Crustal architecture and metallogeny associated with the Paleo-Tethys evolution in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, Northern Tibetan Plateau

Full text

Research Paper
Crustal architecture and metallogeny associated with the Paleo-Tethys
evolution in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, Northern Tibetan Plateau
Xinming Zhang
a,b
, Xu Zhao
a,c,
⇑
, Lebing Fu
a
, Yanjun Li
a
, Andreas Kamradt
b
, M. Santosh
d,e
, Chongwen Xu
a
,
Xiaokun Huang
a
, Gregor Borg
b
, Junhao Wei
a
a
School of Earth Resource, China University of Geoscience, Wuhan 430074, China
b
Institute of Geosciences and Geography, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
c
CAS Key Laboratory of Mineralogy and Metallogeny/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
d
School of Earth Science and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
e
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
article info
Article history:
Received 17 December 2022
Revised 24 March 2023
Accepted 20 June 2023
Available online 23 June 2023
Handling Editor: C. Manikyamba
Keywords:
Hf-isotopic mapping
Crustal thickness
Metallogeny
Tectonic evolution
Crustal architecture
Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt
abstract
The Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) in the Northern Tibet Plateau hosts a wide variety of metal
deposits related to the Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic magmatism. In this study, we investigate the spatio-
temporal distribution of the Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic granitic rocks and associated metal deposits in
the EKOB and provide a comprehensive compilation of the geochronological, geochemical and isotopic
data on these rocks. We compute regional zircon Hf isotope and crustal thickness maps from the data,
based on which a comprehensive model is proposed involving subduction (ca. 270–240 Ma), continental
collision (ca. 240–224 Ma), and post-collisional extension (ca. 224–200 Ma) for the Late Paleozoic to
Mesozoic Paleo-Tethys evolution in the EKOB.
Zircon Hf isotopic and crustal thickness mapping of Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic magmatic rocks was
carried out to evaluate their spatio-temporal and genetic links with the regional metallogeny. The poly-
metallic Fe-skarn and porphyry Cu (Mo) deposits in the EKOB are located above the Moho uplift region,
featuring a comparatively thin crust. Granites associated with porphyry Cu (Mo) and polymetallic Fe
skarn mineralization are commonly characterized by high
e
Hf
(t) and younger T
DM
c values, whereas gran-
ite related to Cu-Mo-Sn skarn deposits exhibit more variable
e
Hf
(t) values, T
DM
c ages, and the crust thick-
ness, which suggest that more crustal materials contributed to the formation of Cu-Mo-Sn skarn deposits
than those for porphyry Cu (Mo) and polymetallic Fe skarn mineralization. In contrast, vein-type Au
deposits are located primarily where the Moho surface displays a depression, i.e., where the continental
crust is relatively thick. The magmatic rocks associated with Au mineralization are characterized by low
e
Hf
(t) and high T
DM
c values, representing reworked ancient crustal components, similar to those associ-
ated with porphyry Mo and epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) deposits. Our study indicates that the emplace-
ment of magmatic-hydrothermal deposits was controlled by the crustal structure and magma sources.
Ó2023 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Published by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of China University of Geosciences (Beijing). This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Plate tectonic processes exert a fundamental control on the for-
mation of major ore deposits through time in Earth history
(Bierlein et al., 2002; Goldfarb et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2010; Santosh
and Groves, 2022). In major orogenic belts, such as the Tibetan-
Himalayan and Qinling in Central Asia, the Alps in Europe, as well
as the Zagros belts in Iran, important base and precious metal
deposits were generated throughout the entire orogenic cycle,
from oceanic subduction to continental collision, and finally during
post-collision extension (Sillitoe, 2008; Hou and Zhang, 2015;
Richards, 2015; Deng et al., 2017). These orogens are well-
endowed with abundant large and giant mineral deposits, includ-
ing the well-known Yulong (China), Kounrad (Kazakhstan), Oyu
Tolgoi (Mongolia), Kal’makyr and Arasbaran-Kerman (Uzbekistan),
Mt. Emmons (American) porphyry deposits, Fierro skarn
deposit and Imiter epithermal Ag deposit (Peru), and the
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101654
1674-9871/Ó2023 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
⇑
Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials,
Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, No. 511 Kehua Street, Tianhe District,
Guangzhou 510640, China.
E-mail address: zhaoxu@gig.ac.cn (X. Zhao).
Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Geoscience Frontiers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsf

Piranshahr-Saqez-Sardasht orogenic Au deposits (Iran) (Turner and
Bowman, 1993; Morishita and Nakano, 2008; Hou et al., 2015;
Richards, 2015; Wang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016a; Wu et al.,
2021a). The general characteristics, spatial distribution, and timing
of formation of these diverse types of metal deposits are closely
related to the geodynamic framework of their host orogen
(Bierlein et al., 2002; Groves and Santosh, 2021). Numerous metal
deposit models have been established, such as the formation of
orogenic Au deposits in accretionary wedges (Goldfarb et al.,
2005), porphyry Cu and epithermal Au deposits in magmatic arcs
(Sillitoe, 2010), volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in
back-arc settings (Lydon, 1988; Franklin et al., 2005) and
sediment-hosted Pb-Zn deposits within passive continental margin
sequences (Leach et al., 2005). In addition to the particular tectonic
settings and the geodynamic framework, the crustal architecture
also controls the spatiotemporal distribution and genesis of these
metal deposits (Hou and Zhang, 2015). For example, Nd-Hf isotope
mapping studies of the West Yilgam Craton have suggested that
the lithospheric discontinuities are enrichment areas for nickel,
gold, and iron deposits. Nickel deposits are hosted in komatiites
at the transition between young and ancient bodies and BIF-type
iron ore deposits are found at the center and rims of old or
remelted crust (Mole et al., 2014; Mole et al., 2019). The Hf isotope
mapping studies of the Himalayan–Tibetan Orogen suggested that
the porphyry Cu-Au deposits and Cu-Mo deposits are confined
within the juvenile crust and the granite-related Pb-Zn deposits
and porphyry Mo deposits are mainly produced within the ancient
crust (Hou et al., 2015). Therefore, information about crustal archi-
tecture and its link to the mineralization and tectonic setting helps
to improve the understanding of the origin and distribution of
metal deposits and could provide a guide for regional exploration
(Bierlein et al., 2006; Chen, 2013; Groves and Santosh, 2021).
The Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB) is located in the
northern region of the Tibetan Plateau and has received significant
attention in terms of its orogenesis and metallogenesis during Per-
mian to Triassic (Mo et al., 2007; Pan et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2017).
Various metallic deposits, including porphyry-type Cu-Mo and Mo,
skarn-type Fe and Cu-Mo-Sn, epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au), and vein-
type Au deposits, induced by the subduction of the Paleo-Tethys
Ocean, subsequent continental collision and post-collisional exten-
sion (Chen et al., 2020; Zhong et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2022), during
which the crustal architecture was also influenced by the evolution
of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and may have a control to the ore gen-
eration (Zhang, 2012; Yao et al., 2017). Despite extensive research
in the past, the spatio-temporal relationship between the crustal
architecture and the formation of these metal deposits in the EKOB
remain poorly understood. In this study, we compile a comprehen-
sive geochemistry dataset related to magmatism rock during the
evolution of the Paleo-Tethys in the EKOB. Specifically, our objec-
tives are to: (1) constrain the spatio-temporal link between mag-
matism and metallogenesis of ore deposits in the EKOB, (2)
evaluate the changes in tectonic activity and their spatial and
genetic link to the crustal architecture, and (3) assess the role of
the crustal architecture in controlling the generation of the metal
deposits.
2. Geological setting
The EKOB is located in the western segment of the Central China
Orogenic Belt (Fig. 1,Shao et al., 2017; Dong et al., 2018; Wu et al.,
2019). The EKOB is limited by the Hongliuquan–Golmud fault
(HGF) towards the northern Qaidam Block and the Muztagh-Buqi
ngshan–Anemaqen ophiolitic melange zone (MBAM) towards the
southern Bayanhar Terrane (Chen et al., 2012, 2017; Dong et al.,
2022). It has undergone multiple episodes of orogeneses that cor-
respond to the evolution of the Neoproterozoic to Early Paleozoic
Proto-Tethys Ocean and Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Paleo-Tethys
Ocean (Bouilhol et al., 2013; Xiong et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2022).
Fig. 1. Tectonic outline of the Tibetan Plateau showing the location of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt (EKOB). Inset map shows location of the area within China (Deng et al.,
2017; Zhao et al., 2022). CAOB = Central Asia Orogenic Belt, TB = Tarim Basin, EKOB = Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NCC = North China Craton, SCC = South China Craton,
QLOB = Qinling Orogenic Belt, HLOB = Himalayan Orogenic Belt.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
2

The EKOB is subdivided into three sections from north to south:
i.e., the Northern, Central, and South Eastern Kunlun Belt from
north to south. They are separated by the sinistral strike-slip faults
of North Kunlun and Central Kunlun sutures (Fig. 2,Huang et al.,
2014; Li et al., 2015a; He et al., 2016). Additionally, different sub-
terranes are also characterized by specific sedimentary covers,
magmatic groups, and metamorphic basements. Detailed informa-
tion on these subterranes can be found in Table 1,Fig. 3 and Sup-
plement Data Table S1. At least four principal types of ore deposits
are recognized in the EKOB: (1) porphyry type Cu-Mo, Mo, (2) Fe-,
and Cu-Mo-Sn skarn, (3) vein-type Au, and (4) epithermal Ag-Pb-
Zn-(Au) polymetallic deposits. A summary of the geological distri-
bution characteristics of these ore deposits is provided in Table 2,
while the temporal distribution characteristics are illustrated in
Fig. 4.
3. Data acquirement and visualization
3.1. Sampling strategy
Information and data of rock types, major and trace elements,
particularly the elements related to crustal thickness estimations,
U-Pb ages, Lu-Hf isotopic data of zircons, the latitude and longitude
of the Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic magmatic rocks within the
EKOB were systematically collected. Detailed information is pro-
vided in the Supplementary Data Tables to this publication.
3.2. Zircon Hf isotope data
From the original data (e.g., age,
176
Yb/
177
Hf,
176
Lu/
177
Hf, and
176
Hf/
177
Hf), we recalculated the values of
e
Hf
(0),
e
Hf
(t), f
Lu/Hf
,
T
DM
1
and T
DM
c by using the same set of reference parameters and
formulae described in Supplement Data Table S2. The
e
Hf
(t) nota-
tion was used to express the zircon Lu-Hf isotope data, which rep-
resents the deviation of the measured
176
Hf/
177
Hf ratio from that of
chondritic meteorites (CHUR) in parts per 10,000 (Wu et al., 2006).
The juvenile and old continental crustal sources can be distin-
guished by their positive
e
Hf
and negative
e
Hf
values, respectively
(Kemp et al., 2006). The crustal Hf model ages (T
DM
c) estimate
the age when the magmatic source was extracted from a depleted
mantle reservoir (Griffin et al., 2002; Kemp et al., 2006). The use of
the median for a range of zircon
e
Hf
(t) and T
DM
c values for individ-
ual samples helped to exclude the abnormal data. The summary of
the median values can be found in Supplement Data Table S3.
3.3. Calculation of the crustal thickness
The EKOB is a typical continental collision orogen. Hence, the
crustal thicknesses were calculated for this study using the model
provided by Hu et al. (2017), which estimates the crustal thickness
evolution of an orogen from oceanic subduction to continental
collision.
The major and trace elements of the Late Paleozoic and Meso-
zoic magmatic rocks in the EKOB were collected and listed in the
Supplementary Data Table S4. For all datasets, the samples with
a relatively wider range of SiO
2
(55–72 wt.%) and MgO (0.5–
6.0 wt.%) contents were selected, and the corresponding data can
be found in the Supplementary Data Table S5. This silica range
was used to eliminate mafic rocks, generated in the mantle and
high silica granites. Subsequently, we removed Sr/Y and (La/Yb)
N
outliers from each data subset by using the modified Thompson
tau statistical method. The data subsets with average
Rb/Sr > 0.35 or with STD > 10 were discarded. Finally, we calcu-
lated the median Sr/Y and (La/Yb)
N
of each subset. The Rb/Sr filter
was used to remove the samples that were strongly influenced by
the fractionation within the crust. We eliminated high Sr/Y (aver-
age > 60) and high La (average > 60) from our data subsets due
to their undefined petrogenesis with adakitic features. The selected
and calculated results are listed in Supplementary Data Table S6
and S7, respectively.
3.4. Contour-mapping methods
Contour maps were produced using the ArcGIS software (ESRI)
by the use of the inverse distance weighted interpolation method
as described by Mole et al. (2014), Mole et al. (2019) and Webb
et al. (2020). This method used 12 nearest neighbors at a ‘‘power”
of 2 in the Geostatistical Analyst modeling feature of ArcGIS, which
accounts for the distance between sample points in the most rep-
resentative manner (Hou et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017a; Deng
et al., 2018).
4. Results
4.1. Spatial variation in zircon Hf and crustal Hf model age
The Hf data are plotted in contour maps to show the spatial dis-
tribution of the controlling crustal features. The contour maps dis-
play a similar relationship between the zircon
e
Hf
(t) value and T
DM
c
Fig. 2. Geologic map of the East Kunlun Orogen belt (Modified after Wu et al., 2021c; Dong et al., 2022). Geologic features of significant ore deposits labeled with numbers are
listed in Table 2. BAM = Buqingshan–A’nyemaqen mélange zone; CEKB = Central Kunlun Belt; CKLF = Central Kunlun Fault; HGF = Hongliuquan–Golmud Fault;
NEKB = Northern Eastern Kunlun Belt; NKLF = Northern Eastern Kunlun Fault; SEKB = South Eastern Kunlun Belt.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
3

Table 1
Late Paleozoic tectonic framework.
Serial
No.
Name of
Sub-belt
Extent of Sub-Belt Existing Knowledge on Tectonic Setting References
Metamorphic basement Sedimentary covers Magmatic groups
1 NEKB Bounded to the north to the
NGF and to the south by the
NKLF.
Paleoproterozoic Jinshuikou Group intermediate to high-
grade metamorphic gneiss and amphibolite.
1. Ordovician–Silurian
Qimantagh Group meta-
clastic rocks.
2. Carboniferous-Lower
Permian terrestrial clas-
tic and carbonate rocks.
1. Granites, granodiorite and minor
mafic rocks (ca. 469–360 Ma).
2. Monzogranite, diorite and granodi-
orite (ca. 240–200 Ma).
Yu et al., 2020; Zhong et al.,
2021
2 CEKB Bounded to the north to the
NKLF and to the south by the
CKLF
Paleoproterozoic Jinshuikou Group intermediate to high-
grade metamorphic schist, gneiss, amphibolite, granulite, and
minor limestone and migmatite.
1. The Devonian Mao-
niushan Formation ter-
restrial sandstone and
conglomerate.
2. Carboniferous to Per-
mian marine limestone
and clastic sedimentary
rocks.
3. The Triassic Elashan For-
mation intermediate-
acidic calc-alkaline high-
potassium terrestrial
volcanic rocks.
1. Neoproterozoic S-type gneissic
granites (ca. 1006–870 Ma).
2. Early Paleozoic diorites, granites
and granodiorite (ca. 466–390 Ma).
3. Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic granites,
diorites and mafic rocks (ca. 266–
200 Ma).
He et al., 2016; Huang et al.,
2014;Xia et al., 2014; Xiong
et al., 2016
3 SEKB Bounded to the north to the
CKLF and to the south by the
Bayan Har terrane
1. Paleoproterozoic high-grade metamorphic Kuhai group
paragneiss, amphibolite, and limestone.
2. Meso-Neo Proterozoic intermediate metamorphic Wan-
baogou group clastic and volcanic rocks.
1. Ordovician–Silurian low-
grade metamorphism
Naij Tal Group volcanic-
sedimentary rocks.
2. Carboniferous-Lower
Triassic volcanic and
clastic rocks.
3. Middle Triassic turbidite
and Upper Triassic
molasse sequence.
1. Early Paleozoic intrusions are prin-
cipally diorite, granodiorite, and
granite (ca. 555–420 Ma).
2. Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic diorite,
granodiorite, and granite (ca. 270–
220 Ma).
Chen et al., 2012; Fan et al.,
2022; Li et al., 2018b
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
4

(Fig. 5a, b). Domains in the NEKB (Wutumeiren area) show
e
Hf
(t)in
the range of 6.4 to 12.5 (mean 0.4) and T
DM
c = 457–1661 Ma
(mean 1285 Ma) (Supplementary Data Table S2). A low
e
Hf
(t)
(< 2.4) with high T
DM
c (>1.3 Ga) and high
e
Hf
(t)(>0.5) with
low T
DM
c (<1.2 Ga) transition zone spatially corresponding to the
CEKB (Fig. 5a, b). Domains in the SEKB show
e
Hf
(t) values in the
range of 20.4 to 4.6 with a mean value of 2.5 and T
DM
c = 981 to
2524 Ma with a mean of ca. 1416 Ma. There are two negative
e
Hf
(t)
domains around NaijTal (
e
Hf
(t)=20.4 to 0.1, and T
DM
c = 1248 to
2524 Ma) and Gouli (
e
Hf
(t)=11.6 to 0.9 and T
DM
c = 1438 to
1821 Ma) (Fig. 5a, b, Supplementary Data Table S2).
4.2. Crustal thickness of Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic in EKOB
The crustal thickness calculated by using the whole rock
Sr/Y ratio displays a comparable relationship between whole rock
(La/Yb)
N
ratios (Fig. 6a, b). Thus, the calculation of the crustal thick-
ness supports the validity of the estimated moho depth. Domains in
the NEKB show low Sr/Y and (La/Yb)
N
values in the range of 29.3–
37.8 km and 13.9–30.3 km, respectively. Locally, there are high crus-
tal thickness domains around Wutumieren (Sr/Y = 42.1–53.8 km,
(La/Yb)
N
= 35.8–43.2 km, Fig. 6a, b). The CEKB is characterized by a
thick and thin crust transition zone from west to east. Three thin
Fig. 3. The lithostratigraphic section of the Carboniferous-Jurassic strata and histogram of ages of Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic magmatism in the EKOB (The times of the
unconformity are from Li et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2017). A summary of the zircon U-Pb results is listed in Supplementary Data Table S1.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
5

Table 2
Spatio-temporal distribution of ore forming system.
No. Deposit Type Commodity Size Location Formation/Group Host rock Rock age (Ma) Ore forming age (Ma) Data source
1 Yazigou Skarn Fe-Cu-Zn-Pb Large NEKB Tianjianshan F. Monzonite granite U-Pb: 224 ± 4 Re-Os: 224.7 ± 3.4 Mi, 2019
2 Jingren Fe-Pb-Zn Large NEKB Tianjianshan F.
Diaowusu F.
Granodiorite U-Pb: 219.2 ± 1.4 Re-Os: 225 ± 4 Feng et al., 2011b
Re-Os: 229.9 ± 1.5 Dai, 2018
3 Hutouya Fe-Pb-Zn Large NEKB Langyashan F. Granodiorite monzonitic U-Pb: 227.1 ± 3.6 Re-Os: 225.0 ± 4.0 Gao et al., 2020
Granite U-Pb: 222.10 ± 0.98 Re-Os: 230.1 ± 4.7 Feng et al., 2011a
Granite porphyry U-Pb: 222.7 ± 2.5 Re-Os: 227.5 ± 5.5 Shi et al., 2017
4 Kendekeke Fe-Au Medium NEKB Tianjianshan F. Adamellite U-Pb: 229.5 ± 0.5 Sericite Ar-Ar: 222.4 ± 2.5 Xiao et al., 2013
5 Yemaquan Fe Large NEKB Tianjianshan F. Monzonite granite U-Pb: 229.5 ± 2.2 Liu et al., 2017b
6 Niukutou Fe-Pb-Zn Large NEKB Tianjianshan F. Granite U-Pb: 216.5 ± 3.3 Wang et al., 2021
U-Pb: 212 ± 7.4
7 Galinge Fe Large NEKB Tanjianshan G Monzodiorite U-Pb: 228 ± 2 Sericite Ar-Ar: 235.8 ± 1.7 Yu et al., 2017
Adamellite U-Pb: 228.0 ± 0.5 Gao et al., 2012
Pyroxene diorite U-Pb: 234.4 ± 0.6 Bai et al., 2016
10 Tawenchahan Cu-Pb-Zn Medium NEKB Tianjianshan F. Granodiorite-porphyry U-Pb: 236.0 ± 2.3 Ar-Ar: 229.9 ± 3.5 Yang, 2015
12 Kaerqueka Cu–Pb–Zn Large CEKB Tanjianshan G. Porphyritic monzogranite U-Pb: 227 ± 2 Re-Os: 246.1 ± 1.2 Gao et al., 2018
Ar-Ar: 233.9 ± 1.4
13 Suolajier Cu-Mo Small CEKB Tianjianshan F. Biotite granodiorite Re-Os: 238.8 ± 1.8 Feng et al., 2009
15 Balugou Fe-Pb-Zn Small CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granite U-Pb: 244.0 ± 1.9 Zhang, 2013
26 Xiaowolong Fe-Cu-Sn Medium CEKB Jinshuikou G. Monzonite granite U-Pb: 259.6 ± 1.8 Cassiterite U-Pb: 257.5 ± 4.3 Guo et al., 2020
29 Shenduolong Fe-Au-Zn Medium CEKB Jinshuikou G. Diorite U-Pb: 236.4 ± 1.6 Re-Os: 236.2 ± 2.1 Li et al., 2015a
33 Rilonggou Cu-Sn Large SEKB Elashan F. Granodiorite U-Pb: 230.7 ± 1.5 Wu et al., 2015
34 Saishentang Cu-Mo Large SEKB Elashan F. quartz diorite U-Pb: 222.6 ± 2.4 Re-Os: 223.4 ± 1.5 Wang et al., 2016b
14 Yanjingou Vein type Au Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granite U-Pb: 260.4 ± 2.3 Rb-Rr: 237 ± 3 Chen et al., 2019
16 Shuizhadonggou Au Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Dioritic porphyrite U-Pb: 220.3 ± 1.3 Sericite Ar-Ar: 230.8 ± 1.7 Feng, 2002
17 Huanglougou Au Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granodiorite U-Pb: 244.1 ± 2.0 Sericite Ar-Ar: 237 ± 2 Zhang et al., 2017
19 Balong Au Small CEKB Granodiorite U-Pb: 229 ± 10 Pyrite Rb-Sr: 229.4 Huang et al., 2021
20 Naomuhunhe Au Medium CEKB Granodiorite U-Pb: 235.8 ± 0.8 Sericite Ar-Ar: 228.86 Li, 2017
21 Asiha Au Medium CEKB Quartz diorite U-Pb: 238.4 Sericite Ar-Ar: 202.6 ± 4.4 Li, 2017
Granite porphyry U-Pb: 234.9 ± 1.3 Monazite U-Pb: 227 ± 7 Liang et al., 2021
Granodiorite U-Pb: 222.1 ± 3.9 Sericite Ar-Ar: 234.63 ± 1.20 Chen et al., 2020
9 Changshan Porphyry type Mo Small CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granite U-Pb: 220 ± 1 Re-Os: 218 Feng et al., 2010
11 Lalingzaohuo Mo Small NEKB Jinshuikou G. Granodiorite U-Pb: 242.6 ± 3.4 Re-Os: 214.5 ± 4.9 Wang et al., 2013
18 Qingshuihedong Mo Medium CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granite U-Pb: 222.7 ± 2.5 Sericite Ar-Ar: 214.5 ± 4.9 Wang et al., 2017b
23 Halongxiuma Mo Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granodiorite-porphyry U-Pb: 224.68 ± 0.88 Re-Os: 223.51 ± 1.30 Lu et al., 2017
24 Reshui Mo Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Monzonite U-Pb: 230.9 ± 1.4 Re-Os: 230.2 ± 2.5 Zhu et al., 2018b
27 Duolongqiarou Mo Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Monzonite granite U-Pb: 236.8 ± 1.8 Re-Os: 235.9 ± 1.4 Guo et al., 2022
28 Jiadanggen Mo Medium CEKB Elashan F. Granodiorite-porphyry U-Pb: 227 ± 1 Xu, 2014
31 Xiadeboli Cu-Mo Medium SEKB Hongshuichuan F. Granite porphyry U-Pb: 244.2 ± 2.1 Liu et al., 2012
32 Eikengdelesite Cu-Mo Medium SEKB Hongshuichuan F. Monzonite granite U-Pb: 248.4 ± 0.8 Xu, 2014
8 Mohexiala Epithermal type Ag-Pb-Zn Medium NEKB Jinshuikou G. Granite porphyry U-Pb: 222 ± 1 Xu, 2014
22 Harizha Ag-Pb-Zn Large CEKB Jinshuikou G. Granodiorite-porphyry U-Pb: 233.6 ± 4.3 Duan, 2014
25 Nagengqieer Ag-Pb-Zn Large CEKB Elashan F. Rhyolitic porphyry U-Pb: 217.4 ± 3.1 Zircon U-Pb: 215.3 ± 3.1 Guo et al., 2019
30 Suolagou Ag-Pb-Zn Large CEKB Elashan F. Syenogranite U-Pb: 233 ± 1 Zhou, 2019
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
6

crustal thickness areas can be determined in Kaerqueka (Sr/Y = 38.5–
40.9 km, (La/Yb)
N
= 26.2–35.8 km), Xiarihamu (Sr/Y = 37.8–40.9 km,
(La/Yb)
N
= 26.2–35.8 km), Zongjia (Sr/Y = 37.8–40.9 km, (La/Yb)
N
=
20.8–30.3 km). In addition, two distinct areas are located in the
Wulonggou (Sr/Y = 42.1–48.9 km, (La/Yb)
N
= 35.8–47.4 km) and
Gouli areas (Sr/Y = 42.1–64.4 km, (La/Yb)
N
= 43.2–68.6 km) with
the characteristics of thick crustal thickness. Domains in the SEKB
show greater crustal thickness (Sr/Y = 42.1–51.0 km, (La/Yb)
N
= 40.
1–68.6 km) but the crustal thickness is locally relatively thin in the
NaijTal area (Sr/Y = 35.4–40.3 km, (La/Yb)
N
= 26.2–30.3 km).
5. Discussion
5.1. Implications for the evolution of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean
Based on the zircon U-Pb dataset (Supplementary Data
Table S1), a three-stage magmatic emplacement sequence can be
distinguished (Fig. 3). The first stage occurred during 270–
240 Ma and was marked by numerous intrusions and volcanic
rocks with arc-like affinities and the age of magmatism decreased
from south to north, which is consistent with the geochemical
polarity of northward subduction (Figs. 7 and 8,Thomas and
Billen, 2009; Li et al., 2015b). Following this stage, the magmatism
became diminished during ca. 240–237 Ma (Fig. 3). This gap
matches well with the early compressional stage of the continental
collision when magmatism is typically limited due to the increas-
ing pressure (Xiong, 2014; Xia, 2017). Therefore, the Paleo-Tethys
Ocean closure and initial accretionary collision processes are esti-
mated to have occurred at about 240 Ma. Subsequently, the EKOB
evolved to a post-collisional stage after ca. 224 Ma (Yao et al.,
2017; Zhou et al., 2020). This is evidenced by the zircon
e
Hf
(t) val-
ues of the magmatic rocks which have been generated during the
ca. 224–200 Ma phase exhibiting a gradually increasing trend
and the crustal thickness decreased dramatically (Fig. 7b). There-
fore, the tectonic evolution of the EKOB during the Late Permian
to Late Triassic involved three stages: (1) subduction of the
Paleo-Tethys Ocean during 270–240 Ma; (2) Middle Triassic conti-
nental collision (ca. 240–224 Ma); (3) a Late Triassic post-
collisional (ca. 224–200 Ma) extensional setting. This conclusion
is consistent with regional sedimentary and metamorphic events
in this period, as summarized in Table 3.
5.2. Crustal architecture in different geodynamic settings
5.2.1. Oceanic subduction (270–240 Ma)
The granitoids in the subduction setting (ca. 270–240 Ma) are
mainly medium–high K calc-alkaline series and enriched in
large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs) and light rare-earth elements
but depleted in high-field-strength elements (HFSEs) (Figs. 9, 10
and Supplementary Data Table S4). These rocks exhibit moderately
Fig. 4. Summary of the ore-forming age of significant ore deposits in the Eastern Kunlun orogenic belt. Geologic features of significant ore deposits labeled with numbers are
listed in Table 2.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
7

negative to positive
e
Hf
(t) values (11.6 to +12.4) and two-stage Hf
model ages ranging from 486 Ma to 2004 Ma (Fig. 7a,
Supplementary Data Table S2). The occurrences of extensive MMEs
and depleted Hf isotope values indicate that mantle material has
contributed to the generation of these granitic rocks (Xiong et al.,
2012; Chen et al., 2017). Additionally, slab melts have been sug-
gested to account for contemporary regional magmatism with
regards to the following aspects: (1) the subduction of an oceanic
slab leads to fluid metasomatism, inducing partial melting of an
enriched lithospheric mantle wedge (Zhao et al., 2019; Li et al.,
2020); (2) mixing between the slab-derived and enriched
mantle-derived melts also accounts for the regional granitoid rocks
(Chen et al., 2017; Pan et al., 2022). Therefore, the growth of the
bulk crust in the subduction setting is due to the contribution of
both the slab and the subcontinental mantle to regional magma-
tism. As a result, the crust thickness slowly increased
after 270 Ma, reaching 45 km at 240 Ma based on the
(La/Yb)
N
and Sr/Y data (Fig. 7b).
5.2.2. Continental collision (240–224 Ma)
The magmatism generated during ca. 240–224 Ma exhibits a
wider range of types and geochemical compositions compared to
that generated in the subduction setting (ca. 270–240 Ma). This
includes the development of extensive I-type granites, A-type
granites, and intraplate-type mafic dykes (Ao et al., 2015; Zhang
et al., 2016a; Liu et al., 2017a; Li et al., 2021). Moreover, granitoids
generated in the syn-collision setting exhibit more pronounced
negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 10c, d), variable zircon
e
Hf
(t) values
(24.6 to +10.5), and two-stage Hf model ages ranging from
597 Ma to 2810 Ma (Fig. 7a; Supplementary Data Table S2).
However, the recurrence of magmatic peaks and diverse com-
positions, particularly the occurrence of A-type granites and
intraplate-type mafic dykes are typically generated in an extension
setting (Whalen et al., 1987; King et al., 1997; Bonin, 2007). This
suggests lithospheric extension in an overall compressional conti-
nental collision setting. In this study, the preferred interpretation is
the oceanic slab break-off model. The model suggests that the hot
asthenospheric mantle ascended through the slab window, not
only creating a transient and thermal anomaly in the overlying
lithospheric mantle but also causing both thermal erosion and
mechanical deformation of the lower crust (Ratschbacher et al.,
2003; Roy et al., 2014; Tesauro et al., 2018). This results in the gen-
eration of transient magmatic pulses with intraplate characteris-
tics and leads to extensional deformation and localized thinning
of the crust thickness. Consequently, the overall crustal thickness
exhibit thickening, but local areas of thinning were also observed,
with a wide range of 25–60 km (Fig. 7b). Additionally, there was a
negative correlation between
e
Hf
(t) values and crust thickness both
spatially and temporally (Figs. 5–7).
5.2.3. Post-collision extension (224–200 Ma)
The magmatic rocks generated during ca. 224–200 Ma shows
high contents of SiO
2
,Na
2
O, and K
2
O and are slightly peraluminous
(A/CNK = 1.03–1.07; Figs. 9, 10e and f, Supplementary Data
Table S4), exhibits variable zircon
e
Hf
(t) values (20.2 to +12.5)
and two-stage Hf model ages from 457 Ma to 2524 Ma (Fig. 7a;
Supplementary Data Table S2), most of the
e
Hf
(t) values exhibit
Fig. 5. (a) Isotope contour map showing the spatial variation of
e
Hf
(t) values and (b) zircon Hf crustal model ages, T
DM
c values, for the late Paleozoic–Mesozoic granitoid rocks
and felsic volcanic rocks in the Eastern Kunlun orogenic Belt. Data are listed in Supplementary Data Table S3.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
8

negative values and old T
DM
c ages (Fig. 7a), indicating that ancient
continental crust has played a significant role in their formation
(Zhao et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020). Previous studies suggest that
the thickened lower crust underwent delamination during ca. 224–
200 Ma, evidenced by the presence of high-Mg adakite (Chen et al.,
2013), alkaline granitoids, OIB-type mafic dykes, and high-Nb-Ta
rhyolites in the EKOB (Hu et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017a; Zhu
et al., 2022). In comparison to slab break-off, delamination causes
large-scale asthenospheric upwelling that can provide additional
heat to melting of ancient crust and crustal thinning. As result,
the thickness of the crust decreased dramatically and
reached 45 km at around 200 Ma (Fig. 7b).
5.3. Correlation between the lithospheric architecture and location of
ore deposits
5.3.1. Porphyry-type deposit
The porphyry mineralization in the EKOB includes Late Permian
to Early Triassic porphyry Cu-Mo deposits generated in relation to
the subduction setting, and Middle to Late Triassic porphyry Mo
deposits formed during continental collision and in post-collision
extensional settings (Fig. 4).
The subduction-related porphyry Cu-Mo deposits occur in
regions with high
e
Hf
(t) values, low Hf model T
DM
c ages with
medium crustal thickness (37.7–40.3 km; Fig. 11). Ore-related
granitoids exhibit positive zircon
e
Hf
(t) values (+2.4 to +4.6), Hf
model T
DM
c ages of 981–1123 Ma, and enrichment in LREE, Rb,
Ba, Th, U and K, but depletion in Nb, Ta, Sr, P and Ti, indicating their
origin from the juvenile lower continental crust (Yang et al., 2018).
This interpretation is consistent with previous studies from the
Tibet Plateau, that the juvenile continental crust shows a delivered
dominant contribution of material for the generation of porphyry
Cu deposits (Hou et al., 2007; Hou et al., 2015). Furthermore,
because of the northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean
in the EKOB, the juvenile components in magmas decreased grad-
ually from south to north, due to increasing crustal input in the
north, following subduction polarity. Therefore, porphyry Cu-Mo
deposits are primarily associated with magmatic rocks formed dur-
ing the early stages of subduction and are typically located in the
southern region in the EKOB (Fig. 12).
The Middle to Late Triassic porphyry Mo mineralization occurs
in regions with low
e
Hf
(t) values, high Hf model T
DM
c ages and vari-
able crustal thickness (30.3–51.0 km; Fig. 11). These magmatic
rocks related to the Middle to Late Triassic porphyry Mo deposits
Fig. 6. (a) Crust thickness calculated by whole rock Sr/Y values and (b) whole rock (La/Yb)
N
values for the late Paleozoic–Mesozoic granitoid rocks and felsic volcanic rocks
contour map showing the crust thickness spatial variation in Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt. The data are listed in Supplementary Data Table S7.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
9

are characterized by
e
Hf
(t)= 12.3 to 0.5, and T
DM
c = 1297–20
56 Ma (Guo, 2020; Han et al., 2020). These Hf enriched isotopic
compositions of the magmatic rocks accounting for the Middle to
Late Triassic porphyry Mo deposits indicate that more ancient
crust materials contribution. The conclusion is supported by the
studies of the Tibet Plateau and Qingling Orogenic Belt, in which
the Mo-related intrusions originated from an ancient crust-
dominated source with evolved isotopic compositions and old T
DM
-
c ages (Hou et al., 2015; Richards, 2015; Li et al., 2018a). Addition-
ally, molybdenum mineralization occurring in the syn-collisional
setting occurred in a crustal thickness of 37.7–44.1 km (Fig. 13),
whereas in post-collisional settings the crustal thickness was
around 26.2–37.8 km (Fig. 14). The difference is caused by different
anatexis of crust melting. In the continental collision setting, ana-
texis is the key to the melting of the ancient continental crust due
to the heat accumulation in the thickened crust, while in post-
collision settings, it is caused by increased heat input through
asthenospheric upwelling (Bea, 2012; Zhu et al., 2018a).
5.3.2. Skarn-type deposit
Iron skarn deposits can be generated in both syn- and post-
collisional settings (Fig. 4). These deposits occurring in regions
with high
e
Hf
(t) values (
e
Hf
(t)= 1.8 to +6.1), low model T
DM
c
ages (T
DM
c = 1080–1370 Ma, Fig. 5a, b), and with a thin crust
(20.3–38.5 km; Fig. 6a, b). The intrusions associated with these
iron skarn deposits often exhibit depleted isotopic compositions
and high MgO contents (2.06–3.80 wt.%), indicating a stronger
contribution from asthenosphere-derived melt (Xiao et al.,
2013). As discussed in Sections 5.2.2 and 5.2.3, the upwelling of
asthenosphere events in the EKOB at ca. 237 Ma, caused by slab
break-off and lithosphere delamination at ca. 224 Ma, can lead
to local extension in syn-collision settings and regional extension
in post-collision settings. As a result, the spatial distribution of
iron skarn deposits is mainly associated with regions of crustal
thinning (Figs. 13 and 14).
The Cu-Mo-Sn skarn deposit are formed in either subduction,
syn collision, or post-collision settings (Fig. 4), and show similar
Fig. 7. (a) Age versus
e
Hf
(t) and (b) Age versus crust thickness of published late Paleozoic–Mesozoic granitoid rocks and felsic volcanic rocks. The data are presented in
Supplementary Data Tables S2, S3, and S7 respectively.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
10

Fig. 8. (a) The mineralization age of deposits and (b) zircon U-Pb age variations with the distance to the Central Kunlun fault. The data are presented in Supplementary Data
Tables S1 and Table 2 respectively.
Table 3
Summary of Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic magmatic-sedimentary-metamorphic features.
Evolution stage Magma
period
(Ma)
Magma assemblage Sedimentary and metamorphic features Reference
Subduction 270–
240
Diorite, granodiorite, and granite often
contained abundant MME
1. The Late Permian Gequ Formation deposited during 260–
252 Ma; consists of molasse sediments deposited in an ocea-
nic environment;
2. The schist to amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks in the
Qingshuiquan district ca. 246–244 Ma.
Li et al., 2012; Xia
et al., 2017
Syn-Collision 240–
224
I-type granites, A-type granites, mafic dyke
swarms, and adakite-like granitoids
1. The unconformable contact between the Early to Middle Tri-
assic marine Xilikete Formation sediments and the Middle to
Late Triassic lacustrine-facies Elshan Formation;
2. The Middle Triassic strata are absent in the SEKB; 3 The
transformation from open to tight folding during the Middle
Triassic.
Chen et al., 2017;
Li et al., 2012;Qu
et al., 2019
Post-Collision 224–
200
Voluminous alkaline mafic dyke swarm, A-type
granites, adakite-like granites, high Nb-Ta
rhyolites, and bimodal volcanic rocks
1. The regional angular unconformity between the Middle Tri-
assic Xilikete Formation and the Late Triassic Babaoshan
Formation in the EKOB;
2. Analysis of the stress patterns in mafic dikes from the early
and late Triassic periods shows a shift from a strike-slip
stress regime to a tensile stress regime.
Hu et al., 2016;
Xia et al., 2014;
Xiong, 2014
Note: MME = Mafic microgranular enclaves.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
11

geochemical characteristics. These skarn deposits are located in a
region with medium
e
Hf
(t) values, and T
DM
c ages (
e
Hf
(t)= 3.5
to 1.2, T
DM
c = 1355–1438 Ma, Fig. 5a, b), and increased crustal
thickness (35.8–46.2 km; Fig. 6a, b).
Granitic intrusions related to Cu-Mo-Sn mineralization belong to
high-K calc-alkaline and metaluminous to weakly peraluminous
I-type granitoids (Gao et al., 2015; Fu et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
2018; Guo et al., 2020). They display variable zircon
e
Hf
(t) values
(Supplementary Data Table S2) and commonly contain MMEs (Gao
et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016b). These characteristics indicate that
rocks related to Cu-Mo-Sn mineralization are derived from the par-
tial melting of ancient lower continental crust with an additional
input of mantle components (Liu et al., 2006; Feng et al., 2011a;
Wang et al., 2016b). The mixing of continental crust and mantle
rocks occurred during the entire orogeny in the EKOB. Consequently,
the Cu-Mo-Sn skarn deposits formed during all stages of the
orogeny.
5.3.3. Vein-type Au deposit
Vein-type Au deposits are mainly found in a syn-collisional set-
ting that occurred between ca. 240–227 Ma. They are typically
located in regions with low
e
Hf
(t) values (
e
Hf
(t)= 8.4 to 3.5),
Mesoproterozoic Hf model T
DM
c ages (T
DM
c = 1355–1821 Ma;
Fig. 5), and thick crustal thickness (40.1–48.9 km; Fig. 6). Thick
crustal regions are more likely to undergo deformation and fault-
ing, which can create the necessary structural conditions for the
formation of vein-type gold deposits (Groves et al., 1998; Groves
et al., 2005). Additionally, thick crustal areas may preserve gold-
bearing fluids due to reduced permeability and increased likeli-
hood of fluid entrapment (Bierlein et al., 2006). The Vein-type Au
deposits in EKOB are spatially and temporally associated with Mid-
dle Triassic magmatism, which provided the ore-forming fluids and
metals for Au mineralization (Liang et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021b).
Thus, the thick crustal regions, with their unique geological and
tectonic features, provide a favorable environment for the forma-
tion of vein-type Au deposits during the collisional stage (Fig. 13).
Fig. 9. (a) Plots of Na
2
O+K
2
O versus SiO
2
contents (TAS) diagram (Le Bas et al., 1986). (b) SiO
2
versus K
2
O diagram (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976). (c). A/NK vs. A/CNK diagram,
where A/NK is the molar ratio of Al
2
O
3
/(Na
2
O+K
2
O) and A/CNK is the molar ratio of Al
2
O
3
/(CaO + Na
2
O+K
2
O) (Maniar and Piccoli, 1989); The average data of the same rock
type from the same pluton were used for plotting. Data are listed in Supplementary Data Table S4.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
12

5.3.4. Epithermal type Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) deposit
The epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) deposits in the EKOB are formed in
both syn-collisional and post-collisional settings. Ore-related gran-
ites show low
e
Hf
(t) values (
e
Hf
(t)= 24.6 to 1.0) and old T
DM
c ages
(T
DM
c = 1191–2810 Ma; Figs. 5 and 6). These isotopic characteristics
suggest that the magmatism related to the epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-
(Au) deposits originated from the partial melting of ancient crust
with an additional input of mantle components (Zhang et al.,
2016b; Guo, 2020). However, the epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) miner-
alization in the syn-collisional setting is located in the thicker por-
tion of the continental crust (37.7–46.2 km). In contrast, in the
post-collisional setting such epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) deposits
are located in an area of thinner crustal thickness (26.2–38.5 km).
The similar isotopic characteristics but the different crustal thick-
ness of epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) mineralization in the syn- and
post-collision settings were probably resulted from the different
melting mechanisms of ancient crust, similar to magmatic rocks
for the Middle to Late Triassic porphyry Mo mineralization.
Fig. 10. REE and trace element patterns of the Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic granitoid rocks and felsic volcanic rocks in different evolution stages of the Eastern Kunlun Orogen
(Chondrite and primitive-mantle values are from Sun et al., 1989). The average data of the same rock type from the same pluton were used for plotting. Data are listed in
Supplementary Data Table S4.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
13

6. Conclusions
Combined with the zircon Hf isotopic mapping and the evalu-
ated crustal thickness, our study provides new insights into the
metallogeny in the EKOB with the following major conclusions.
(1) The Fe skarn and porphyry Cu-Mo deposits in EKOB occur in
the Moho uplift region characterized by relatively thin crust.
Magmatism associated with porphyry Cu-(Mo) and Fe poly-
metallic skarn mineralization with high
e
Hf
(t) and T
DM
c val-
ues mainly originated from a juvenile crustal source.
(2) The magmatism associated with porphyry Mo and epither-
mal Ag-Pb-Zn-(Au) mineralization in the EKOB with low
e
Hf
(t) and high T
DM
c values originated mainly from the
reworked ancient continental crustal material with a limited
contribution from a mantle source.
(3) The main occurrence of vein-type Au is in the area of a
depression of the Moho surface. Gold mineralization-
related magmatism with low
e
Hf
(t) and high T
DM
c values
indicate the involvement of older reworked crustal sources.
(4) The links between mineral deposits and Hf isotopic compo-
sition established in our study promise scope for exploration
of mineral deposits at greater depths, particularly in large
magmatic-hydrothermal domains.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xinming Zhang: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing –
original draft, Funding acquisition. Xu Zhao: Conceptualization,
Funding acquisition, Supervision. Lebing Fu: Conceptualization,
Methodology. Yanjun Li: Methodology, Funding acquisition.
Andreas Kamradt: Writing – review & editing. M. Santosh: Writ-
ing – review & editing. Chongwen Xu: Data curation. Xiaokun
Huang: Data curation, Visualization. Gregor Borg: Writing –
review & editing. Junhao Wei: Project administration, Funding
acquisition.
Fig. 11. (a) The zircon
e
Hf
(t) variation with crust thickness was calculated by (La/Yb)
N
. (b) The zircon
e
Hf
(t) variation with crust thickness calculated by Sr/Y, (c) variation of
(La/Yb)
N
, and Sr/Y using calculated crustal thickness for the EKOB deposit are extracted from Figs. 7a, 8a and 8b, respectively.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
14

Fig. 12. (a) The late Permian magmatism was triggered by northward subduction ca. 270–240 Ma of the Paleo-Tethys oceanic (Xiong et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2020). (b)
Variation of deposits, (c) zircon
e
Hf
(t) for granitic, felsic volcanic rocks and (d) crustal thickness during ca. 270–240 Ma with distance from the Central Kunlun Fault. The data
are presented in Supplementary Data Tables S2, S3, and S7 respectively.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
15

Fig. 13. (a) The early Triassic magmatism was triggered by slab break-off of the subducted Paleo-Tethys oceanic slab during the collision (Dai et al., 2013; Xue et al., 2020). (b)
Variation of deposits, (c) zircon
e
Hf
(t) for granitic and (d) felsic volcanic rocks and crustal thickness during c. 240–224 Ma with distance from the Central Kunlun Fault. The
data are presented in Supplementary Data Tables S2, S3, and S7 respectively.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
16

Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was financed by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (No. 42172084), China Postdoctoral Science Foun-
dation (2021M693191), Geological Exploration Fund of the Qinghai
Provincial, China (No. 2021074001ky001), and China Scholarship
Council (CSC). Thanks to Associate Editor Prof. C. Manikyamba
and the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments
and suggestions, which helped to improve the quality of the paper.
Special thanks to Zhixin Zhao, Shengtao Zhang, Weiwei Li, Xiaolong
Li, and Bin Li from China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) for
their assistance in data collection, as well as Jinmeng Li from the
Chinese University of Hong Kong for her help in improving the
language.
Fig. 14. (a) Later Triassic magmatism was triggered by delamination, which resulted in large-scale upwelling of the asthenospheric mantle and led to the whole-scale melting
of the lower crust and the metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric mantle (ca. 224–200 Ma) (Peng et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2020). (b) Variation of deposits, (c) zircon
e
Hf
(t)
for granitic and felsic volcanic rocks and (d) crustal thickness during c. 224–200 Ma with distance from the Central Kunlun Fault. The data are presented in Supplementary
Data Tables S2, S3, and S7 respectively.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
17

Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101654.
References
Ao, Z., Sun, F.Y., Li, B.L., Wang, G., Li, L., Li, S.J., Zhao, J.W., 2015. U-Pb Dating,
geochemistry and tectonic implications of Xiaojianshan gabbro in Qimantage
Mountain, Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt. Geotecton. Metallog. 39 (6), 1176–
1184 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Bai, Y.N., Sun, F.Y., Qian, Y., Liu, H.C., Zhang, D.M., 2016. Zircon U-Pb geochronology
and geochemistry of pyroxene diorite in Galinge iron-polymetallic deposit, East
Kunlun. Glob. Geol. 35 (01), 17–27 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Bea, F., 2012. The sources of energy for crustal melting and the geochemistry of
heat-producing elements. Lithos 153, 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lithos.2012.01.017.
Bierlein, F.P., Gray, D.R., Foster, D.A., 2002. Metallogenic relationships to tectonic
evolution – the Lachlan Orogen, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 202 (1), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00757-4.
Bierlein, F.P., Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Dubé, B., 2006. Lithospheric controls on the
formation of provinces hosting giant orogenic gold deposits. Mineral. Deposita
40 (8), 874–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-005-0046-2.
Bonin, B., 2007. A-type granites and related rocks: evolution of a concept, problems
and prospects. Lithos 97 (1–2), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lithos.2006.12.007.
Bouilhol, P., Jagoutz, O., Hanchar, J.M., Dudas, F.O., 2013. Dating the India-Eurasia
collision through arc magmatic records. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 366, 163–175.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.023.
Chen, Y.J., 2013. The development of continental collision metallogeny and its
application. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29 (01), 1–17 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Chen, G.C., Pei, X.Z., Li, R.B., Li, Z.C., Pei, L., Liu, Z.Q., Chen, Y.X., Liu, C.J., 2013. Zircon
U-Pb geochronology, geochemical characteristics and geological significance of
Cocoe A’Long quartz diorites body from the Hongshuichuan area in East Kunlun.
Acta Geol. Sin. 87 (2), 178–196 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Chen, B.L., Wang, Y., Han, Y., Chen, J.L., 2019. Metallogenic age of Yanjingou gold
deposit in Wulonggou gold orefield, Eastern Kunlun Mountains. Miner. Deposits
38 (03), 541–556 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Chen, J.J., Wei, J.H., Fu, L.B., Li, H., Zhou, H.Z., Zhao, X., Zhan, X.F., Tan, J., 2017.
Multiple sources of the Early Mesozoic Gouli batholith, Eastern Kunlun
Orogenic Belt, Northern Tibetan Plateau: linking continental crustal growth
with oceanic subduction. Lithos 292, 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lithos.2017.09.006.
Chen, J.J., Fu, L.B., Selby, D., Wei, J.H., Zhao, X., Zhou, H.Z., 2020. Multiple episodes of
gold mineralization in the East Kunlun Orogen, western Central Orogenic Belt,
China: constraints from Re-Os sulfide geochronology 103587 Ore Geol. Rev.
123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103587.
Chen, X.H., Gehrels, G., Yin, A., Li, L., Jiang, R.B., 2012. Paleozoic and Mesozoic
Basement Magmatisms of Eastern Qaidam Basin, Northern Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau: LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb geochronology and its geological significance.
Acta Geol. Sin. (English Ed.) 86 (2), 350–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-
6724.2012.00665.x.
Dai, W., 2018. Ore-forming geological characteristic and prospecting potential for
Pb-Zn polymetallic deposit in Jingren region of Qimantage area, Qinghai
Province. Master Thesis, Jilin University, p. 67 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Dai, J.G., Wang, C.S., Hourigan, J., Santosh, M., 2013. Multi-stage tectono-magmatic
events of the Eastern Kunlun Range, northern Tibet: insights from U-Pb
geochronology and (U–Th)/He thermochronology. Tectonophysics 599, 97–106.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.04.005.
Deng, J., Wang, Q.F., Li, G.J., 2017. Tectonic evolution, superimposed orogeny, and
composite metallogenic system in China. Gondwana Res. 50, 216–266. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.02.005.
Deng, J., Wang, C.M., Leon, B.M., Enya, Y.S., 2018. Crustal architecture and
metallogenesis in the south-eastern North China Craton. Earth-Sci. Rev. 182,
251–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.05.001.
Dong, Y.P., He, D.F., Sun, S.S., Liu, X.M., Zhou, X.H., Zhang, F.F., Yang, Z., Cheng,
B., Zhao, G.C., Li, J.H., 2018. Subduction and accretionary tectonics of the
East Kunlun Orogen, western segment of the Central China Orogenic
System. Earth-Sci. Rev. 186, 231–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2017.12.006.
Dong, Y.P., Sun, S.S., Santosh, M., Hui, B., Sun, J.P., Zhang, F.F., Cheng, B., Yang, Z., Shi,
X.H., He, D.F., Cheng, C., Liu, X.M., Zhou, X.H., Wang, W., Qi, N., 2022. Cross
Orogenic Belts in Central China: Implications for the tectonic and
paleogeographic evolution of the East Asian continental collage. Gondwana
Res. 109, 18–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2022.04.012.
Duan, H.W., 2014. Characteristics and metallogenic regularities of porphyry ore
deposit, eastern section of East Kunlun Mountains. Master Thesis, China
University of Geosciences (Beijing), p. 103 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Fan, X.Z., Sun, F.Y., Xu, C.H., Wu, D.Q., Yu, L., Wang, L., Yan, C., Bakht, S., 2022.
Volcanic rocks of the Elashan Formation in the Dulan-Xiangride Basin, East
Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China: Petrogenesis and implications for Late Triassic
geodynamic evolution. Int. Geol. Rev. 64 (9), 1270–1293. https://doi.org/
10.1080/00206814.2021.1923074.
Feng, C.Y., Li, D.S., Qu, W.J., Du, A.D., Wang, S., Su, S.S., Jiang, J.H., 2009. Re-Os
isotopic dating of molybdenite from the Suolajier Skarn type copper-
molybdenite deposit of Qimantag mountain in Qinghai province and its
geological significance. Rock Miner. Anal. 28 (03), 223–227 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Feng, C.Y., Li, D.S., Wu, Z.S., Li, J.H., Zhang, Z.Y., Zhang, A.K., Shu, X.F., Su, S.S., 2010.
Major types, time-space distribution and metallogenies of polymetallic deposits
in the Qimantage metallogenic belt, Eastern Kunlun area. Northwestern Geol.
43 (04), 10–17 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Feng, C.Y., Wang, X.P., Shu, X.F., Zhang, A.K., Xiao, Y., Liu, J.N., Ma, S.C., Li, G.C., Li, D.
X., 2011a. Isotopic chronology of the Hutouya Skarn lead-zinc polymetallic ore
district in Qimantagh area of Qinghai Provience and Its geological significance. J.
Jilin Univ. (Earth Sci. Ed.) 41 (06), 1806–1817 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Feng, C.Y., Ma, S.C., Li, G.C., Wang, S., Shu, X.F., 2011b. Diagenetic and metallogenic
chronology constraints on the genesis of Jingren-Yingqinggou polymetallic
deposit. Qinghai Province. J. Mineral. Petrol. 31 (S1), 576–577 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Feng, C.Y., 2002. Multiple orogenic processes and mineralization of orogenic gold
deposits in the East Kunlun Orogen, Qinghai Province. Ph.D. Thesis, Chinese
Academy of Geological Sciences (Institute of Mineral Resources) (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Franklin, J.M., Gibson, L., Jonasson, I., Galley, A., 2005. Volcanogenic massive sulfide
deposits. In: Hedenquist, J.W., Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., Richards, J.P.
(Eds.), Economic Geology: One Hundredth Anniversary Volume 1905–2005.
Society of Economic Geologists, Littleton, pp. 523–560.
Fu, C.L., Yan, Z., Guo, X.Q., Niu, M.L., Chen, L., Xia, W.J., 2016. Magma source and
tectonic setting of the granitoids associated with Saishitang Cu deposit in the
West Qinling terrane. Acta Petrol. Sin. 32 (7), 1997–2014 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Gao, Y.B., Li, W.Y., Ma, X.G., Zhang, Z.W., Tang, Q.Y., 2012. Genesis, geochronology
and Hf isotopic compositions of magmatic rocks in Galinge iron deposit, East
Kunlun. J. Lanzhou Univ. 48 (02), 36–47 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Gao, Y.B., Li, K., Qian, B., Li, W.Y., Li, D.S., Su, S.S., Zhang, C.G., Zhang, D.M., Wang, S.
M., 2015. The genesis of granodiorites and dark enclaves from the Kaerqueka
deposit in East Kunlun Belt: evidence from zircon U-Pb dating, geochemistry
and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic compositions. Geol. China 42 (03), 646–662 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Gao, Y.B., Li, K., Qian, B., Li, W.Y., He, S.Y., Zhang, D.M., Wang, S.M., 2018. The
metallogenic chronology of Kaerqueka deposit in Eastern Kunlun: evidences
from molybdenite Re-Os and phlogopite Ar-Ar ages. Geotecton. Metallog. 42
(01), 96–107 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Gao, H.C., Sun, F.Y., Li, B.L., Qian, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, Y.J., 2020. Geochronological and
geochemical constraints on the origin of the Hutouya polymetallic skarn
deposit in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China. Minerals 10 (12), 1136.
https://doi.org/10.3390/min10121136.
Goldfarb, R.J., Baker, T., Dubé, B., Groves, D.I., Gosselin, P., 2005. Distribution,
character, and genesis of gold deposits in metamorphic terranes. Econ. Geol.
100th Anniversary, 407–450.
Griffin, W.L., Wang, X., Jackson, S.E., Pearson, N.J., O’Reilly, S.Y., Xu, X., Zhou, X., 2002.
Zircon chemistry and magma mixing, SE China: in-situ analysis of Hf isotopes,
Tonglu and Pingtan igneous complexes. Lithos 61 (3), 237–269. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0024-4937(02)00082-8.
Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S.G., Robert, F., 1998.
Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed classification in the context of their crustal
distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geol. Rev. 13 (1–
5), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(97)00012-7.
Groves, D.I., Condie, K.C., Goldfarb, R.J., Hronsky, J., Vielreicher, R.M., 2005. 100th
Anniversary Special Paper: secular changes in global tectonic processes and
their influence on the temporal distribution of gold-bearing mineral deposits.
Econ. Geol. 100 (2), 203–224. https://doi.org/10.2113/100.2.203.
Groves, D.I., Santosh, M., 2021. Craton and thick lithosphere margins: the sites of
giant mineral deposits and mineral provinces. Gondwana Res. 100, 195–222.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2020.06.008.
Guo, X.Z., 2020. The intermediate-acid magmatism and polymetallic mineralization
in East Kunlun, Paleo-Tethys. Ph.D. Thesis, China University of Geosciences, p.
246 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Guo, X.Z., Xie, W.H., Zhou, H.B., Tian, C.S., Li, J.C., Kong, H.L., Yang, T., Yao, X.G., Jia, Q.
Z., 2019. Zircon U-Pb chronology and geochemistry of rhyolite porphyry in
Nagengkangqieer sliver polymetallic deposit, East Kunlun and their geological
significance. Earth Sci. (J. China Univ. Geosci.) 44 (7), 2505–2518 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Guo, X.Z., Jia, Q.Z., Lü, X.B., Li, J.C., Kong, H.L., Yao, X.G., 2020. The Permian Sn
metallogenic event and its geodynamic setting in East Kunlun, NW China:
evidence from zircon and cassiterite geochronology, geochemistry, and Sr–Nd–
Hf isotopes of the Xiaowolong skarn Sn deposit. Ore Geol. Rev 118, 103370.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103370.
Guo, X.Z., Zhou, T.F., Jia, Q.Z., Li, J.C., Kong, H.L., 2022. Highly differentiated felsic
granites linked to Mo mineralization in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW
China: constrains from geochemistry, and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopes of the
Duolongqiarou porphyry Mo deposit.. Ore Geol. Rev. 145, 104891. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104891.
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
18

Han, J.J., Li, Y.D., Song, C.Z., He, J., Han, X., Qi, C.W., 2020. Zircon U-Pb dating and
geochemistry of granite in the Reshui area of Dulan county, eastern section of
East Kunlun Orogen and its tectonic implications. Acta Geol. Sin. 94 (3), 768–
781 (in Chinese with English abstract).
He, D.F., Dong, Y.P., Zhang, F.F., Yang, Z., Sun, S.S., Cheng, B., Zhou, B., Liu, X.M., 2016.
The 1.0 Ga S–type granite in the East Kunlun Orogen, Northern Tibetan Plateau:
implications for the Meso - to Neoproterozoic tectonic evolution. J. Asian Earth
Sci. 130, 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.07.019.
Hou, Z.Q., Zaw, K., Pan, G.T., Mo, X.X., Xu, Q., Hu, Y.Z., Li, X.Z., 2007. Sanjiang Tethyan
metallogenesis in S.W. China: tectonic setting, metallogenic epochs and deposit
types. Ore Geol. Rev. 31 (1–4), 48–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
oregeorev.2004.12.007.
Hou, Z.Q., Zhang, H.R., 2015. Geodynamics and metallogeny of the eastern Tethyan
metallogenic domain. Ore Geol. Rev. 70, 346–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
oregeorev.2014.10.026.
Hou, Z.Q., Duan, L.F., Lu, Y.J., Zheng, Y.C., Di Cheng, Z., Ming, Y.Z., Yang, Z.S., Di, W.B.,
Ru, P.Y., Dan, Z.Z., McCuaig, T.C., 2015. Lithospheric architecture of the Lhasa
Terrane and its control on ore deposits in the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen. Econ.
Geol. 110 (6), 1541–1575. https://doi.org/10.2113/econgeo.110.6.1541.
Hu, F.Y., Ducea, M.N., Liu, S.W., Chapman, J.B., 2017. Quantifying crustal thickness in
continental collisional belts: global perspective and a geologic application. Sci.
Rep. 7, 7058. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-07849-7.
Hu, Y., Niu, Y.L., Li, J.Y., Ye, L., Kong, J.J., Chen, S., Zhang, Y., Zhang, G.R., 2016.
Petrogenesis and tectonic significance of the late Triassic mafic dikes and felsic
volcanic rocks in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, Northern Tibet Plateau. Lithos
245, 205–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2015.05.004.
Huang, H., Niu, Y.L., Nowell, G., Zhao, Z.D., Yu, X.H., Zhu, D.C., Mo, X.X., Ding, S., 2014.
Geochemical constraints on the petrogenesis of granitoids in the East Kunlun
Orogenic Belt, northern Tibetan Plateau: implications for continental crust
growth through syn-collisional felsic magmatism. Chem. Geol. 370, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.01.010.
Huang, X.K., Wei, J.H., Li, H., Chen, M.T., Wang, Y.L., Li, G.M., Yan, M.Q., Zhang, X.M.,
2021. Zircon U-Pb geochronological, elemental and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopic
constraints on petrogenesis of the Late Triassic quartz diorite in Balong
region, East Kunlun Orogen. Earth Sci. 46 (06), 2037–2056 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Kemp, A.I.S., Hawkesworth, C.J., Paterson, B.A., Kinny, P.D., 2006. Episodic growth of
the Gondwana supercontinent from hafnium and oxygen isotopes in zircon.
Nature 439 (7076), 580–583. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04505.
King, P.L., White, A., Chappell, B.W., Allen, C.M., 1997. Characterization and origin of
aluminous A-type granites from the Lachlan Fold Belt, Southeastern Australia. J.
Petrol. 38 (3), 371–391. https://doi.org/10.1093/petroj/38.3.371.
Le Bas, M.J., Le Maitre, R.W., Streckeisen, A., Zanettin, B.A., Iugs, s.o.t.s., 1986.
Chemical classification of volcanic rocks based on the total alkali-silica diagram.
J. Petrol. 27 (3), 745–750. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/27.3.745.
Leach, D.L., Sangster, D.F., Kelley, K.D., Large, R.R., Walters, S.G., 2005. Sediment-
hosted lead-zinc deposits: A global perspective. Society of Economic Geologists,
Littleton, Colorado, pp. 561–607.
Li, J.C., 2017. Metallogenic regularity and metallogenic prognosis of gold deposit in
the East Kunlun Orogen, Qinghai province. Ph.D. Thesis, Chang’an University (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Li, N., Chen, Y., Santosh, M., Pirajno, F., 2015b. Compositional polarity of Triassic
granitoids in the Qinling Orogen, China: implication for termination of the
northernmost paleo-Tethys. Gondwana Res. 27 (1), 244–257. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.gr.2013.09.017.
Li, X.K., Chen, J., Wang, R.C., Li, C., 2018b. Temporal and spatial variations of Late
Mesozoic granitoids in the SW Qiangtang, Tibet: implications for crustal
architecture, Meso-Tethyan evolution and regional mineralization. Earth-Sci.
Rev. 185, 374–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.04.005.
Li, J.C., Guo, X.Z., Kong, H.L., Yao, X.G., Jia, Q.Z., 2021. Geochronology, geochemical
characteristics and geological significance of A-Type granite from the Lalangmai
area, East Kunlun. Acta Geol. Sin. 95 (05), 1508–1522 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Li, R.B., Pei, X.Z., Li, Z.C., Liu, Z.Q., Chen, G.C., Chen, Y.X., Wei, F.H., Gao, J.M., Liu, C.J.,
Pei, L., 2012. Geological characteristics of Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic
unconformities and their response to some significant tectonic events in
eastern part of Eastern Kunlun. Earth Sci. Front. 19 (5), 244–254 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Li, R.B., Pei, X.Z., Pei, L., Li, Z.C., Chen, G.C., Chen, Y.X., Liu, C.J., Wang, M., 2018a. The
Early Triassic Andean-type Halagatu granitoids pluton in the East Kunlun
orogen, northern Tibet Plateau: response to the northward subduction of the
Paleo-Tethys Ocean. Gondwana Res. 62, 212–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gr.2018.03.005.
Li, H.R., Qian, Y., Sun, F.Y., Li, L., 2020. Geochemistry, zircon geochronology, and
isotopic systematics of the Zhanbuzhale granites in the East Kunlun, Qinghai
Province, Northwestern China: implications for the tectonic setting. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 57 (2), 275–291. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2018-0251.
Li, B.L., Zhi, Y.B., Zhang, L., Ding, Q.F., Xu, Q.L., Zhang, Y.J., Qian, Y., Wang, G., Peng, B.,
Ao, C., 2015a. U-Pb dating, geochemistry, and Sr-Nd isotopic composition of a
granodiorite porphyry from the Jiadanggen Cu-(Mo) deposit in the Eastern
Kunlun metallogenic belt, Qinghai Province, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 67, 1–10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.008.
Liang, G.Z., Yang, K.F., Sun, W.Q., Fan, H.R., Li, X.H., Lan, T.G., Hu, H.L., Chen, Y.W.,
2021. Multistage ore-forming processes and metal source recorded in texture
and composition of pyrite from the Late Triassic Asiha gold deposit, Eastern
Kunlun Orogenic Belt, western China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 220, 104920. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.104920.
Liu, J.N., Feng, C.Y., Qi, F., Li, G.C., Ma, S.C., Xiao, Y., 2012. SIMS zircon U-Pb dating
and fluid inclusion studies of Xiadeboli Cu-Mo ore district in Dulan county,
Qinghai Province, China. Acta Petrol. Sin. 28 (02), 679–690 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Liu, J.N., Feng, C.Y., He, S., Pei, R.F., Li, D.X., Ju, H.Y., Bai, S.L., 2017b. Zircon U-Pb and
phlogopite Ar-Ar ages of the monzogranite from Yemaquan iron-zinc deposit in
Qinghai Province. Geotecton. Metallog. 41 (06), 1158–1170 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Liu, B., Ma, C.Q., Huang, J., Wang, L.X., Zhao, S.Q., Yan, R., Sun, Y., Xiong, F.H., 2017a.
Petrogenesis and tectonic implications of Upper Triassic appinite dykes in the
East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, Northern Tibetan Plateau. Lithos 284–285, 766–778.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2017.05.016.
Liu, Y.H., Mo, X.X., Yu, X.H., Zhang, X.T., Xu, G.W., 2006. Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating
of Jingren granite, Yemaquan region of East Kunlun and its geological
significance. Acta Petrol. Sin. 10, 2457–2463 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Lu, H.F., Yang, Y.Q., He, J., Li, J.Q., 2017. Zircon U-Pb age dating for granodiorite
porphyry and molybdenite Re-Os isotope dating of Halongxiuma molybdenite
(tungsten) deposit in the East Kunlun area and its geological significance. J.
Mineral. Petrol. 37 (02), 33–39 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Lydon, J.W., 1988. Ore deposit models. 14. Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits
part 2: genetic models. Geosci. Can. 15 (1), 43–65.
Maniar, P.D., Piccoli, P.M., 1989. Tectonic discrimination of granitoids. Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. 101(5), 635-643.
Mi, X.M., 2019. Geological features and potential analysis of ore prospecting at
adjacent area in Yazigou. Master Thesis, Lanzhou University, 92 pp. (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Mo, X.X., Luo, Z.H., Deng, J.F., Yu, X.H., Liu, C.D., Chen, H.W., Yuan, W.M., Liu, Y.H.,
2007. Granitoids and crustal growth in the East-Kunlun Orogenic Belt. Geol. J.
China Univ. 03, 403–414 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Mole, D.R., Fiorentini, M.L., Thebaud, N., Cassidy, K.F., McCuaig, T.C., Kirkland, C.L.,
Romano, S.S., Doublier, M.P., Belousova, E.A., Barnes, S.J., Miller, J., 2014.
Archean komatiite volcanism controlled by the evolution of early continents.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 111 (28), 10083–10088. https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.1400273111.
Mole, D.R., Kirkland, C.L., Fiorentini, M.L., Barnes, S.J., Cassidy, K.F., Isaac, C.,
Belousova, E.A., Hartnady, M., Thebaud, N., 2019. Time-space evolution of an
Archean craton: a Hf-isotope window into continent formation. Earth-Sci. Rev.
196, 102831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.003.
Morishita, Y., Nakano, T., 2008. Role of basement in epithermal deposits: the
Kushikino and Hishikari gold deposits, southwestern Japan. Ore Geol. Rev. 34
(4), 597–609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008.09.009.
Pan, Z.C., Sun, F.Y., Cong, Z.C., Tian, N., Xin, W., Wang, L., Zhang, Y.J., Wu, D.Q., 2022.
Petrogenesis and tectonic implications of the Triassic granitoids in the Ela
Mountain area of the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt. Minerals (Basel) 12 (880), 880.
https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070880.
Pan, G.T., Wang, L.Q., Li, R.S., Yuan, S.H., Ji, W.H., Yin, F.G., Zhang, W.P., Wang, B.D.,
2012. Tectonic evolution of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Asian Earth Sci. 53, 3–
14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.12.018.
Peccerillo, A., Taylor, S.R., 1976. Geochemistry of Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks
from the Kastamonu area, northern Turkey. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 58 (1), 63–
81. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00384745.
Peng, B., Li, B., Zhao, T.F., Wang, C., Chang, J.J., Wang, G.Z., Yang, W.L., 2017.
Identification of A-type granite in the southeastern Kunlun Orogen, Qinghai
Province, China: implications for the tectonic framework of the Eastern Kunlun
Orogen. Geol. J. 52 (3), 454–469. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.2775.
Qu, H.Y., Friehauf, K., Santosh, M., Pei, R.F., Li, D.X., Liu, J.N., Zhou, S.M., Wang, H.,
2019. Middle-Late Triassic magmatism in the Hutouya Fe–Cu–Pb–Zn deposit,
East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, NW China: implications for geodynamic setting and
polymetallic mineralization. Ore Geol. Rev. 113, 103088. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103088.
Ratschbacher, L., Hacker, B.R., Calvert, A., Webb, L.E., Grimmer, J.C., McWilliams, M.
O., Ireland, T., Dong, S., Hu, J., 2003. Tectonics of the Qinling (Central China):
tectonostratigraphy, geochronology, and deformation history. Tectonophysics
366 (1), 1–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00053-2.
Richards, J.P., 2015. Tectonic, magmatic, and metallogenic evolution of the Tethyan
orogen: from subduction to collision. Ore Geol. Rev. 70, 323–345. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2014.11.009.
Roy, S.K., Kumar, M.R., Srinagesh, D., 2014. Upper and lower mantle anisotropy
inferred from comprehensive SKS and SKKS splitting measurements from India.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 392, 192–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.02.012.
Santosh, M., Groves, D.I., 2022. Global metallogeny in relation to secular evolution
of the Earth and supercontinent cycles. Gondwana Res. 107, 395–422. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2022.04.007.
Shao, F.L., Niu, Y.L., Liu, Y., Chen, S., Kong, J.J., Duan, M., 2017. Petrogenesis of Triassic
granitoids in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt, northern Tibetan Plateau and their
tectonic implications. Lithos 282, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lithos.2017.03.002.
Shi, C., Li, R.S., He, S.P., Ji, W.H., Gu, P.Y., Chen, S.J., Zhang, H.D., 2017. A study of the
ore-forming age of the Hutouya deposit and its geological significance:
geochemistry and U-Pb zircon ages of biotite monzonitic granite in Qimantag,
East Kunlun Mountains. Geol. Bull. China 36 (06), 977–986 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
19

Sillitoe, R.H., 2008. Special Paper: Major Gold Deposits and Belts of the North and
South American Cordillera: Distribution, Tectonomagmatic Settings, and
Metallogenic Considerations. Econ. Geol. 103 (4), 663–687. https://doi.org/
10.2113/gsecongeo.103.4.663.
Sillitoe, R.H., 2010. Porphyry copper systems. Econ. Geol. 105 (1), 3–41. https://doi.
org/10.2113/gsecongeo.105.1.3.
Sun, S.S., McDonough, W.F., Saunders, A.D., Norry, M.J., 1989. Chemical and isotopic
systematics of oceanic basalts; implications for mantle composition and
processes. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 42 (1), 313–345. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.
SP.1989.042.01.19.
Tesauro, M., Kaban, M.K., Petrunin, A.G., El Khrepy, S., Al-Arifi, N., 2018. Strength and
elastic thickness variations in the Arabian Plate: a combination of temperature,
composition and strain rates of the lithosphere. Tectonophysics 746, 398–411.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2017.03.004.
Thomas, C., Billen, M.I., 2009. Mantle transition zone structure along a profile in the
SW Pacific: thermal and compositional variations. Geophys. J. Int. 176(1), 113-
125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2008.03934.x.
Turner, D.R., Bowman, J.R., 1993. Origin and evolution of skarn fluids, empire zinc
skarns, central mining district, NEW-MEXICO, USA. Appl. Geochem. 8 (1), 9–36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-2927(93)90054-K.
Wang, C.M., Bagas, L., Lu, Y.J., Santosh, M., Du, B., McCuaig, T.C., 2016a. Terrane
boundary and spatio-temporal distribution of ore deposits in the Sanjiang
Tethyan Orogen: insights from zircon Hf-isotopic mapping. Earth-Sci. Rev. 156,
39–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.02.008.
Wang, F.C., Chen, J., Xie, Z.Y., Li, S.P., Tan, S.X., Zhang, Y.B., Wang, T., 2013. Geological
features and Re-Os isotopic dating of the Lalingzaohuo molybdenum
polymetallic deposit in East Kunlun. Geol. China 40 (04), 1209–1217 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, C.M., Deng, J., Bagas, L., Wang, Q., 2017a. Zircon Hf–isotopic mapping for
understanding crustal architecture and metallogenesis in the Eastern Qinling
Orogen. Gondwana Res. 50, 293–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.04.008.
Wang, H., Feng, C.Y., Li, D.X., Li, C., Ding, T.Z., Liao, F.Z., 2016b. Geology,
geochronology and geochemistry of the Saishitang Cu deposit, East Kunlun
Mountains, NW China: constraints on ore genesis and tectonic setting. Ore Geol.
Rev. 72, 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.07.002.
Wang, Y.B., Guo, Y.P., Zeng, Q.D., Guo, L.X., 2018. Petrogenesis and tectonic setting of
the Shiduolong skarn Pb-Zn deposit in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt:
constraints from whole-rock geochemical, zircon U-Pb and Hf isotope
analyses. Geol. J. 53 (3), 1022–1038. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.2941.
Wang, C.Y., Ma, Z.Y., Zhou, Q.L., Ma, C.X., Ma, Q., Qi, Y.Q., 2017b. Rock geochemical
characteristics and tectonic environment analysis of Cu-Mo polymetallic
mining area of Qingshui River ore district, Eastern Kunlun, Qinghai province.
J. Qinghai Univ. 05, 73–81 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang, X.X., Wang, T., Ke, C.H., Yang, Y., Li, J.B., Li, Y.H., Qi, Q.J., Lv, X.Q., 2015. Nd–Hf
isotopic mapping of Late Mesozoic granitoids in the East Qinling orogen, central
China: constraint on the basements of terranes and distribution of Mo
mineralization. J. Asian Earth Sci. 103, 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jseaes.2014.07.002.
Wang, X.Y., Zhu, X.Y., Li, J.D., Wang, Y.W., Jiang, B.B., Wu, J.R., Huang, X.K., Zhao, Z.Y.,
Ábalos, B., 2021. Two stage magmatism and their skarn-type mineralization in
the Niukutou ore district, Qinghai Province. Acta Petrol. Sin. 37 (05), 1567–1586
(in Chinese with English abstract).
Webb, M., White, L.T., Manning, C.J., Jost, B.M., Tiranda, H., 2020. Isotopic mapping
reveals the location of crustal fragments along a long-lived convergent plate
boundary. Lithos, 372–373, 105687. https: 10.1016/j.lithos.2020.105687.
Whalen, J.B., Currie, K.L., Chappell, B.W., 1987. A-type granites: geochemical
characteristics, discrimination and petrogenesis. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 95 (4),
407–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00402202.
Wu, C., Chen, H., Lu, Y., 2021a. Crustal structure control on porphyry copper systems
in accretionary orogens: insights from Nd isotopic mapping in the Central Asian
Orogenic Belt. Mineral. Deposita 57, 631–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-
021-01074-z.
Wu, Z.N., Ji, W.H., He, S.P., Chen, S.J., Yu, P.S., Shi, C., Chen, F.N., Zhang, H.S., Peng, Y.,
2015. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating and geochemical characteristics of
granodiorite in Rilonggou area, Xinghai County, Qinghai Province. Geol. Bull.
China 34 (09), 1677–1688 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wu, F.Y., Yang, Y.H., Xie, L.W., Yang, J.H., Xu, P., 2006. Hf isotopic compositions of the
standard zircons and baddeleyites used in U-Pb geochronology. Chem. Geol.
234 (1–2), 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2006.05.003.
Wu, J.J., Zeng, Q.D., Santosh, M., Fan, H.R., Wei, Z.H., Yang, K.F., Zhang, Z.M., Li, X.H.,
Liang, G.Z., 2021c. Intrusion-related orogenic gold deposit in the East Kunlun
belt, NW China: a multiproxy investigation. Ore Geol. Rev. 139, 104550. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104550.
Wu, C., Zuza, A.V., Chen, X.H., Ding, L., Levy, D.A., Liu, C.F., Liu, W.C., Jiang, T., Stockli,
D.F., 2019. Tectonics of the Eastern Kunlun Range: cenozoic reactivation of a
paleozoic-early mesozoic orogen. Tectonics 38 (5), 1609–1650. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2018TC005370.
Wu, C., Li, J., Zuza, A.V., Haproff, P.J., Chen, X.H., Ding, L., 2021b.
ProterozoicPhanerozoic tectonic evolution of the Qilian Shan and Eastern
Kunlun Range, northern Tibet. GSA Bull. 134 (9–10), 2179–2205. https://doi.
org/10.1130/B36306.1.
Xia, R., 2017. Paleo-Tethys Orogenic process and gold metallogenesis of East
Kunlun. Ph.D. Thesis, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), p. 215 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Xia, R., Wang, C.M., Deng, J., Carranza, E.J.M., Li, W.L., Qing, M., 2014. Crustal
thickening prior to 220 Ma in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt: insights from the
Late Triassic granitoids in the Xiao-Nuomuhong pluton. J. Asian Earth Sci. 93,
193–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.07.013.
Xia, R., Deng, J., Qing, M., Li, W.L., Guo, X.D., Zeng, G.Z., 2017. Petrogenesis of ca. 240
Ma intermediate and felsic intrusions in the Nan’ getan: implications for crust–
mantle interaction and geodynamic process of the East Kunlun Orogen. Ore
Geol. Rev. 90, 1099–1117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.04.002.
Xiao, Y., Feng, C.Y., Liu, J.N., Yu, M., Zhou, J.H., Li, D.X., Zhao, Y.M., 2013. LA-ICP-MS
zircon U-Pb dating and sulfur isotope characteristics of Kendekeke Fe-
polymetallic deposit, Qinghai province. Miner. Deposits 32 (01), 177–186 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Xiong, F.H., 2014. Spatial-temporal pattern, petrogenesis and geological
implications of Paleo-Tethyan granitoids in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt.
Ph.D. Thesis, China University of Geosciences, p. 191 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Xiong, F.H., Ma, C.Q., Zhang, J.Y., Liu, B., 2012. The origin of mafic microgranular
enclaves and their host granodiorites from East Kunlun, Northern Qinghai-Tibet
Plateau: implications for magma mixing during subduction of Paleo-Tethyan
lithosphere. Mineral. Petrol. 104 (3–4), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00710-011-0187-1.
Xiong, F.H., Ma, C.Q., Jiang, H.A., Zhang, H., 2016. Geochronology and petrogenesis of
Triassic high-K calc-alkaline granodiorites in the East Kunlun Orogen, West
China: Juvenile lower crustal melting during post-collisional extension. J. Earth
Sci. 27 (3), 474–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-016-0674-6.
Xiong, F.H., Ma, C.Q., Chen, B., Ducea, M.N., Hou, M.C., Ni, S.J., 2019. Intermediate-
mafic dikes in the East Kunlun Orogen, Northern Tibetan Plateau: a window
into paleo-arc magma feeding system. Lithos 340–341, 152–165. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lithos.2019.05.012.
Xu, Q.L., 2014. Study on metallogenesis of porphyry deposits in Eastern Kunlun
Orogenic Belt, Qinghai Province. Ph.D. Thesis, Jilin University, p. 208 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
Xue, H.R., Sun, F.Y., Li, L., Xin, W., 2020. Geochronology, geochemistry, and Sr-Nd-
Hf isotopes of the Late Permian-Early Triassic granitoids in Eastern Kunlun
Orogen, Northwest China: petrogenesis and implications for geodynamic
setting. Int. Geol. Rev. 63 (6), 696–716. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00206814.2020.1722968.
Yang, Y.Q., Li, B.L., Ma, Y.J., Tan, Y., Bao, S.B., Li, J.T., Yu, X.L., Wang, J.Y., 2018.
Geochemistry and genesis of monzonitic granite from Aikengdelesite area in
East Kunlun, Qinghai. Northwestern Geol. 51 (01), 104–114 (in Chinese with
English abstract).
Yang, T., 2015. Geological characteristics and genesis discussion of the
Tawenchahanxi Fe-polymetallic deposit in Qimantage area, Qinghai province.
Master Thesis, Chang’ an University, 92 pp. (in Chinese with English abstract).
Yao, L., Lü, Z.C., Zhao, C.S., Pang, Z.S., Yu, X.F., Yang, T., Li, Y.S., Liu, P., Zhang, M.C.,
2017. Zircon U-Pb geochronological, trace element, and Hf isotopic constraints
on the genesis of the Fe and Cu skarn deposits in the Qiman Tagh area, Qinghai
Province, Eastern Kunlun Orogen, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 91, 387–403. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.09.017.
Yu, M., Feng, C.Y., Santosh, M., Mao, J.W., Zhu, Y.F., Zhao, Y.M., Li, D.X., Li, B., 2017.
The Qiman Tagh Orogen as a window to the crustal evolution in northern
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Earth-Sci. Rev. 167, 103–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2017.02.008.
Yu, M., Dick, J.M., Feng, C., Li, B., Wang, H., 2020. The tectonic evolution of the East
Kunlun Orogen, northern Tibetan Plateau: a critical review with an integrated
geodynamic model. J. Asian Earth Sci. 191, 104168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jseaes.2019.104168.
Zhang, A.K., 2012. Studies on late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic magmatism and
mineralization in Yemaquan area, Qinghai province. Ph.D. Thesis, China
University of Geosciences (Beijing), p. 166 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang, B.L., 2013. Study on the Geochemical Characteristics and Metallogenic Age of
Balugou Polymetallic Deposits in Dulan County, Qinghai Province. Master
Thesis, Jilin University, p. 81 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang, X.F., Li, Z.M., Jia, Q.Z., Song, Z.B., Chen, X.Y., Zhang, Y.L., Li, D.S., Shu, X.F.,
2016b. Geochronology, geochemistry and geological significance of granite
porphyry in Hutouya polymetallic deposit, Qimantage area, Qinghai Province. J.
Jilin Univ. (Earth Sci. Ed.) 46 (03), 749–765 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang, J.Y., Ma, C.Q., Li, J.W., Pan, Y.M., 2017. A possible genetic relationship
between orogenic gold mineralization and post-collisional magmatism in the
eastern Kunlun Orogen, western China. Ore Geol. Rev. 81, 342–357. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.11.003.
Zhang, W., Zhou, H.W., Zhu, Y.H., Mao, W.L., Tong, X., Ma, Z.Q., Cao, Y.L., 2016a. The
evolution of Triassic granites associated with mineralization within East Kunlun
Orogenic Belt: evidence from petrology, geochemistry and zircon U-Pb
geochronology of the Mohexiala pluton. Earth Sci. 41 (08), 1334–1348 (in
Chinese with English abstract).
Zhao, X., Wei, J.H., Fu, L.B., Huizenga, J.M., Santosh, M., Chen, J.J., Wang, D.Z., Li, A.B.,
2020. Multi-stage crustal melting from Late Permian back-arc extension
through Middle Triassic continental collision to Late Triassic post-collisional
extension in the East Kunlun Orogen. Lithos 360-361, 105446. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.lithos.2020.105446.
Zhao, X., Fu, L.B., Wei, J.H., Bagas, L., Santosh, M., Liu, Y., Zhang, D.H., Zhou, H.Z.,
2019. Late Permian back-arc extension of the eastern Paleo-Tethys Ocean:
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
20

evidence from the East Kunlun Orogen, Northern Tibetan Plateau. Lithos 340–
341, 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2019.05.006.
Zhao, X., Fu, L.B., Santosh, M., Wei, J.H., Chen, J.J., 2022. The growth and evolution of
continental crust contributed by multiple sources in the East Kunlun Orogen
during Early Paleozoic. Earth-Sci. Rev. 233, 104190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2022.104190.
Zhong, S.H., Li, S.Z., Feng, C.Y., Liu, Y.J., Santosh, M., He, S.Y., Qu, H.Y., Liu, G.Y.,
Seltmann, R., Lai, Z.Q., Wang, X.H., Song, Y.X., Zhou, J., 2021. Porphyry copper
and skarn fertility of the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau collisional
granitoids. Earth-Sci. Rev. 214, 103524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2021.103524.
Zhou, H.Z., 2019. Indosinian magmatic evolution and copper polymetallic
mineralization in the Erashan area, Qinghai Province. Ph.D. Thesis, China
University of Geosciences, p. 266 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhou, H.Z., Zhang, D.H., Wei, J.H., Wang, D.Z., Santosh, M., Shi, W.J., Chen, J.J., Zhao,
X., 2020. Petrogenesis of Late Triassic mafic enclaves and host granodiorite in
the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China: implications for the reworking of
juvenile crust by delamination-induced asthenosphere upwelling. Gondwana
Res. 84, 52–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2020.02.012.
Zhu, R.Z., Lai, S.C., Qin, J.F., Zhao, S.W., Santosh, M., 2018b. Strongly peraluminous
fractionated S-type granites in the Baoshan Block, SW China: implications for
two-stage melting of fertile continental materials following the closure of
Bangong-Nujiang Tethys. Lithos 316–317, 178–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lithos.2018.07.016.
Zhu, Y.X., Wang, L.X., Ma, C.Q., He, Z.X., Deng, X., Tian, Y., 2022. Petrogenesis and
tectonic implication of the Late Triassic A1-type alkaline volcanics from the
Xiangride area, eastern segment of the East Kunlun Orogen (China). Lithos 412–
413, 106595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2022.106595.
Zhu, D.Q., Zhu, H.B., Li, B.L., Li, H.Y., Li, G.T., 2018a. Re-Os geochronology of
molybdenite from Reshui Cu-Mo deposit in Dulan, Qinghai and its geological
significance. Glob. Geol. 37 (04), 1004–1017 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
X. Zhang, X. Zhao, L. Fu et al. Geoscience Frontiers 14 (2023) 101654
21