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A Theoretical and Metatheoretical Reframing of the Development of Cognitive Processing and Learning

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The literature on cognitive processing and strategic processing is murky with regard to how these types of processing influence learning. One reason for this is that the frameworks used to investigate these relations have separately focused on different aspects related to cognitive processing with little integration between them. To address these issues, we discuss why this may have happened, and the obstacles to integrating multiple models, and give three exemplars of how integrated models can help untangle the relations between cognitive processing and learning. Specifically, we highlight the Model of Domain Learning, Self-regulated Learning, and Approaches to Learning. Our goal in developing these integrations is to provide researchers with a more complex, dynamic way to evaluate the role of cognition in learning.
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
A Theoretical and Metatheoretical Reframing of the Development of Cognitive Processing
and Learning
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Author Note
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:
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Abstract
'%))5%%5%
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%%))
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*))-))-
)

A Theoretical and Metatheoretical Reframing of the Development of
Cognitive Processing and Learning
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%);)%C)5%5%*
5%>)%%;)
)?D%)@A%);
%-%)
%+)?D0%)@A%55%
)%66>6%;))
?D %)@56)?D.@
Why the Current Theoretical Status Quo in the Cognitive Processing Literature
Needs to be Addressed
C5%6%-E-%
)55%%%
4%%66%)5%%
/

!%)%)%%
%%%)4>%6
))5);)%5%
*;)%56)%%%
))%%
))%F6G)56
(55%F6G%*
)>)%H<)5
)6%%I5%%%%%
;) /%;%65
)?,3@%%B
5%)%5?%@
5%5?B%@(5;%
%%%B)%5
)>%J)6K6!K!)%5
6;%'%56)%%5
%)%%5%%5%%
J))5%%%%
566%)'%%5
%6)%)>
)>)
"%6%%%;
5%%6%5%%
.

)5%%C5%%
%%%))))%%
)546%6%);5%
%6%
)%%%%)*%%%
%))%6))%)%%65%
)%)8566%))%5%
%)%%%55%%6
%))'%55%%%
5%)56%556%);
%)%5
Student Approaches to Learning
%)%)%%6
5$%=%?$203A
'20/202@%%5-)56
%?23@=)%%%%6%5
)6%<&)))%56
)%%%;%5%?
F6IGA%22@!)?<2 /A2 .A
'2 @8<8LI)%)6%%
);!-))%)
)?230@%5-)?2306@'%%)
)%%?
0

)MA))M)@4%<8LI?230A2306@
%%%)56%
=6%?,.@%8=))%?8=A
<N8LI21/@%6%55%
%I%%6%%%23,
21,&5)))<8LI!%
)%)))%6
;?&5N21 @'%5%%
55%665
!))%?5
%A232@%-))!)
?N&521@'%;<N8IO5
%6!);%)%%)
'%)5%%%)%
)%)5)%))%(%6%
65-)P5%%5
;?,3@
C55%)%8=))%
)%6)
%5'%%%!
))5;;)+))
%))%)4%%%)
5%%)5
3

%?(,.@5%%?
(, @?7%N,,@%?
,@8)+))%%)
5%%6)5%
6-)?=NI6,3@'%
%%5))%
'%)%%66%<
?=;223A,,/@'%)5
%5)%%6;)C
%;))6;)'%)='O-
)?@)%)?
))%)))%@)66%%
'%)5;)6
))O)%)?N=;,@
5%-)<)5%5
6)?,A%22/@
%6)4%%66))%
)!))
)))%'%))%56
5%%<O))%))%

1

The Model of Domain Learning
=;!?=;223A,, A,,/AN,1@<
B%5%)P)
%%%)6%
)5%%)
%);)=%%%6%P5
5%
'%%<6%-?)>
)55-)6AN
=;,0@)-?)>)5
)6-)6AN=;,0@
C)%5)6%%%
5?;)%-
5%)-A@'%)%)-
B6%%%55%%
%%%)?8%222@
2



!=;?,,.@#5%)
4%%<))5%%)))P
)P%%5%)%
-)%-)-
)-=;%%)%)
?=;,,/@%%)%6
)?NQ,1@%%
%);65-)6%<-
P5%%5;
Self-regulated Learning
"%%-?8@)66%
8%6%5%%
)6)%)%%)P%
5%%55)%6B?,3@8
,

%)%>)%Q8%!?,,@
4(5!?221@%)%
?@4%%)67!-%?
7210@%)6)))%?8
231@4%%5%5;)8)
)%%%<6?210@%5%
5%%6%5%%4(5!"&8
%)
'%"&8?))@?
@)5%'%%
4%)%"&8B?
)@'%-8<='?%
6%@%)
)?N=>,,3@'%)%)%
? %A6);@


Figure 2
"#$%&
%%"&86%%6I%
?N=>,,3@'%6I%)%
)%?@%?
@%6P%P%
%%'%%"&8;)


5%4(5F5
BG?)1@=>?,,3@%%%%)5%
%F'%%%5%
)%)%8G?) 3@
'%"&8%5%%%-
8)%%)%>%?
;@)P5%%B
%%%%
%%%
?5,,2@
C%"&86%-)
)%5%65%%
?@%%%(5%"&8
-))65))?@=
55%=>%5%%"&8%
F4%%5;%G?) //@
Where Does this Leave the Field?
'>%%P)%P5%
%%;))%
);)'%)B
)8=%55%%5
%5)H%<%5%%
)5)P)P%

5;))H=%"&8
%5!)B?)
%@%)8?)@
)HC5%%)
))%%5%%%%
)%6$8=%%<-
)"&8-=
%<;-)%%"&8;
%-%%8=)P
%;%%

'%%B5%%%5)6%%5
5%)%5
6%B6)!
))%5;)4%5%7;
)!?213@%F&56G?)
/3/@'%?5
%@%%)5
6%)%55%-
%%55%
75%5555%5%%6
)%C%55%)%
%H4%%%)6)55I%
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%F)G%%
%8);
5%%65)%))=%
%5%%)%5%65%
%'%5565%
%5;))%;
5%)5%5%
%)56%%
'%6%6)%
5%%)%%5%
;%%55%%)%)
%56%)%%%6)
%)56>%%)P7;)
P%%)%
%5=55%(%!?23.@
)%65%))6%%F'%65%
%6%%))%%)55%%G?).. @
%%%%%5%6%%
%%))>%
8%-5%
)%)6%%
)5%I)%%=%
56%%6>%)
.

<)65%5%I5%))%
5%%);%%%%5)
B6)%)%5)
%6)%6
%5)656%(5
5%;!%%
)%H"%%%%55)
%%)5B)C%6
%%))5))%
%%5%I))
The Importance of Attending to Metatheoretical Assumptions
'%%6P5PB%);
%%6%
%>%)'%?5)
6-6@%)'%))
6%%5)%5%C
;%B%%%5%
;%C%5))%FG%
56%5%%%%%66
5
Metatheoretical Assumptions
%%%56
%%)%%
0

;)7%)5
%)%"
%F5%G?(56,@5%)%
5I6?8),/@C%5%
%)%%6)5%5%%
65%%%C)%%
%)%;)%%
)5%(5%%)%
6;)5%%%!)
%%;%;
'%%%P%5%)%5)
5%)5%5%)5%%%
%)%<%
)))5%
--)8=%%
)%"&8%-
%'%%%
;)5%%5%)?
=NI6,3A,3@")%;%
%%%)%%
%-)%)5%%%<%5
5%%5)5%%;
;)%-
3

)5%;)))-
)'%)>>%5%6)%
8%5%)%)5%%%)
5'%"&8;%%
8=%)6;%%)5?
NR,1AN&521@'%<%;)
%I;)%5%%6-
?,1@=B)6%%;%
%65%%?-)
)-)@65%%%)
'%5%55%)'%%
%)%%<)
"&88=)-5;)
)%%%%
)-%%6;-6-H
Cognitive Processing Fused Model Exemplars – Future Directions for Research
&5%B5)%66%
7))56%5%
)%)=5;)
))%%
C%55%%%%?%<8=
"&8@%5%)%6%5%%
)%%%6%%)66'%5
1

%%%5;)%P8=%<5
%6%
MDL-SAL to Examine how Coursework can Help Develop Expertise in Academic Domains
'%%65%<?<@
8=))%?8=@46%%566
P)P%
;%55%I%C
P%#8)P%)%6)
%))%5)'%%
%);)%%)
?%<@%;%55%)!
))
Foregrounding Key Variables
=)%%5B5%
%))%%<%)-E-
)%5%B5))P
-)-)P%)%B;)
'%<))%)
%)%);)4%%)B
%I)%C%5
5%B5%));)
)%
2

8=%%%%)%5)
%;)))%6)-)P
)-
Attending to their Metatheoretical Assumptions
4%56))%5%
56)%<!I;)!)
)8=!%)%6;%%
6)
7%%%))?%<@%
)%%5%%6?=N
I6,38=,1%<@'%%6
5%%6%)
)%%%%5%6%
6'%%%
%))%'%)
)%<%-?%5%
@5%8=%6%--?%
@'%)%5%
?;)@%)B
5%)6%%)%
)'%%%B%5
%6'%%6%)B6
%%5%%5%%5%
,

6B'%%B6%5%%%
55%65-6I?8=@-+
?%<@'%%%)56%%
%%%)6%%%5%
75%%)
%<%C%>%%
))%6%%P5%%65
%<)6))-)5%
)58=%%)%
%)%65%%)-))
%%))))%
;C)6%%)
66%P%566

%%6%%%5%%
-)%?8<'@'%<-%
))68=%5%%
;)%%
?B-@%?-6@
C)-;
));)%%%

Promises of an MDL-SAL Fused Model


%%%%5%B
%>%5%55)%HC
)%%%)%56%
)%5)%%6%
)%%<%
;8=
4%5%<%)%%)
;)%)5%%))5
B55%6%);)6%6%
%%<C%55%%%;
%%);)5%%
6B55%6);)%
%%%%%<)
%'%)) 5%55=;!)
%)%;)%5--
)%%))5%%%<!)
)5


Figure 3
%'(
C%5%%<P)
%;-;%B%-;(5)
%)%)6%)%
%5)%-)%46%
%%)%!)--)5I
5%%5%)*?
%@%<
!6)-)5%%%
%)))'%%
%%5%%%
55%)%)
%66%<8LI5)

;6%5;)%B)
?<,,@
'5%))6%I
) )I4%%<6%))%
;))55%56;)'%5
%6%;-;FG%5))
%)%)C%5
%%)%%)-)
5%%<6%)%;);)6
)%6)5%%;))
)'%56%)-
))%
"%%%5%;))-
;)%5%%%?@P%)
)-)%
8%%6)?
@)%
))'%65%)%
)%)-)%5%%%
));)%65%)%
)5%C%555>!
I%56IP%%P
)%6IB6'%;
/

)%%5%5%%)6
)
Fusing the MDL, COPES, and SAL
4%%6;)<8=6)
%%%)%5
;)%%5)6%%5

Foregrounding Key Variables
%;%-E-
)6%6%5%%
%4%%6%)%%6
6)%6%B;))
5=%;)5%%<8=55
5%%%6%"&85%%)-
68='%5=>!?,3@6
6%5)%%"&8
5I;)-)
%5%%%)?)@
)%6=;?,,/@6%5)%
%;)?))@
Attending to and Leveraging their Metatheoretical Assumptions
'%5%%)"&8%<8=%
);?%<@?"&8@5%
.

%6)%%?)-
8=@C%55%-%5)-
%6HC)%%5B
%'%)%
)5%%B)-
-%5%%#>6%6-?
,,@)-))%?)AN8%,,@
56B'%56I%%%)6
)%%<8D
)
Promises of a COPES, MDL, SAL Integrated Model
'%)%%6%;)
%5)66)-
6%%);)C%56%
P)%P5%;%
5%%65)%)5
6)%4%5%
%<8=%6%
%"&85%% 56B
'%)!)%%))%
BI%%-<
55%)6%<6)%
%5?5@6%%8=
0

Concluding Thoughts
")%5%%6%%%
6%%%%"%%
%%%56%%)%5%%%6
;)55;)%%%"&8
56%6%%55%C)%
%)5%%5>%?'N
<5,3@(556%%%P5%%
6%%%)66%)5
6P56))56%)%
%%%%)'%%
%%%-&%)%%
%%%%'%B%
%)%%5
%&%
85%=%5%
6)%5%)
%%%%%%);)
%5%)6%)))
%%5%5%)%%
5)%-I%I5%
%5%)'%%B5%
%B%%54
3

%%55;)%5%%5
C%)%%)%?%@)
%6%6%))%%%%
%%55%%
%6565
1

References
=;=?223@<))%*'%)
C<<%N%?&@
?R,)) P.,@5%*9=C
=;=?,, @'%);)*'%I
)SS)*?1@,-/
%)*+++, ,+,, 12T, ,,1,,
=;=?,,/@=*);)
)SCUN986?&@+
+,(
?))3 -21@5&6=
=;=%8N(?221@=))%*
))S-S./?@2-./
%)*+++,, +=*,1..,220
=(NI6?,3@)5)))%
H=5%)!)
))%%%S
-S*0?@,.- /%)*+++,,,3+,0/1-,3-2/,0-0
7=?210@,
(
7;&N)$?213@S'9%
4N8
2

7%9N8?,,@S'%5
=8';S+123?0@S//3-
/32S%)*+++,,1,+,0 1. ,2, /,20,
CN%8?23@)*=5
%S4556S..?0@03-01/
%)*+++,,0+8,,-. 3?3@1,,,-T
?,3@'5)
-+*0?@+ .-01%)*+++,,,3+,0/1-,3-
2/,3-.
N=;=?,@=)
)*4%%5%;
)-+*2?/@/22-.03
%)*+++,,,3+,0/1-,-221-3
N=;=?,0@=)-
-)4+72?@+ -//
%)*+++,,1,+,,,23 ,/2320
NQ7?,1@'%65
)64
+77?@2.-3!%)*+++,+6I)33
(N=?,1@=-)
%<C(N?&@8
,9?)) 3-..@!
&5$9N?21 @9!(
,

(N?&@?,1@8,9

9=N?,,@R6-))%SC
N<<?&@#:
?)) /.- 0,@
N8%=?,,@-))%;)!
)CN<<?&@
#:?)) 0- 3@
4=N$?,@'%)%
&D%-8D-%9)*%;-';'*<
4647*?/@
./2P.0 %)*+++,+I,//-132,,,/.;
NR9?,1@))%*'
64
77?@P/%)*+++,+6I)02
&-9%7N<8?,@'%6
;)%)6*5S4
S./2?/@,2/-,1S%)*+++,, 3+,,1 12
9=N=>?,,3@='%54(5!<
8-*$5)-
-33? @ /P 3%)*+++, ,+,, /0./ , , 2.

(=;=N)8<?, @5%5
;*4%%%6)5S-
-%)*+++, ,+,, /0./ /1/31
(9?,.@'%))66%%
8+.?@32-2%)*+++,, 3+,,,,,
(%?23.@=)))%*'%)S
6S.?/@./1-.0,%)*+++,33+,/0033.,,,,/,
(56'?,@C&$Q?&@'%8)
)%)%?,/@8=*8#
%)*++)+%+,/++-+
54(N9V$?,,2@C)
V%SS*0?@-.
<&N%<?22@'%6I%6
S8-S)3?@0-00%)*++555I+6+,32,3,
<N8LIW?230@"B*C")
64+2=?@/-S%)*+++,+I,//-
1322306,21,;
<N8LIW?2306@"BXCC
%O)%642=
.P3%)*+++,+I,//-1322306, ,/;
<8LIW?21/@=))%C<9(N$9
&5?&@8?)) 0-..@8%=

<67?210@'%%--S%
S..?/@ /- %)*+++,,0+, 0-/30T?10@2,,1-3
<<'<9N8%5?,,@&;)%5
);)*=;%
S%S)>?/@2-/
%)*+++,,0+I)%,,2,,
<?2 /@=;)%5);*C'%
%;S4+*>?2@0/P
00S%)*+++,, 3+%,,3 ,
<?2 .@=;)%5);*CC<%
S4+*=?@ ,P
/,S%)*+++,, 3+%,,.,1.
$#?203@%=))--
&?,3@=5-*8;
%S</S%)*+++, 12+),3,,/
<759N8%4?212@)*4%
%5)S(4-S.)?1@
1.3-103%)*+++,,0+,11 -, ..?12@2,,02-/
?232@8))%S#
S7?/@/-/3%)*+++,,,3+7,01,.2
N&5$9?21@&)!
))%64S>.? @ 01- 1 
%)*+++,+I,//-132216,/2 ;

%9'&?,.@=))%*4%<
8LIW?230@8H'%%4%W6)%
23,(P %)*+++,,,3+,31,-,.-2.-2
%9'&?22/@)))%%%*=
#*3//2P/01%)*+++,,,3+7, 1/2,/
8%#?222@C;S-S)? @.3-32
8(=?231@C-)%%)6C4&
?&@#:?))3P2.@&6
8)<?,/@&)C&$Q?&@'%8))%)%
?8),/@8=*8#
%)*++)+%+),/++)+
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... Theories of achievement motivation, or of students' academic motivation more specifically, are the primary target of the articles in this collection. However, several of the articles also consider theories of instruction (Hornstra et al., 2023;Fryer & Leenknecht, 2023;Martin, 2023;Noetel et al., 2023), and one article focuses on models of students' cognitive processing of learning materials (Dinsmore et al., 2023). Elliot and Sommet (2023) use Elliot's hierarchical model to integrate constructs of achievement motivation. ...
... Finally, beyond the motivation domain, Dinsmore et al. (2023) address three models of cognitive processing of learning materials: Marton and Säljö's (1984) approaches to learning model that explains surface and deep processing as responses to different tasks and assessments; Alexander's (1997Alexander's ( , 2003 model of domain learning that explains them as a function of stages in developing proficiency; and Winne and Hadwin's (1998) model of self-regulated learning. Dinsmore et al. discuss how the three approaches could be integrated by simultaneously attending to different functional relations, time spans, and developmental mechanisms of cognitive processing, and they present a "fused" model that integrates assumptions from the approaches to learning and domain learning models. ...
... If integrative models combine subsets of original theories, then generating these models can even multiply the overall number of models. For example, if we consider nine different theories (as in Skinner's, 2023, Table 1, list of prominent theories) and each attempt to combine some of these theories includes three of them (as in the framework by Dinsmore et al., 2023), then there are 84 possible combinatory models. Obviously, such a situation would be prone to increase rather than reduce complexity and confusion. ...
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Theories in motivation science, and in psychological science more generally, are in a state of fragmentation that impedes development of a robust body of knowledge. Furthermore, fragmentation hinders communication among scientists, with practitioners, and with policymakers and the public. Theoretical integration is needed to overcome this situation. In this commentary, I first provide an overview of the integrative frameworks presented in this collection of articles. Based on this overview, I discuss if and when we should integrate theories. Several non-trivial conditions need to be met for integration, including convergence of phenomena, constructs, and theoretical propositions. Next, I address strategies for integration, including rules for merging constructs and ways to integrate propositions. I also discuss how the generation of integrative frameworks, if not successfully enacted, can paradoxically lead to further proliferation rather than a reduction of theories. In contrast, successful integration reduces redundancy and simplifies the conceptual space used to describe, explain, or predict a set of phenomena. Successful integration may require not only theoretical work but also empirical validation, strategic efforts in the scientific community, and change of institutional policies. In conclusion, I argue that within-discipline integration alone is not sufficient to overcome the current theoretical stagnation in the field. Attention to advances in neighboring disciplines, formalization of models of motivation, and theoretical differentiation to consider the specificity of constructs, populations, and contexts are needed as well.
... As the conceptual framework of SRL helps "understand the cognitive, motivational, and emotional aspects of learning" (Panadero, 2017, p. 1), it also provides a good foundation for exploring self-regulation factors that are likely to be associated with individual differences in students' use of learning strategies. Regarding learning strategy use, at the outset we emphasize that consistent with major models of self-regulation (e.g., Winne & Hadwin's, 1998 COPES model), our present focus is on learning strategies that are considered applicable across a range of academic domains (Dinsmore et al., 2023). The present focus is not to imply, however, that domain-specific learning strategies do not exist and are not useful for students (Hattie et al., 1996). ...
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Being an effective learner is an important pillar supporting success in higher education and beyond. This research aimed to uncover the extent to which undergraduate students use a set of commonly researched learning strategies, as well as to understand how learning strategy usage relates to key self-regulation factors proposed in influential models of self-regulated learning. Undergraduate students from New Zealand (N = 140) were recruited through course management systems, social media, and campus posters. Data were analysed using correlation and multiple regression. Results show that students reported using more learning strategies that are relatively effective than learning strategies that are somewhat less effective. In addition, effort regulation and student engagement were the most consistent predictors of both learning strategy use and self-reported academic achievement. Building on these findings, this research provides important new insights into the associations between learning strategy usage and pivotal factors that support effective self-regulated learning and academic achievement. As we highlight in the article, these insights have key implications for advancing theory and research on self-regulated learning.
... The second paper by Dinsmore et al. (2023) brings three models for explaining student learning to the forefront. It seeks to establish a Venn diagram of what the Model of Domain Learning, self-regulated learning, and approaches to learning share. ...
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This special issue was motivated by the realization that student motivation is inherently complex and no single framework can capture it in its full richness. However, the current zeitgeist in educational psychology seems to explicitly discourage attempts at integration as researchers are incentivized to stay within their own theoretical camps. In this special issue, we asked seven research teams to revisit their theoretical assumptions and cross-fertilize their own theories with other frameworks. We also invited three distinguished luminaries to critique and comment on this undertaking. We highlighted key issues that prevent cross-fertilization of ideas across theoretical borders, surfaced potential dangers associated with naïve integration, and proffered future directions that could nudge motivation science towards a more cumulative and integrative approach.
... Different theories focus on different aspects of the classroom. Dinsmore et al. (2023) in fact show how different theory frames may offer elements that can well be practically synthesized in teacher instruction. ...
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The ideal of theoretical integration in motivational approaches to education is worthy, but in this commentary, I raise some (semi)contrarian concerns about both the meaning of theoretical integration and how that occurs. Integration is more than an aggregation or combination of measures but rather involves synthesis into a framework with theoretic and meta-theoretic integrity. Across disciplines and fields of inquiry, the development of science largely happens within theories and at their boundaries. Integration in practice (e.g., interventions) raises different issues, mainly concerning the coordination of elements that may address different classroom issues, and therefore can stem from multiple models and theories. I also describe the common direction and progress of motivational psychology over the past several decades, albeit with some “jingle –jangle” trends muddying our conceptual waters. Yet contrary to the view that it is our multiple perspectives that confuse teachers, I argue that confusion more centrally lies in the wide gap between our generally student-centered theories and public policies and institutional norms that hinder their implementation and their integration into practice.
... While educational researchers contrast deep learning with shallow or surface learning (Marton and Säljö, 1976), experimental psychology has focused on constructs such as fast and slow information processing systems (Kahneman, 2011). Critical of the advancement in our understanding of cognitive processing, building on the two-dimensional deep-surface model Dinsmore et al. (2023) have postulated a more dynamic model taking into account self-regulation and one's ability to control engagement, and the nature of the learning environment. How memory is encoded is contemplated by cognitive psychologists, for example Craik's level of processing theory predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last (Craik and Lockhart, 1972;Craik and Tulving, 1975). ...
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Amid the constant change in higher education, a clear-eyed focus on the mission of higher education to support student learning is critical. Supporting student success, in turn, needs to emphasise rigorous evidence about what matters most for facilitating high-quality learning. With the science of learning, an emerging interdisciplinary field, as the study foundation, a series of 20 interviews was conducted with senior academics with research expertize in higher education and learning sciences. Interviews focused on principles for effective learning in the 21st century and relevance of science of learning research and literature to these principles. Using inductive and deductive thematic analysis across six iterative phases, seven key themes critical to contemporary higher education learning emerged, from which the higher education learning principles were developed. The principles provide a powerful tool to guide effective university teaching at an individual, organisation and policy level.
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In this commentary, I explore the contributions of the articles in this special issue from the vantage point of a theorist, researcher, and educator invested in student learning and academic development. First, I consider how these writings differentiate on the basis of the means authors applied to achieve the special issue goal of dismantling theoretical siloes and forwarding alternative models that strengthen the construct strains that exist in the educational psychology literature. Second, I position the articles in this special issue along a motivation-nonmotivation continuum, which describes the emphasis authors placed on motivation constructs and theories. Finally, I bring my ideas about these thought-provoking articles back to my personal investment in student learning and achievement to question the viability of the new theoretical variants that the contributing scholars have proposed.
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Educational psychology usually focuses on explaining phenomena. As a result, researchers seldom explore how well their models predict the outcomes they care about using best-practice approaches to predictive statistics. In this paper, we focus less on explanation and more on prediction, showing how both are important for advancing the field. We apply predictive models to the role of teachers on student engagement, i.e. the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviours, that translate motivation into progress. We integrate the suggestions from four prominent motivational theories (self-determination theory, achievement goal theory, growth mindset theory, and transformational leadership theory), and aim to identify those most critical behaviours for predicting changes in students’ engagement in physical education. Students (N = 1324 all from year 7, 52% girls) from 17 low socio-economic status schools rated their teacher’s demonstration of 71 behaviours in the middle of the school year. We also assessed students’ engagement at the beginning and end of the year. We trained elastic-net regression models on 70% of the data and then assessed their predictive validity on the held-out data (30%). The models showed that teacher behaviours predicted 4.39% of the variance in students’ change in engagement. Some behaviours that were most consistently associated with a positive change in engagement were being good role models (β = 0.046), taking interest in students’ lives outside of class (β = 0.033), and allowing students to make choices (β = 0.029). The influential behaviours did not neatly fit within any single motivational theory. These findings support arguments for integrating different theoretical approaches, and suggest practitioners may want to consider multiple theories when designing interventions. More generally, we argue that researchers in educational psychology should more frequently test how well their models not just explain, but predict the outcomes they care about.
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Educational psychology usually focuses on explaining phenomena. As a result, researchers seldom explore how well their models predict the outcomes they care about using best-practice approaches to predictive statistics. In this paper, we focus less on explanation and more on prediction, showing how both are important for advancing the field. We apply predictive models to the role of teachers on student engagement: the thoughts, attitudes, and behaviours that translate motivation into progress. We integrate the suggestions from four prominent motivational theories, and aim to identify those most critical behaviours for predicting changes in students’ engagement in physical education. Students (N = 1,324 all from Year 7, 52% girls) from 17 low socio-economic status schools rated their teacher’s demonstration of 71 behaviours in the middle of the school year. We also assessed students’ engagement at the beginning and end of the year. We trained elastic-net regression models on 70% of the data and then assessed their predictive validity on the held-out data (30%). The models showed that teacher behaviours predicted 4.39% of the variance in students’ change in engagement. Some behaviours that were most consistently associated with a positive change in engagement were being good role models (β = 0.046), taking interest in students’ lives outside of class (β = 0.033), and allowing students to make choices (β = 0.029). The influential behaviours did not neatly fit within any single motivational theory. These findings support arguments for integrating different theoretical approaches, and suggest practitioners may want to consider multiple theories when designing interventions. More generally, we argue that researchers in educational psychology should more frequently test how well their models not just explain, but predict the outcomes they care about.
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Background: Contemporary models of student learning within higher education are often inclusive of processing and regulation strategies. Considerable research has examined their use over time and their (person-centred) convergence. The longitudinal stability/variability of learning strategy use, however, is poorly understood, but essential to supporting student learning across university experiences. Aims: Develop and test a person-centred longitudinal model of learning strategies across the first-year university experience. Methods: Japanese university students (n = 933) completed surveys (deep and surface approaches to learning; self, external, and lack of regulation) at the beginning and end of their first year. Following invariance and cross-sectional tests, latent profile transition analysis (LPTA) was undertaken. Results: Initial difference testing supported small but significant differences for self-/external regulation. Fit indices supported a four-group model, consistent across both measurement points. These subgroups were labelled Low Quality (low deep approaches and self-regulation), Low Quantity (low strategy use generally), Average (moderate strategy use), and High Quantity (intense use of all strategies) strategies. The stability of these groups ranged from stable to variable: Average (93% stayers), Low Quality (90% stayers), High Quantity (72% stayers), and Low Quantity (40% stayers). The three largest transitions presented joint shifts in processing/regulation strategy preference across the year, from adaptive to maladaptive and vice versa. Conclusions: Person-centred longitudinal findings presented patterns of learning transitions that different students experience during their first year at university. Stability/variability of students' strategy use was linked to the nature of initial subgroup membership. Findings also indicated strong connections between processing and regulation strategy changes across first-year university experiences. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
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Self-regulated learning (SRL) includes the cognitive, metacognitive, behavioral, motivational, and emotional/affective aspects of learning. It is, therefore, an extraordinary umbrella under which a considerable number of variables that influence learning (e.g., self-efficacy, volition, cognitive strategies) are studied within a comprehensive and holistic approach. For that reason, SRL has become one of the most important areas of research within educational psychology. In this paper, six models of SRL are analyzed and compared; that is, Zimmerman; Boekaerts; Winne and Hadwin; Pintrich; Efklides; and Hadwin, Järvelä and Miller. First, each model is explored in detail in the following aspects: (a) history and development, (b) description of the model (including the model figures), (c) empirical support, and (d) instruments constructed based on the model. Then, the models are compared in a number of aspects: (a) citations, (b) phases and subprocesses, (c) how they conceptualize (meta)cognition, motivation and emotion, (d) top–down/bottom–up, (e) automaticity, and (f) context. In the discussion, the empirical evidence from the existing SRL meta-analyses is examined and implications for education are extracted. Further, four future lines of research are proposed. The review reaches two main conclusions. First, the SRL models form an integrative and coherent framework from which to conduct research and on which students can be taught to be more strategic and successful. Second, based on the available meta-analytic evidence, there are differential effects of SRL models in light of differences in students’ developmental stages or educational levels. Thus, scholars and teachers need to start applying these differential effects of the SRL models and theories to enhance students’ learning and SRL skills.
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While the empirical literature on strategic processing is vast, understanding how and why certain strategies work for certain learners is far from clear. The purpose of this review is to systematically examine the theoretical and empirical literature on strategic process to parse out current conceptual and methodological progress to inform new conceptual and methodological approaches to investigating strategic processing. From a PsycINFO search from 2011 to 2016, a pool of 134 studies was tabled with regard to key conceptual and methodological characteristics along with salient findings. These conceptual and methodological findings were then synthesized to examine how development, three aspects of strategic processing, and personal and environmental factors explained the relation between strategic processing and performance in academic domains. Three major findings emerged: less is known empirically about the developmental nature of strategic processing; quality and conditional use explain performance more consistently than simply frequency of strategy use; and, numerous person and environmental factors shape the degree to which certain strategies are effective for certain learners. A framework for future research based on these three findings is presented.
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The focus of the present paper is on the contribution of the research in the student approaches to learning tradition. Several studies in this field have started from the assumption that students’ approaches to learning develop towards more deep approaches to learning in higher education. This paper reports on a systematic review of longitudinal research on how students’ approaches to learning develop during higher education. A total of 43 studies were included in the review. The results give an unclear picture of the development of approaches to learning and, thus, do not provide clear empirical evidence for the assumption that students develop towards more deep approaches during higher education. Neither methodological nor conceptual aspects of the studies investigated explained the ambiguity of the research results. Both theoretical and empirical implications for further research are discussed.
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This systematic literature review examined the research on prior knowledge and its activation to ascertain how these terms are defined, what specific techniques have been empirically investigated, and the conditions under which prior knowledge activation facilitated students’ comprehension. Fifty-four articles met the inclusion criteria and revealed that the terms prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation were often vaguely defined. Further, 30 unique techniques for activating readers’ prior knowledge representing eight different categories were identified. Those categories were open-ended prompts, procedural or strategic supports during reading, visual representations, analogical reasoning, text alteration, augmented activation, extratextual activities, and spontaneous activation. Techniques meant to facilitate knowledge activation prior to reading were most common, although the prompting of students’ existing knowledge was beneficial during and after reading as well. Variability in the effectiveness of activation techniques was related, in part, to the amount, accuracy, and specificity of students’ knowledge. Based on the key findings identified in this review, recommendations for future inquiry are forwarded, including suggested definitions of prior knowledge and prior knowledge activation.
Chapter
The present chapter will present what is, as yet, a very small niche within the strategic processing research literature: the (potential) role of person-centered analyses for strategic processing research. This chapter is organised into three sections. The first aims to situate person-centered quantitative research methodologies within the plethora of analytical approaches that are commonly pursued. Section two takes the reader through key person-centered research that has been undertaken, establishing the current state of the field and how it might continue to develop. The final section of this chapter makes a case for person-centered analytical approaches as a viable means of relating and integrating some of our processing strategy theories into a more comprehensive picture of how individual differences and the environment interact across a learners’ knowledge, skills and motivation-beliefs development.
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Background: This investigation was designed to uncover the relations between students' cognitive and metacognitive strategies used during a complex climate simulation. While cognitive strategy use during science inquiry has been studied, the factors related to this strategy use, such as concurrent metacognition, prior knowledge, and prior interest, have not been investigated in a multidimensional fashion. Aims: This study addressed current issues in strategy research by examining not only how metacognitive, surface-level, and deep-level strategies influence performance, but also how these strategies related to each other during a contextually relevant science simulation. Sample: The sample for this study consisted of 70 undergraduates from a mid-sized Southeastern university in the United States. These participants were recruited from both physical and life science (e.g., biology) and education majors to obtain a sample with variance in terms of their prior knowledge, interest, and strategy use. Methods: Participants completed measures of prior knowledge and interest about global climate change. Then, they were asked to engage in an online climate simulator for up to 30 min while thinking aloud. Finally, participants were asked to answer three outcome questions about global climate change. Results: Results indicated a poor fit for the statistical model of the frequency and level of processing predicting performance. However, a statistical model that independently examined the influence of metacognitive monitoring and control of cognitive strategies showed a very strong relation between the metacognitive and cognitive strategies. Finally, smallest space analysis results provided evidence that strategy use may be better captured in a multidimensional fashion, particularly with attention paid towards the combination of strategies employed. Conclusions: Conclusions drawn from the evidence point to the need for more dynamic, multidimensional models of strategic processing that account for the patterns of optimal and non-optimal strategy use. Additionally, analyses that can capture these complex patterns need to be further explored.