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Running head: STIMULATION OF MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP
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Electrical stimulation of the motor cortex during REM sleep, sleep paralysis, and lucid
dreams
Michael Raduga
REMspace, Phase Research Center
Andrey Shashkov
REMspace, Phase Research Center
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael Raduga, REMspace,
Phase Research Center: obe4u@obe4u.com
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
SLEEP PARALYSIS, AND LUCID DREAMS
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Abstract
As humans spend one-third of their lives asleep, many studies have explored the possibility of
controlling dreams. For the first time, we tested electrical brain stimulation (EBS) of the
motor cortex during REM sleep to observe how it is incorporated into dreams. Electrodes
were implanted in the motor cortex of one man with the ability to induce lucid dreams (LDs).
Under polysomnographic (PSG) observation, the cortex was stimulated by an alternating
current during REM sleep, sleep paralysis (SP), and lucid dreams (LDs). The results show
that, within a certain current range, EBS did not wake the participant. Though he could not
recall specific motor stimulations in REM sleep, some irregular changes in dream plots were
observed. The most interesting results were observed during an LD in which it was possible to
intentionally observe an EBS-induced contraction, which interacted with a dream object. In
some cases, sensory feedback from the EBS of the motor cortex was perceived when the PSG
data showed REM sleep and muscle atonia. Though some of the results need further
confirmation, we discuss how the obtained data could present new horizons for controlling
dream scenes and inducing LDs.
Keywords: electrical brain stimulation, motor cortex, REM sleep, lucid dreams.
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
SLEEP PARALYSIS, AND LUCID DREAMS
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Electrical stimulation of the motor cortex during REM sleep, sleep paralysis, and lucid
dreams
Introduction
Though humans spend around one-third of their lives asleep, we know very little about
how dream worlds could be controlled by current technologies. As a result, there is still an
almost intact inner universe, and conquering it could enhance people’s lives and bring useful
experiences into dreams.
Since Aserinsky and Kleitman’s discovery of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, it has
been found that the most vivid dreams happen during this sleeping stage [1]. Though dreams
could be recalled after non-REM sleep [2], REM sleep should be the main component of
testing dream-controlling technologies.
In theory, most human sensory perceptions could be used to affect dreams, but all
known studies in this field provide partial and inconsistent results [3], [4]. Auditory signals
have been incorporated into dreams since the 1950s and 1960s [5], [6]. The first
somatosensory stimulation studies started around the same time using cold water, electricity,
lasers, etc. [5], [7]. Dement and Wolpert also were the first to test visual stimulation, which
still cannot provide high efficiency for incorporation into dreams [5], [8]. Since 1988,
scientists have tried to use olfactory stimuli to affect dreams, which seems promising because
it is now known that this sort of stimulation does not interrupt sleep [9]. Trotter et al. used
pleasant and unpleasant odors, whereas Schredl et al. tried to induce dreams about rural or
urban areas using relevant scents [10], [11]. Since 1996, vestibular sensations have been
tested for dream incorporation [12], [13]. A meta-analysis of 51 related studies demonstrates
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
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that sensory perception could affect dreams, but none of the included studies presented stable
and reliable results [4]. Obviously, the search for reliable dream control tools is ongoing.
Electrical brain stimulation (EBS) could be the most direct way to interact with human
perceptions and movements because dream movements involve activity in the same part of
the motor cortex as in wakefulness [14]. EBS, as a form of electrotherapy, is used to stimulate
a neuron or neural network in the brain through an electric current [15]–[17]. Though it is
known that deep-brain stimulation (DBS) during dreams may improve memory consolidation
[18], due to the complicity and danger associated with EBS/DBS, it has never been used on
humans for testing dream control methods.
There are non-invasive ways to interact with the human cortex that have not been
tested for controlling dreams but that could be used for this goal in theory. For example, since
1987, it has been demonstrated that transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) during REM
sleep triggers limb and postural muscles [19]–[23]. This means that TMS could affect dream
body movements. However, in 2020, it was shown that transcranial direct current stimulation
(tDCS) reduces dream movement and could be used for dream control [24], most previous
studies on this subject are controversial [25].
As studies show, TMS and tDCS during REM sleep encounter specific problems that
may also be related to EBS. First, these stimulations may affect movements or sensations that
are out of observation of a dreaming person. That is why they were measured only by
apparatus. As a result, there are no data showing how these stimulations are incorporated into
dream worlds because such data must be reported by research subjects. Second, even
experienced dreamers can recall only a fraction of their dreams. As a result, even successfully
integrated stimulations in dreams cannot be fully or partially recalled afterward.
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These problems with brain stimulations in REM sleep could be resolved by lucid
dreams (LDs). LDs are dreams in which a person maintains consciousness and can perform
predetermined actions [26]. The existence of LDs was confirmed in laboratories in the 1970s
and 1980s [27]–[29]. LDs almost exclusively happen during REM sleep [30]–[32].
Approximately 55% of people have had at least one LD [33]. This prevalence rate could be as
high as 88% [34] if other states involving consciousness during REM sleep—namely, sleep
paralysis (SP) [35], [36], out-of-body experiences [37]–[39], and false awakenings [40]—are
considered.
Though the nature of LDs remains unclear [41], their practical applications (which
often go beyond mere entertainment) in different areas have already been shown in many
studies [42]–[57]. Thus, LDs could be considered a viable tool for studying EBS in REM
sleep because they allow enough control to be maintained to observe what is happening at any
given moment.
Though it has already been theorized that tDCS and TMS could be used to control
LDs, this has not been done in practice [58]. Of course, the same is true of the more
complicated DBS. At the same time, the LD topic could benefit from EBS even more than
dreams. So far, many studies—mostly using electromyography (EMG)—have attempted to
detect people’s actions in LDs, such as eye movements, muscle twitches, breathing, emotional
expressions, and speech [27], [28], [59], [60]. Electroencephalography (EEG) can also detect
actions in LDs and can be used as a brain-computer interface [61], [62]. To control or affect
LD perceptions or space, scientists tried to send sound, light, and voice signals [59], [63]–
[66]. As all these previous studies had apparent inconsistencies and limitations, EBS could be
a novice and direct approach to this goal.
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The primary hypothesis of the present study is that movements induced by EBS can be
incorporated into dream scenes without leading to awakening. As the triggered by EBS
movements in dreams may not have sensory feedback like in wakefulness, they might not be
observed if they happen outside of the dreamers’ attention. LDs were chosen to solve the
problem because they allow the deliberate observation of the target muscle in REM sleep.
EBS was chosen over TMS and tDCS because it is a more fundamental way to check the
hypothesis and provides precise control over a target cortex region. The results could
contribute to a wide range of topics. First, they could help uncover new perspectives in
controlling and inducing dreams and LDs. They could also enhance the current knowledge
about the brain, motor cortex, EBS, REM sleep, and EBS in REM sleep.
Methods
Resources and participants
To conduct the study, the researchers needed to find persons with electrodes already
implanted in their brains due to medical reasons. Those electrodes needed to be on the
specific cortex region, and the person had to agree to participate in a risky experiment.
Additionally, they should have been able to induce LDs. As those conditions were rare, one of
the authors (with over 20 years of LD practice) volunteered to participate and agreed to
temporarily insert electrodes into his head. Though the Declaration of Helsinki does not
comment on the ethics of self-experimentation [67], the author’s direct participation in the
study as a subject could affect its reliability. However, it was the only option. The study was
conducted under laboratory conditions, and most of the results were objectively measured by
polysomnographic (PSG) observation.
Apparatus and implants
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PSG data were recorded using Encephalan-EEGR-19/26. It had one EEG channel (Fpz
and A2 positions from a 10–20 system, 0.7–70 Hz band-pass filter), two electrooculography
(EOG) channels (0.7–70 Hz band-pass filter), and two EMG channels on the chin and
sometimes on left forearm (16–70 Hz band-pass filter). A 50-Hz notch filter was used for all
PSG channels.
Custom electrodes made of bioinert platinum, silicon, and a polymer (Image 1) were
implanted under local anesthesia over the part of the motor cortex responsible for the middle,
ring, and little finger extensors of the left hand (Image 2). The same custom electrical system
was used to stimulate the brain cortex during implantation and the study (Image 3). The
(single or multiple) electrical impulses were made by an alternating current with 1000 Hz
(200 to 600 ms long and from 4.5 to 6 mA).
Image 1. Custom electrodes made of platinum, silicon, and a polymer.
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
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Image 2. Implanted electrodes over the motor cortex responsible for the middle, ring, and little finger
extensors of the left hand.
Image 3. Connected to the electrical system electrodes (black and red on the top) and PSG system on
the participant.
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Experimental task
To test the hypotheses, the researchers needed to stimulate the motor cortex during
different periods of REM sleep, LDs, and SP (if possible). For REM sleep, the participant was
either left asleep or awakened after impulses so he could report the dreaming events. For LDs
and SP, the participant was instructed to confirm the states according to the gold standard LD
verification procedure [27], [28], [68] by making pre-agreed left-right-left eye signals. These
EOG marks on the PSG could be counted during REM sleep with its primary features in the
form of muscle atonia and theta rhythm [69], [70].
Regarding feedback to stimulation, the participant was trained to send EMG signals
via the left forearm each time he felt stimulations. If this was impossible due to specific
dream scenes or other unexpected reasons, the feedback could be sent via EOG (similar to LD
confirmation). EBS in an LD and SP could be made by random single or paired stimulations,
and the participant was trained to give the relevant amount of feedback. After each LD or SP,
the participant needed to verbally report its details.
Results
EBS in wakefulness
During EBS in wakefulness, the participant experienced an unclenching of the fingers
with a sensory sensation close to twitches or spasms (starting from 3.5 mA). The more mA
were set for stimulation, the greater the movements and their sensory feedback.
EBS in REM sleep
EBS was performed during around 15 REM sleep stages (tonic and phasic) by single
stimulations or long series lasting up to two minutes (Image 4). These EBSs did not cause any
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
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apparent damage to the participant. Importantly, EBS in REM sleep triggered awakening only
a few times out of hundreds of stimulations. Probably, the more mA were deployed, the
greater the chance of awakening. At least three times—mostly at the initial stages of the
study—EBS changed dream plots to be related to the experiment scenes. In one case when the
participant was forcibly awakened after a short EBS series, he recalled a dream plot related to
EBS. At the same time, the participant could not recall either finger movements or spasmic
sensations during dreams with EBS even after being awakened right after the stimulations.
Image 4. EBS artifacts during tonic REM sleep.
EBS in LDs
The implantation of electrodes significantly affected the participant’s quality of sleep
and ability to induce LDs; after surgery, it appeared impossible to use the most convenient
body positions for sleep. Despite this problem, the participant induced three LDs during the
study but EBS was performed only in two of them.
During the first LD, which was unintentional and started when the participant became
conscious while dreaming during intensive EBS (upon each phasic REM sleep), the
participant did not send the pre-agreed eye signals because there were no goals to induce an
LD (general EBS during REM sleep was tested). Using the left hand, the participant took an
object (a toothbrush) but could not keep it in the hand because it fell out very quickly, which
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
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had never happened to LD objects before in his practice. LD was confirmed only verbally but
during that period of sleep EBS was performed on each phasic REM sleep. It means that EBS
should coincide with the reported LD because eye movements in LDs happen naturally
(Image 5).
Image 5. One of EBS artifacts during phasic REM sleep that could coincide with an LD and an
abnormal left hand behavior observed consciously. According to the verbal report, the hand EMG was active
before and after EBS (taking a dream object and its retaking after spontaneous loosing).
During the second LD, which was induced after a short awakening, the participant
initially had no vision but could feel the spasmic sensations caused by EBS and was able to
send the right amount of EMG feedback each time. Despite having a physical nature, the
sensations did not cancel the LD/REM sleep-induction process (Image 6). When the
participant’s vision finally appeared in that LD and sensations became stable, the spasmic
sensations disappeared when EBS was still ongoing (Image 7). Due to a mistake, EBS was
canceled to early (after two more stimulations), and the participant could not observe its
effects during that LD anymore.
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Image 6. Pre-agreed eye signals on EOG confirming LD, EBS artifacts on all the channels, and pre-
agreed EMG signals by the left hand (bold and high amplitude impulses on the hand EMG) confirming EBS
spasmic feedback.
Image 7. EBS artifacts in LD on all the channels and disappearing pre-agreed EMG signals by the left
hand (bold and high amplitude impulses on hand EMG) confirming spasmic feedback, which is apparent only
after the first EBS.
EBS in SP
At least three times, all upon awakenings, the participant experienced fake spasmic
sensations related to EBS, which could be explained by residual mechanisms of REM sleep.
In one case, it was possible to perform EBS during SP (Image 8). The participant could not
feel or see his finger movements but could clearly perceive spasmic sensations and send the
ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX DURING REM SLEEP,
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pre-agreed EOG feedback after each stimulation (due to paralyzed sensations, he decided to
use EOG over EMG).
Image 8. Pre-agreed eye signals on EOG and EBS on all the channels artifacts during SP.
Discussion
To explore new boundaries in controlling dream worlds, the researchers implanted
electrodes over the participant’s motor cortex and then performed EBS during REM sleep,
LDs, and SP. The results revealed new data about REM sleep, the motor and somatosensory
cortexes, and muscle atonia during REM sleep. With further development, similar approaches
may provide effective and reliable ways to incorporate actions and objects into dream scenes.
Hypothesis confirmation
The main hypothesis of the current study suggested that EBS movements can be
incorporated into dream scenes without awakening. Though the obtained data could be
regarded as preliminary due to the small sample, hundreds of EBSs were made during REM
sleep without exhibiting an apparent correlation with awakenings. By subjective observation,
EBS increases the chances of awakening from REM sleep, especially with higher mA;
however, at around 5 mA, this effect did not play any significant role, and EBS could be
safely deployed. This threshold could vary from person to person. An EBS movement
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incorporated into an LD space was observed, but more data are needed to clarify this effect.
Because motor EBS in REM sleep did not involve sensory feedback, as suggested before the
study, constant attention must be given to the target muscle in LDs to notice the effect, or the
target muscle must be strongly involved in ordinary scenes or actions. For the same reason,
the EBS of the motor cortex in REM sleep could be invisible in most dreams.
It is not clear how EBS affects dreams in REM sleep if its target muscle or sensation
cannot be felt by the dreaming person. In a few dreams with EBS, the dreaming plots were
affected, and it was once confirmed immediately after awakening. Nevertheless, these data
should be considered with caution. Dreaming events are correlated with people’s thoughts and
events before falling asleep [71]. This means that dream scenes related to EBS could happen
either way. That is, EBS may influence dreams either directly by affecting dream sensations
or movements and indirectly through memory processing.
Alongside the main study, the sensory threshold of motor EBS during LDs and SP is
an interesting finding. As LDs and SP happen almost exclusively in REM sleep, most of the
obtained data related to LDs and SP could be valid to REM sleep. When EBS in a stable REM
sleep state did not have sensory feedback, it was clearly observed and confirmed in SP and
initial LD stages, which was induced after a short awakening. During EBSs with sensory
feedback, the chin EMG demonstrated the same level of muscle atonia as in a profound REM
stage. This observation suggests that muscle atonia in REM sleep does not fully correlate with
sensory deprivation adherent to REM sleep. It is highly possible that the sensory feedback of
motor EBS could not observed in every SP case. Perhaps it happens only when SP is close to
ending or just starting. If this is true, it should be valid for LD and REM sleep in general.
Interestingly, in one case when an LD was induced after a short awakening and EBS
started during the process, the sensory feedback did not affect LD induction; it did not lead to
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awakening and simply disappeared as the LD deepened. This effect contradicted the
expectations. Whether it was a coincidence or an actual effect needs to be confirmed by future
studies with more data.
EBS perspectives for controlling dreams
This study demonstrated that EBS-induced incorporations in dreams could have a
perceptional impact only when these sensations or actions are within the attention area of a
dreaming person. Thus, finger EBS-induced movements had almost no impact on dreams
because they are mostly beyond the dreamer’s attention and there is no sensory feedback
similar to wakefulness with which they can be noticed. This hypothesis limits the amount of
EBS incorporations that can be observed in dreams.
Despite this limitation, subsequent incorporations are theoretically possible in dreams
because they should be observed even unconsciously in dreams for most sensory
incorporations (sensations of body part movements, swaying and other vestibular sensations,
tingling, warmth and cold, suffocation, shock, noises and sounds, phosphenes, other visual
perceptions and hallucinations, etc.), many emotional incorporations (happiness, anger,
anxiety, fear, sadness, etc.), some motor incorporations (body and eye movements, speech
arrest, other verbal effects, crying, chewing, etc.), some autonomic incorporations (breathing,
apnea, etc.), and some cognitive incorporations (“déjà vu,” reliving past experiences,
paraphasia, recalling memories, etc.) [15]. These stimulations could encompass a massive part
of dream plots.
EBS perspectives for LDs
Contrary to EBS in REM dreams, EBS in LDs may have fewer limits because people
may pay deliberate attention to stimulations that are beyond the realm of general observation.
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The biggest difference is related to motor stimulations, most of which could be observed in
LDs. This situation brings more opportunities to control space in LDs than in normal dreams.
It is even more interesting to consider opportunities to induce LDs via EBS. In theory,
this could lead to reliable tools to induce consciousness in dreams without awakening. As the
present study demonstrated, many EBSs could be performed in REM sleep. If these
incorporations could be introduced into the field of general dream attention, they could
become direct signals of the dreaming process. If a person was trained to properly interpret
them, it would help them become conscious while dreaming. For example, phosphenes,
emotions, levitation, and many other sensory perceptions could become signs of dreaming.
They would be triggered via EBS until a person understands what is happening. In theory,
EBSs of the brain cortexes responsible for some cognitive effect could directly arouse
consciousness during REM sleep, thus converting it into an LD.
Limitations
The present study has three basic limitations that should be addressed by future
researchers. First, though it will be challenging to organize similar studies, the authors should
not participate in them. This particular study could not have been conducted any other way
because it was too difficult to find a person with implanted electrodes who could induce LDs.
Second, this study was conducted on only one person. This small sample may significantly
affect the results. Third, many more dream incorporations should be observed in REM sleep
and LDs to produce more solid conclusions.
Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Studies
The present study demonstrated the possibility of the EBS of the motor cortex during
REM sleep and appeared relatively safe in terms of health and sleep quality. Preliminarily,
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EBS may directly and indirectly affect dream plots, which have significant potential use in
future studies and technologies. It was also found that sensory feedback of motor cortex
stimulation could manifest itself during the initial or final stages of REM sleep despite muscle
atonia.
Future studies may reveal more useful information simply by using a larger sample.
They could focus on sensory cortex stimulation and other more diverse EBS effects, which
may be completely different during REM sleep, LDs, and SP. The issue with sensory
feedback should also be addressed in future studies. It is highly probable that non-invasive
TMS could produce similar effects as EBS in REM sleep and LDs. At the same time, DBS in
REM sleep could have a much more profound effect. Future studies on these topics may
significantly improve the overall understanding of REM sleep and the brain in general.
Acknowledgments
The authors have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with
any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers’
bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest;
expert testimony; or patent-licensing arrangements) or non-financial interest (such as personal
or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge, or beliefs) in the subject matter or
materials discussed in this manuscript.
The authors thank Ruben Medzhlumyan, Vitaly Markevich, Mike Langford, Rinat
Muslimov, and Alexander Ivanov for supporting the study.
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