples perpetuate the myth of superpowers of intelligence along with social and communicative
deficiencies in the narrative of the allusive genius who, when given right support, environment, and tools,
can succeed (Pomerance & Palmer, eds. 2022). Some neurodiverse coaches advocate understanding
limitations and supporting skills by effectively removing environmental hinderances in order to enable
cognitive superheroes (Stallings, 2022). Unfortunately, the strategy focuses only on the sought-after traits,
while overlooking the nature of a spiky profile, referencing an individual with large gaps between their
strength and weakness (Howell, Bradshaw, & Langdon, 2022). The drawback of such a profile means areas

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of challenges and areas of giftedness might be more pronounced, outstanding in some areas, below average
in others. In actuality, research identifies the deficits in the ASD population in three areas or domains. These
core deficits include difficulties with communication, social interaction, and with limiting repetitive
behaviors. Therefore, those with the disorder often have difficulty understanding their own emotions,
whereby their facial expressions, language and physical gestures may not accurately reflect their internal
emotions. ASD is often accompanied by differences in speech porosity, such as rhythm and intonation
which help express emotion and convey meaning. The differences interfere with an individual’s
communication and spoken social abilities, which may result in possible misinterpretation from others.
Alternatively, as noted, individuals also have difficulty with nuances in traditional communication, such as
humor, sarcasm, or witticisms (Araujo, Mophosho, & Moonsamy, 2022). Clear and literal communication
is key, as well as expectations and tasks.
Sensory Stimuli and Neurodiversity
The neurodiverse population, as with the neurotypical, all process sensory stimuli and information
differently depending upon their experiences. Sensory information experiences are unique to individuals
and may lead to certain heightened stimuli, which are made up of an experimental history of discovering
which sensations are positive, sought out or avoided. Commonly the brain may even see outside noises and
lights as a potential threat, which results in a survival response outside of the individual’s conscious control
(Bellato et al. 2022). Where others can go through a catalog of past experiences to reference as a play guide
to our natural fight or flight response, the tendency of neurodiverse individuals is to be in a regular
hypervigilant state. The experience is common for a range of neurodiverse individuals, including those who
have difficulty regulating their own nervous system due to sensory sensitives or PTSD cognitive patterns
(Elton et al. 2022). In fact, the enlarged amygdala commonly found in CT scans of youths with ASD are
considered to be the root cause of nervous system overloads (Andrews et al. 2022). When an individual
with ASD is unable to withstand the stress of their environment, the emotions can manifest as what it termed
a “meltdown,” in which they can be violent or others may cut off all communication and withdrawal (Karim,
Akter, & Patwary, 2022). When the amygdala becomes engaged there is no connection to the forebrain, the
primitive amygdala takes over and when nervous system control is not possible, the prefrontal cortex can
actually go “offline.” The front portion of our brains is responsible for self-control, concentration, and
focus. These instances can lead to cognitive shutdown, result in migraines, rumination of lowered self-
worth, or being overwhelmed by feelings of extreme hopelessness. Hence the need to be attentive to
environmental stimuli in a neurodiverse workforce is key.
Workplace and Neurodiversity
There are many positive contributions of neurodiverse individuals in the workplace, but often other
attributes can be accompanied by misunderstanding. For instance, despite stereotypical depictions of being
aloof or emotionally unresponsive, the population is rather quite empathetic and can be easily discouraged
(Shalev et al. 2022). Along with the common co-occurrence of ADHD, neurodiverse individuals are very
susceptible to negative thinking, such as catastrophizing (expecting worse-case scenario), which leads to
periods of prolonged anxiety and/or depression (Kasahara, 2022). Especially in cases of women who go
undiagnosed, challenges at work may manifest in feelings of shame due to perceived personal flaws. In
these instances, women commonly hide their challenges from colleagues and can misinterpret relationships
with mangers as being toxic (Ginapp et al. 2022). Studies have shown ADHD employees have a tendency
to feel underutilized and as a result can have lower self-esteem than other workers (Harris, 2020). As a
whole, neurodiverse individuals tend to experience criticism more harshly than neurotypicals. The most
severe manifestation represents rejection sensitive dysphoria (RSD). This is characterized as an emotional
response to criticism or negative feedback which leads to an intense psychological pain related to feelings
of rejection. The word “dysphoria” stems from ancient Greek entomology describes a strong feeling of pain
or discomfort (Dwyer, 2022). The manner in which feedback is provided by supervisors should be carefully
considered and rooted in measurable facts to ensure the appropriate results are achieved.

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In the face of multiple obstacles and the difficulty of interpersonal challenges for those with different
cognitive abilities, the positive benefits of their intelligence and dedication contribute to a range of
beneficial attributes. Overall, neurodiverse individuals tend to be incredibly detail-oriented and good at
process-driven work. They are typically thought of as dependable, routinized, focused, and passionate about
their work (Saleh et al. 2022). Those on the spectrum can have impressive talents of enhanced perceptual
functioning, high levels of concentration, targeted thought patterns and often find solutions outside of
conventional options. The strengths of those specifically with ADHD include the ability to be hyper-
focused, inventive, spontaneous and energetic (Fabritius, 2022). Even individuals with dyslexia have been
shown to have strong spatial intelligence and entrepreneurial tendencies (Smith-Spark & Gordon, 2022).
Additional positives seen with typically low-prefrontal cortex activity include spontaneity, deep curiosity
and for those in the less-researched talent pool of visual thinkers, innovation and high-level geospatial
abilities (Oliviero, 2008). Overall, the neurodiverse population can contribute unique skills such as creative
storytelling, coding, and empathy to the workplace offices.
Technology Workforce and Neurodiversity
Despite the impressive list of highly sought-after abilities, technology firms and departments in larger
companies were among the first to notice there is a socio-economic advantage, apart from competitive
advantage, in proving having the neurodiverse community employed (Loiacono & Ren, 2018; Annabi &
Locke, 2019). This sector will seem like a natural fit if one considers the deficits of ASD include
interpersonal skills, communication and repetitive gestures, which do not hinder the required output of most
software development positions, for instance. Interestingly, while there has been speculation on the natural
abilities of those with ASD for programming, coding, robotics, and other quantitative, or “hard skills,” as
noted, studies have found that those with autism often have valuable “soft” or transferable skills. (Herrick
et al. 2022). Such transferable skills include an innate lack of bias, highly developed pattern recognition
and identification, systematic analysis, blunt communication style, attention to detail, and/or the ability to
remain focused for prolonged periods. These specific skills are highly valued in technology fields where
work is often very detailed and repetitive, and definitions of tasks avoid ambiguity (Ramnanan, 2022).
Therefore, considering this portion of the population has been historically underserved in the job market, a
movement in alterations of hiring practices, workplace accommodations, educational measures and
empathy-based manager support must all be incorporated to help their talents thrive. Companies leading
the charge with innovative neurodiverse programs include SAP, Hewlett-Packard Packard, Microsoft,
Chase, USB, Ford, and IBM (Bruyère & Colella, eds., 2022). With technology culture having a history of
recognizing the value of forward-thinking, innovation, and eccentric individuals, the integration of agile
manifestos and use of tackboards assist with the integration of self-management tools which work well
alongside the cognitive processes being discussed. One advancement includes the integration of virtual job
training before on-site employment (Johnson & Williams, 2022). Noting challenges with nuance, subtlety
and ambiguity, understanding performance expectations ahead of time is a recommended practice for
employers working with neurodiverse personnel.
International Programs
While the best examples of programs that support Neurodiversity can be found in the technology sector,
these originated outside of the United States. Early and targeted neurodiverse hiring programs included
restructuring the interview process, supportive job services and job coaching, education on learning
differences and manger training. Training provided to employees included soft skills, work ethics,
understanding expectations, and assisting with communication. Some programs were also developed to
foster staff-awareness training and better support for individual self-assessment (Weber et al. 2022). For
example, the Danish consulting company Specialisterne originated such programming in 2004, inspired by
the founder’s motivation for his child’s diagnosis and the niche of talents that align with software testing.
For several years, the firm designed, developed, and implemented new non-interview methods for
identifying and assessing neurodiverse employees. The program includes safe, quiet spaces for candidates

Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023 7
to communicate in comfort and showcase their talents. Following this interview stage of the process,
candidates are provided with 2-6 more weeks of further assessment and training (Garriga, 2022).
Another example can be found in SAP, a German tech firm, who led the way in 2013 with its Autism
at Work program. Considered the largest of the autism employment initiatives, the program was launched
as a “resource effort seeking to quantify results of the cost benefit justification and even science of autism
advantage in the workplace” (Annamalai & Niranjan, 2022, p.503). Originally the intent was considered a
form of corporate social responsibility and sourced accordingly with a more generalized focus on diversity
and culture, but evolved with the recruitment initiatives emphasizing the corporate economic value of
employee diversity and the value of diversity to the bottom line. Also, while intended to focus on software
testing placing, the discovery was an additional added sets of values in much broader range of tasks
including product management, business analytics, cyber security, HR service, and technical support
(Lechowski & Krzywdzinski, 2022). Motivations for such programs extend beyond the company, however.
In Germany, the benefits of transitioning individuals from public assistance programs and into jobs is
encouraged as tax revenue can only be generated through a working populace. Thus, positions are publicly
funded to train and support neurodiverse employees (Gschwind, Ratzmann, & Beste, 2022). One example
of such support can be seen in SAP’s program where a transferable skills module was created to help train
employees unfamiliar with working in offices. There has also been growing interest in supporting mentor
programs and “buddy systems,” which allows for further cognitive and emotional support.
The programmatic support offered by SAP is more typically funded by governments or nonprofits.
Accordingly, regional employment regulations governing support of people with disabilities are considered
(Stolman, 2022). As with other groups, these programs collect and suggest neurodivergent candidate lists
and offer wraparound support from job searches to upskilling. First, services include assisting with
prescreening followed by securing public funding for training (when available), and occasionally
administering such training in-house, and, finally, continue to support employees through mentorship
outside of office hours (Maslahati et al. 2022). One such successful example can be found in the DXC
Dandelion Program created by Hewlett Packard (HP) in 2014. The program was designed using economic
and statistical metrics through partnerships with Cornell Institute of Disability and Employment at La Trobe
University, Melbourne, Australia (Bury et al. 2022). The program works to hire neurodiverse workers for
software testing, data analytics and cyber security. The largest number of workers are placed in a software
testing pod, working collaboratively and contracted out to the Australian government’s Department of
Human Services. Nick Wilson, Director of HPE South Pacific noted that the program has resulted in
“productivity gains, quality improvement, boosts in innovation capabilities and broad increases in employee
engagement” and noted that no other program in the firm provided so many benefits in all three
biopsychosocial arenas. One of the most notable differences in management style where there now exists,
through training and education, greater sensitivities to neurodiverse needs in the workplace (ARE
Consultants, 2021).
Domestic Programs
Targeted inclusion programs have evolved from the technology sector to others. SAP, Virgin, and
Microsoft are examples that led to expansion into other industries, such as finance and defense (Fabritius,
2022). For instance, Microsoft holds multiday, hands-on sessions, focusing on job capabilities, team
projects, and skills assessment from software engineers and data scientist positions. Staff are trained to
identify neurodiverse individuals and interact with them appropriately. Such training includes
familiarization with the core deficits that often manifest including limited eye contact during interactions,
repetitive gestures and movements, and difficulty understanding non-direct or non-literal language (Haller
& Carroll, 2022). To facilitate these trainings, certain firms have chosen to partner with nonprofits or
governmental agencies that are charged with career support for those with disabilities. As an example,
Freddie Mac, the finance firm, partners with a group of neurodiverse self-advocates, the Autistic Self-
Advocacy Network (ASAN) instead of another company (Patton, 2022). Ford Motor Company has
partnered with the Autism Alliance of Michigan to create a program called Ford Inclusive Works (now
called FordWorks).

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Other programs highlight improved employee retention. Wells Fargo, for instance, boasts a 100%
retention rate in their Neurodiversity Program which focuses on delivering education, professional support,
and establishing meaningful employment opportunities through more accommodating and accessible hiring
practices. Transforming the culture through education, the support provided by the finance firm includes
hiring manager selection and education, new hire onboarding, buddy program, career coaching and
community enrichment. By augmenting the firm’s interview process to ensure a low-stress experience and
de-prioritizing typical portfolio requirements, the program has resulted in hiring based on skills instead of
social strengths in interviewing. Once hired, new employees are provided with three full weeks of concierge
services during the onboarding process. Services include orientation, technical set-up support, an
accommodation process and role-based training through AGILE. New workers are also paired with a
mentor and/or a peer for a buddy program, provided with career coaching and community enrichment.
Leadership experience is also provided as employees can lead an advisory council to oversee disability
definitions and considerations for cognitive accommodations, including evaluating the work environment
(Kristofik & Johnson, 2022).
Communication Preferences
The programs supporting neurodiverse workers carefully consider communication from training hiring
managers to understanding diverse communication styles among employees. A discussion of best practices
in such programs thus needs to be person-centered in design. For example, the best way to understand
communication preferences for direct reports or colleagues, considering working processes, is to directly
ask. While this holds true for all employees, management should be especially cognizant of the
circumstances in which neurodiverse employees work best and clearly communicate expectations,
deadlines, and outcomes. Many prefer to learn in a hands-on environment and require a step-by-step
breakdown of work processes (Dawson, Franz, & Brandsen, 2022). Ambiguity can be confusing and lead
to increased anxiety. Communication is often difficult for neurodiverse individuals as there is a vast wealth
of socially attained knowledge not innately understood. Many intuitive, non-verbal exchanges occur during
oral exchanges. Therefore, written communication is usually the preferred method for many, given
differences in spoken communication processing (Elsherif et al. 2022).
Other recommendations for communication strategies in the workplace include providing processing
time and visual aids. Whether informal conversations in the office or in larger departmental meetings, those
conveying information should include intermittent pauses to allow for processing of information. Keep
small talk brief and when able, consider offering conversational exits for neurodiverse individuals who may
feel overwhelmed but do not wish to appear rude by cutting a discussion short. Neurotypical workers use
workplace chat to build mutual trust, teams, understanding and connections. Neurodiverse workers, on the
other hand, can find the task tiring, especially if the topic seems out of context or irrelevant. One strategy
is to demonstrate relevance to the topic under discussion and seek out the communication partner’s interests
to keep them engaged in the conversation (Annabi & Locke, 2019).
Assistance with group communication is also recommended, including helping to interpret nonverbal
or social cues for individuals in an empathetic and non-patronizing fashion. In fact, using plain language
for those who struggle with the nuance of navigating work, popularity, and global culture is not just going
to benefit neurodiverse individuals. The situation is even more daunting in group meetings with many
participants, especially in environments with the expectation of staying still/seated. To keep focused on an
agenda, avoid only communicating orally and include visual aids, being as concise as possible in speech.
Bullet points or numbering important items are effective visual signposts that present information
prioritized in order of importance. Send out agendas for meetings ahead of time to allow for review and
processing. Provide advanced notice of meetings that will require social interaction. Unannounced
meetings, video conference calls, or instant messaging can be anxiety inducing for those with ASD and
ADHD (Fabritius, 2022).
Clear agendas presented ahead of time are essential for mental and emotional regulation, as well as
maintaining a preset schedule during meetings. When disseminating information, make sure to give highly
specific instructions. Avoid the assumption that something may be obvious, especially during socially

Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023 9
oriented tasks, and limit abstract or ambiguous terms. As well, avoid vague time sequences and nonconcrete
statements, such as “we’ll talk about this later” or “no rush, whenever you can get to it.” Providing specific
deadlines and accurate time phrases is essential (Herrick et al. 2022). Often it takes time to switch attention
from the task being worked on to a new topic of discussion, but this can be facilitated by providing context
for the work being requested via the supervisor or colleague. While most with ASD have difficulty adjusting
to change, with notice and time to regulate and process, along with clear timelines and instructions, they
are not inflexible to it. When corrective action is required, feedback should also be direct, but measured.
As mentioned previously, RSD impacts the emotional and mental health of individuals who are already
self-critical. Thus, positive reinforcement should be regular. Feedback which is sensitive, but direct with
measurable examples, limits confusion and emotional inference on job performance (Whittenburg et al.
2022).
Finally, in order to minimize stress and ensure a positive work environment, being mindful of
communication preferences is critical. With the pandemic of 2019 came a necessary increase in virtual
communication through video conferencing platforms such as Microsoft Teams and Zoom. For many with
social anxiety, the virtual situation was (and continues to be) beneficial given the potential to participate in
meetings via comments and instant messaging rather than engaging verbally. Given the organic nature of
in-person meetings where participants often show up to chat early and stay after to socialize, the new virtual
meetings offered more structure and predictability. However, one consideration did lead to increased
anxiety with the requirement to have cameras turned on for many firms (Dewi, 2022). Since communication
preferences vary from person-to-person, asking if there is a preference for cameras off can alleviate social
anxiety. Even prior notification of a meeting organizers’ preference for cameras on or off can alleviate
unknown concerns for the neurodiverse attendee. Taking breaks between (or during) calls to stem or
regulate is also helpful given the difficulty in remaining seated and still for prolonged periods, whether
virtually or in-person.
Summary of Communication Recommendations
• Use person-centered, individualized communication styles
• Provide step-by-step instructions
• Ask about work and communication preferences
• Give advance notice of meetings and calls
• Use literal and direct instructions
• Provide clear timelines and outcomes for projects
• Keep small talk brief
• Offer conversational exits
• Avoid abstract or ambiguous terms or language
• Use visual aids to reinforce important points
• Provide agendas for meetings ahead of time
• Make the requirement of cameras for video conferencing optional
• Provide careful and measured feedback
Physical Environmental Factors
With the required return to the physical office by most firms after the pandemic, many neurodiverse
individuals found the situation disabling in current working environments. Overhead fluorescent lighting
can be overwhelming and without proper acoustic protection to buffer noise pollution, sensory sensitivity
can be debilitating. Sensory stimuli can be disorienting and anxiety inducing for those with ASD. Even
aesthetic details, such as texture, color, sequencing, compartmentalization, temperature, and even smells
can contribute to both over- and under-stimulation (Proff et al. 2022). Having environments suited to
particular tasks and moods requires additional planning. Office layouts should include both shared spaces
for social interaction and collaboration, along with quiet spaces for more focused work, minimizing
environmental distractions. Modern cubicle farms and open floor plan often result in loud, motion heavy

10 Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023
atmospheres. More noticeable distractions from background conversations, sudden noises like sneezing and
laughter, and specifically the smells and sounds of eating can be overwhelming. To combat noisy spaces,
areas should be designed effectively to absorb sound through partition systems or with acoustic baffling to
get the illusion of private space (Koohsari et al. 2022). Allowing personal space through assigned seating
locations and/or private areas to pause or regain nervous system control are most important.
Layout examples should include areas designated for calm and quiet contemplation. These can include
the use of low trafficked minimal sensory rooms, wellness areas or the fostering of green spaces to create
a sense of safety and belonging (Kong & Cheng, 2023). Interior design which includes biophilic elements
derives from the concept that humans are calmed by their natural environment (Song et al. 2022). Not only
do neurodiverse individuals seek out areas which mimic outdoor spaces, but the inclusion of organic
elements into office décor helps to mitigate ASD triggers and other visual distractions. Access to sunshine
and natural features, such as moss walls, water features, and the use of plant life not only creates a soothing
environment, but enhances the interior air quality as well. Additionally, Yijun et al. (2020) found that the
inclusion of “nature with interior green spaces increases well-being up to 15% while reducing boredom and
stress levels.” Bright colors and natural light are found to improve productivity and creativity in employees.
These adjustments not only impact the experiences of neurodiverse employees, but all who work within the
company (Yijun et al. 2020).
Psychological Factors
While environmental adaptations can minimize anxiety and improve productivity, firms should
consider the whole person through biopsychosocial interventions. As such, perhaps the most important
support a firm may provide is creating a safe and open environment for neurodiverse individuals. Having
the right environment to promote honest conversations is essential as a starting point to the disclosure of a
neurological condition. A 2022 study found that 76% of neurodivergent workers do not disclose their
diagnoses in the workplace as they are concerned it will impact their career trajectory (Aquino, 2022). The
majority of those surveyed self-identified as dyslexic (53%) with the next largest group self-identifying as
autistic (47%). Other respondents included diagnoses of dyspraxia, dyscalculia, and ADHD. Research also
revealed that a majority (two-thirds of respondents) “have experienced stigma or feeling misunderstood at
some point during their career” due to their condition, with a third experiencing difficulties during the
interview process, and another third reporting feelings of not progressing in their careers (Aquino, 2022).
Therefore, the first step for employers is to promote a culture of acceptance where disclosure is
encouraged through psychological safety. The ability of workers to understand their own strengths and
challenges is difficult in the context of work, especially without initial support. A culture which values
shared understanding, identity, and purpose should be nourished; one that supports the idea that diversity
and challenges are potential opportunities. In the United States, access to workplace accommodations for
disability is predicated on individual disclosure, and usually a result of a conflict, following episodes of
criticism, or concern with reduced performance (Patterson, 2018). Often the process of disclosing a
disability is publicly supported by HR and supervisors, promising compromise, understanding and
flexibility, while consequences can include discrimination, workplace biases and bullying, and higher levels
of stress (Doyle, 2020). Reasonable adjustments regularly focus on remediating the individual rather than
integrating them properly into the corporate culture. One solution to avoid potential negative consequences
of disclosure has been investigated in the UK. Instead of “special accommodations” for neurodivergent
individuals who self-disclose their conditions, the UK provides “productivity enhancers” without requiring
a formal diagnosis. These “enhancers” provide access to equipment and assistance (Douglas, 2008).
Removing the requirement of self-advocacy for requiring assistance removes the pressure of executive
functioning challenges common for those with ASD and ADHD. This strategy moves from Reactive DEI
efforts to Proactive DEI and creates an empowering workplace which aids in the productivity of everyone
when declaring disability status is not needed to access accommodations.
Many neurodiverse individuals find “masking” easier than risking the potential negative consequences
of disclosure. There remains a stigma associated with mental health disorders in the United States. As such,
there is an unconscious bias against individuals who disclose or ask for help in workplaces. These

Journal of Organizational Psychology Vol. 23(2) 2023 11
individuals often feel questioned, challenged, or even trivialized by coworkers and supervisors (Parcesepe
& Cabassa, 2013). Employers should take note of these biases as research has demonstrated that employees
who feel confident to disclose their needs at work are 30% more engaged in career satisfaction, aspirations,
and confidence (Henneborn, 2021). Psychological safety must first be present to share personal experiences
and viewpoint without risk of retribution. For many corporations looking to help neurodiverse individuals
thrive, the initial step must be to create a culture of safety, so employees are able to disclose their challenges
without the fear of being labeled as disabled or lesser.
CONCLUSION
With skills shortages increasingly affecting industry, the first firms to recognize the potential of the
untapped neurodiverse talent pool were in the technology sector. As ASD professionals are far more
productive than their neurotypical colleagues, this has led to the establishment of programs to allow them
to flourish. Whether the Israeli Defense Services or Australian Spatial Analytics, firms are confirming that
Neurodiversity is a competitive advantage in industry. Though often leveraged in technical positions where
stereotypes continue to pigeonhole workers with autism as quantitative or technologically talented, there is
a wide range of individuals, skills and talents across the spectrum of Neurodiversity. In fact, Platzer at SAP
estimates that only 15-20% of the adult autistic community has the skillsets required for the technology
sector jobs seeking their employment (Annamalai & Niranjan, 2022). At the same time, such programs
recognized early on a talent pool that would be ideal for user-interface positions with technical logistics.
The realization and potential of utilizing this population in industry has only recently moved to other
departments in firms. As noted, in studies from the University of Connecticut Center for Neurodiversity,
neurodiverse individuals are highly underutilized and account for a high share of adult unemployment rates,
but are eager and willing to work (Harper, 2022). To address the labor shortage and improve the quality of
life for over one billion individuals globally, the narrative around Neurodiversity needs to change, along
with efforts to support the population. Since Neurodiversity as a concept developed in response to the
social-historical view of pathologizing weakness associated with mental health disorders, focus is now
placed on an individual’s diverse experiences of the world and their resulting strengths. The Neurodiversity
model means accepting that brains operate, learn, and process information differently. Biological variations,
such as genetics, are recognized as intrinsic to identity, and, therefore, need be assigned the same
authenticity and respect as other forms of diversity. Yet, even with the increased celebration of diversity
and inclusion efforts in industry, calls to incorporate neurodiverse support have failed to muster the same
support outside of the technology sector. Considering many of the traits which manifest among
neurodivergent employees, such as creativity, imagination, and innovation, are qualities sought out in every
industry, the unilateral approach to Neurodiversity needs to give way to broader implementation of
programs to bolster their talents and unique thinking abilities.
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