Content uploaded by Antonio Muñoz Herrera
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Antonio Muñoz Herrera on Jun 19, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
Images, Perceptions
and Productions
in and of Antiquity
Images, Perceptions
and Productions
in and of Antiquity
Editor: Maria Helena Trindade Lopes
Co-editor: André Patrício
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER ONE: ANCIENT EGYPT
Ancient Egypt: An Overview ..................................................................... 2
Maria Helena Trindade Lopes
SECTION 1. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN STUDIES
The Presence of the Lithic Industry in Wadi C2 at West Thebes ............. 20
Juan Candelas Fisac
Statues with a Falcon on the King’s Back in the Old Kingdom.
Some Semiotic Readings .......................................................................... 37
Francisco L. Borrego Gallardo
On the Beginning of Monumental Stone Building in Ancient Egyptian
Provincial Temples ................................................................................... 52
Arkadiy E. Demidchik
A Brand-New Cult in a Traditional People: What is the Role of “Antiquity”
During the Amarna Age? .......................................................................... 62
Valentina Santini
When the Producer is the Product: The Demiurge’s Self-Genesis in the
Egyptian New Kingdom’s Religious Hymns (ca. 1539–1077 BC) .......... 74
Guilherme Borges Pires
The Embracing Mountain: The Latest Research in the Royal Cachette
wadi, Luxor West Bank .......................................................................... 100
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
Table of Contents
vi
An Approach to the Ancient Egyptian Social Imaginary: The Figure
of the Dog as Guardian and Shepherd .................................................... 115
Beatriz Jiménez Meroño
On the Egyptian Diplomatic Ties with the Aegean During the Reign
of Necho II (610–595 BC) ...................................................................... 130
Ronaldo G. Gurgel Pereira
CHAPTER II: ANCIENT NEAR AND THE MIDDLE EAST
The Mesopotamian Civilisation: An Overview ...................................... 138
Isabel Gomes de Almeida and Maria de Fátima Rosa
SECTION 1. ANCIENT NEAR AND MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES
The Divine Feminine in Mesopotamia: The Rosette/Star and the Reed
Bundle Symbols in Early Diyala’s Glyptic (c. 3100–2600 BC) ............. 156
Vera Gonçalves and Isabel Gomes de Almeida
Building Identities in the Neo-Assyrian Period ...................................... 178
Beatriz Catarina Tralhão Freitas
SECTION 2. PHOENICIAN STUDY
Changing Perspectives on the Phoenician Presence in the Mediterranean:
Past, Present, and Future ......................................................................... 190
Francisco B. Gomes, Elisa de Sousa and Ana Margarida Arruda
CHAPTER III: CLASSICAL WORLD
Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome: An Overview ................................. 202
Leonor Santa Bárbara
SECTION 1. ROMAN AND GREEK STUDIES
Cicero’s Personal Omens: Pater Patriae and Electus Diuorum ............. 212
Rúben de Castro
Caesar and the Ocean ............................................................................. 223
Adrien Coignoux
Images, Perceptions and Productions in and of Antiquity
vii
Pan-Mediterranean Dressel 2–4 Wine Amphorae in Rome and Ostia
During the Middle Imperial Age (2nd–early 3rd Century AD):
Reflections Derived from the Ceramic Contexts at the “Terme
di Elagabalo” in Rome ............................................................................ 233
Edoardo Radaelli
Sparta, Thera, Cyrene. Myth and Cult of Theras, the Founder
of a Lacedaemonian Colony ................................................................... 248
Kerasia A. Stratiki
CHAPTER IV: THE RECEPTION OF ANTIQUITY
Reception of Antiquity ........................................................................... 260
Maria Helena Trindade Lopes, Isabel Gomes de Almeida
and Maria de Fátima Rosa
SECTION 1. ANCIENT EGYPT RECEPTION STUDIES
Mummies and Moonlight at Karnak. On José-Maria de Heredia’s
Egyptianising Poem ................................................................................ 276
Åke Engsheden
The Café Oriental: Egypt in Portugal at the Beginning of the XXth
Century ................................................................................................... 289
André Patrício and Marcus Carvalho Pinto
SECTION 2. CLASSICAL RECEPTION STUDIES
Ciceronian Portraits in Oliveira Martins and António Roma Torres ...... 306
João Paulo Simões Valério
The Reception of Classical Myths in Alciato’s Emblemata:
An Inspiring Contribution to Portuguese Modern Art? .......................... 316
Filipa Araújo
SECTION 3. BIBLICAL RECEPTION STUDY
Reception of the Biblical and Eastern Antiquity in Early Modern Records:
Travellers and Pilgrims from Portugal to the Holy Land (16th–17th
centuries) ................................................................................................ 334
Carolina Subtil Pereira
CONTRIBUTORS ....................................................................................... 347
CHAPTER ONE
ANCIENT EGYPT
SECTION 1.
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN STUDIES
THE EMBRACING MOUNTAIN:
THE LATEST RESEARCH IN THE ROYAL
CACHETTE WADI, LUXOR WEST BANK
JOSÉ RAMÓN PÉREZ-ACCINO PICATOSTE1
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID
INMACULADA VIVAS SAINZ2
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE EDUCACIÓN A DISTANCIA
ANTONIO MUÑOZ HERRERA3
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID
Abstract
Since 2017, the joint Spanish-Egyptian Royal Cache wadi Survey Project
has undertaken an exploration of the wadi containing TT 320. The aim of
this project is to gain an understanding of the place beyond its position as a
hiding location for the Royal Cachette tomb. The results of the project so
far show the wadi as a structured site with symbolic elements such as
worship areas and landscape images represented in graffiti.
Such a new scenario breaks away from the traditional view of the site as a
place to locate a tomb by hiding it and shows a path of interpretation aiming
at the symbolic role of the area. Therefore, this research project reinforces
the use of landscape analysis as a social and cultural construction for a better
understanding of important archaeological sites. We will try to explain the
concept of “space appropriation”, particularly the process of reciprocity
between an ancient sacred place and human activity. This phenomenon is
well exemplified in the high concentration of graffiti in the Royal Cachette
wadi, which points to a significant relation between graffiti and landscape.
1 Address all correspondence to: jrpaccin@ucm.es
2 Address all correspondence to: ivivas@geo.uned.es
3 Address all correspondence to: anfranmunoz@gmail.com
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
101
Keywords: Landscape; graffiti; tradition; memory; symbol
Introduction
The C2 Project is a Spanish-Egyptian mission, directed by José-R. Pérez-
Accino (Universidad Complutense, Madrid) and Hisham Elleythi (CEDAE,
Ministry of Antiquities, Egypt), currently working at the Royal Cache wadi,
which is immediately south of Deir el-Bahari Bay in Luxor West Bank. The
project has carried out two campaigns so far, in 2017 and 2019, aimed at
surveying the graffiti in the mountain and attempting to identify and
understand the human activity carried out there in antiquity.
The site has seen previous interventions: the Royal Cachette (TT 320) was
probably founded around 1871 by the Abd el-Rassoul brothers, and then
explored and emptied in 1881 by Emile Brugsch and Ahmed Kamal.
Subsequent relevant archaeological actions were carried out by Lansing
(1920), who made an extensive archaeological intervention of the whole
wadi, and Graefe and Belova (2010), who focused on the cachette itself.
The only other traces of human activity in the wadi so far are the graffiti,
which has been surveyed by Spiegelberg (1921), Cerny (1956), and Cerny
and Sadek (1974).
Geography of the site
From a geographical point of view, the wadi seems one of the most relevant
sites in the West Bank in Luxor. It was the scene of one of the most
spectacular discoveries in the history of archaeology at a world level: the
1881 discovery of the royal mummies cachette.4 The site is located in the
centre of the necropolis, just behind Sheikh Abd el Qurna hill and close to
Deir el Bahari bay. Moreover, from a mobility perspective, the wadi is one
of the most important spots within the necropolis because it has one of the
three paths leading forward to the Valley of the Kings (Pimpaud 2014)
(there is one in Dra Abu el-Naga and another in Deir el-Medina). It is
significant that, while this wadi is the only area of the necropolis with only
one tomb, it is surrounded by Middle Kingdom tombs. It is remarkable to
point out that most of the Middle Kingdom tombs from Sheikh Abd el-
Qurna are directly oriented to this wadi. There is another tomb near TT 320,
4 The Royal Cachette was discovered by the Abd el-Rassoul family ca. 1871 and by
Brugsch and Kamal in 1881. Maspero wrote the first publication in 1889.
The Embracing Mountain
102
tomb MMA 11035 (Winlock 1942, 32–33), whose owner is unknown but
who was apparently an essential individual because of the tomb’s features;
this tomb is located in the south wall, close to the path running in front of
the wadi.
From a physical perspective, the wadi has interesting features. It is almost a
perfect square formation, oriented in the south-east (SE) direction. It
conforms to a symmetrical formation in the middle of the necropolis, with
two big natural walls (or arms) emerging from the mountain.
Geologically, it gives some clues about the activity in the wadi. There is a
mass of natural debris (talus) that has accumulated at both sides of the wadi
(N and S). In addition, there is also the accumulation of loose ground at the
NE end, which seems to be not of natural origins but rather the product of
recent human activity. The flattening of this area was a consequence of
Lansing’s actions in 1920.6 Furthermore, there are further remains of their
activity. It is possible to know, thanks to the reports, that Lansing ordered
the excavation of parallel trenches along the north and south walls of the
place in his search for a grave. These can still be seen today and they
probably modified the archaeological stratigraphy of the wadi. However,
we already know that, perhaps in many areas of the site, Lansing never
reached to the archaeological surface because the trenches were made in the
natural debris over the archaeological horizon, so possible remains of
human activity in antiquity might be waiting there.
Landscape archaeology analysis of the site
In every space human civilization has inhabited there is a relation between
real life and its metaphysic and idealised conception (Hirsch 1995, 3). It is
essential to take the concept of “landscape” as a symbolic construction, a
reference system, including different activities that have a sense within a
community (Daniels and Cosgrove 2000, 1). As Thomas (2001, 173) argues,
“Landscape is a network of related places, which have gradually been
revealed through people’s habitual activities and interactions, through the
closeness and affinity that they have developed for some locations and
through the important events, festivities, calamities [...] causing them to be
remembered or incorporated into stories”. The place is a relational concept
5 Plan of the tomb in Kurz 1973, V, p. 196
6 The C2 Project had access to the Metropolitan Museum Archive and can confirm,
through old photographs of the January 1920 campaign, the activity carried out by
Lansing and the flattening of debris during his excavation.
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
103
because it contains events and specific locations which people expect to
find. It is not a place by itself, but the place of something (Heidegger 1962,
136).
Figure 1: Landscape creating an akhet view at C2 wadi.
© C2 Royal Caché Project.
From this symbolic point of view, the wadi is significant due to its natural
features. Landscape plays here a role, working with the perspective to create
the view of an akhet from different points, especially when you look from
the cult area found by this team in the SW corner of the wadi towards
Karnak temple (Fig. 1). At some point in the year, the sun would only rise
in this position creating the feeling of a real akhet. Moreover, this visibility,
which is an essential tool in landscape archaeology (Stevens 2016; Yoffee
2007; David and Thomas 2016), allows us to identify some aspects of the
site. From the upper level of the wadi, it is possible to have a panoramic
view of the whole necropolis (from Dra Abu el-Naga to Deir el-Medina)
and, furthermore, there is a perfect view of Karnak and the entire procession
path leading to Deir el-Bahari complexes. The flat area of the north wall of
the wadi might be an advantageous point to watch the Beautiful Festival of
the Valley7 procession, or other essential festivities carried out in the
7 For more information about the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, see Bietak 2013
and Rummel 2013.
The Embracing Mountain
104
necropolis or even in the East Bank (Fig. 2). As it will be shown in this
paper later, some important graffiti are located in this upper level of the
wadi.
Figure 2: View from the upper level.
© C2 Royal Caché Project.
Graffiti and areas of activity
In the lower ground, there are two important areas of graffiti concentration.
Both are relevant because they are directly associated with archaeological
findings of the project. The SE corner of the wadi contains one of the most
important examples of graffiti in the area—a graffito by Butehamun
containing a prayer,8 which was noted by Spiegelberg (1921, 75–76). It is
spatially associated with a niche, clearly human-made, and very rough
offering table found in it, which led us to conclude that it is a possible cult
area (Fig. 3).
8 Grafitti no. 914 in Kurz 1973, II, 4
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
105
Figure 1: Niche and offering table found in the SW corner
© C2 Royal Caché Project.
Two new graffiti were identified by this project in the last two campaigns.
Both are located near TT 320, in the N corner of the wadi. Rzepka (2004)
found a graffito, near the entrance of the cachette’s shaft, which mentioned
the royal name Nubkheperre Intef within two cartouches. In 2017, the C2
Project found another graffito in the vicinity (8001) at the same significant
height from the actual ground (4m.). Another relevant graffito (8002) was
found in the north wall of the wadi. The two new graffiti are currently under
study.
Graffito 8001
During the 2017 campaign, a new graffito was discovered at the right side
of the entrance of the cachette TT 320. The high position of graffito 8001 is
unusual when compared with the other present in the area and, together with
the one containing the Antef (Rzepka 2004), they form a symmetrical
“entrance” to the recess where the shaft of the cachette opens.
The Embracing Mountain
106
Figure 4: Graffito 8001, general view.
© C2 Royal Caché Project.
The surface of the graffito partially presents a scene within a rectangular
frame/tablet (approximate dimensions 60 cm wide, 75 cm high) (Fig. 4). A
well-proportioned feminine human figure is represented in the middle of the
composition, standing and facing left. The lower part of her body is clearly
outlined, and her rounded limbs, legs, and belly are noteworthy. The left
arm is depicted in an extended, and somewhat loose way and the right arm
seems to be bent and close to the body. There is a head represented but it
does not seem to be very proportioned, as it is bigger than expected and
possibly does not correspond to the original with its big eye and voluminous
hair (perhaps a wig). The lady might be wearing a long garment as a thin
line is depicted on the right side of her body. The figure seems to be standing
between two slopes—the one on the right drawn with more detail and
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
107
including a possible representation of an entrance. The slope on the left is
represented by a straight line with a circular shape on the ground.
Figure 5: TT 219, Deir el-Medina, Detail of the image of shadow
with a circular shape.
© Inmaculada Vivas
The circular shape placed next to the right leg of the lady is an unusual
element. Only a few examples in New Kingdom art show a similar
iconography. It is reproduced in vignettes of Spell 92 from the Book of the
Dead, where it was identified as a black or netherworld sun connected with
the concept of the shadow (Lekov 2010, 53). The closest parallels are in two
Ramesside tombs, TT 219 (Fig. 5) and TT 290, where a black disk is
represented on the ground in connection with a tomb. The black disk is only
associated with the figure of a man (shadow?), so they must be linked and
The Embracing Mountain
108
have their meaning in the repertoire of Egyptian artists (Leskov 2010, 53).
In our opinion, the rounded object in graffito 8001 depicted by the image of
a lady might also be tentatively identified as a tomb shaft.
A tentative date of the graffito could be inferred on stylistic grounds. As
mentioned before, the composition of a human figure with a black disk and
a tomb entrance has parallels in Ramesside tombs. The style and canon of
the feminine figure in graffito 8001 mainly resemble XVIII Dynasty
representations, and even some Amarna and post-Amarna images. Furthermore,
the specific pose of the woman with a bent arm is attested to in statues. It
seems to be a New Kingdom innovation, representing a significant departure
from the static poses of earlier female statues (Russmann 2006, 39). This
stylistic feature could suggest a date no earlier than the XVIII Dynasty.
Due to the lack of associated texts, the identification of the lady in graffito
8001 is difficult, but its location just at the entrance of the Royal Cachette
points to a connection with the tomb. The former owner of TT 320 is
disputed, but it could have belonged to a royal woman, maybe Queen Inhapi
of the XVII Dynasty. However, more recently, Ahmes-Nofretari has been
suggested as a possible original owner of TT 320 (Aston 2013 and 2015).
The representations of Ahmes-Nofretari are numerous.
Graffito 8002
In the N wall of the wadi, a detailed figurative graffito in the form of a
rounded topped stela was found during the 2017 campaign (Fig. 6). It is
located at 1.45m above ground, which could be considered eye-level in
present times. However, the original ground level is difficult to determine
due to the debris in the area. The shape of the rounded upper part suggests
it tries to imitate a stela, a feature also attested to in graffito 8001 and
common to many others in the wadi. The surface of this graffito (no. 8002)
has significant natural concretions, and some parts are not clearly visible. It
seems to present a complex scene. On the right, there is a pyramid, including
a depiction of a pyramidion and possibly a doorway. To the left of the
pyramid and in the main axis of the scene, a human figure is shown with
only the head clearly visible. On the left part of the composition, there is a
higher pointed pyramid-shaped form, which is quite elongated. The human
figure consists of a male head with short hair and an insignia on his
forehead, probably an uraeus. The head is surrounded by an oval shape,
which is mostly eroded. This kind of composition of a human figure in front
of a pyramid is extremely rare in Egyptian art. This schematic rendering of
an uraeus is attested to on several graffiti in the temple of Khonsu in Karnak
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
109
Figure 6: Graffito 8002.
© C2 Royal Caché Project.
which could be good parallels, especially the Karnak graffito no. 327 with
a king’s head facing right with an uraeus (Jacquet-Gordon 2003, 110). The
royal head as a motif for graffiti is attested to in other regions, but which is
not exceptional in the New Kingdom necropolis of Saqqara. For instance,
in the tomb of Ptahemwia, similar heads were found, while the tomb of
The Embracing Mountain
110
Horemheb contains the complete figure of a standing king (Martin 1989,
159, Gr. 15, pl. 149.), as well as the graffito found in the tomb of Ptahmose
at Saqqara (Staring 2010, 152).
A Parallel from Giza
The scenes shown in graffiti 8001 and 8002 are unusual in this context, but
a parallel for no. 8002 is attested to in a small stela found in Giza in the
excavations in 1936–37 (Fig.7), possibly dated to the New Kingdom
(Hassan 1943, 62). The front part of the stela is divided into two registers;
the lower one with two men standing with their hands raised in an adoration
pose. The upper register shows an interesting scene with a sphinx with a
small statue standing in front of it, and two pyramids in the background
depicted in a very unusual way according to the rules of modern perspective.
According to Hassan, it would be a unique representation in ancient
Egyptian art of the pyramids not shown complete (as it is usually according
to Egyptian conventions). This view can be perceived by any person
standing on the roof of the Khafra temple and looking NW. This factor
seems to connect both scenes, the stela from Giza and graffito 8002. In the
last, the scene represented could also be interpreted as a realistic rendering
of the landscape. This graffito seems to represent a realistic view of the
surrounding landscape, with a tomb with a pyramid and its pyramidion on
the right, a peak pyramid-shaped on the left, and a royal head in between
them. This arrangement can be connected with the view from the location
of the graffito 8002 towards the Theban mountain, in which TT320 can be
seen to the right, the mountain of El-Qorn to the left, and a monumental
rock figure in the form of a human head. This figure is located in the area
where the niche, the offering table and the graffito with a prayer by
Butehamun is located in the SW corner of the wadi, thereby configuring a
cult area there.
The back of the Giza stela shows a woman standing and looking to the right,
wearing a long and transparent dress. As this side is uninscribed, we cannot
establish for sure if she is connected with the two men on the front of the
stela, or if she is a later addition reused (Hassan 1943, 63, Fig. 54).
Surprisingly, the pose and proportions of the woman are nearly identical to
the lady depicted in graffito 8001 found in the C2 wadi but, on the graffito,
she is looking left and in a symmetrical position.
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
111
Figure 7: Stela found in Giza (Hassan 1953), Front (left) and back (right).
© Hassan, Selim. (1953) The Great Sphinz and its secrets.
Historical studies in the light of recent excavations, Figures 53-54.
There is not any sign in the feminine figure indicating a royal connection.
However, the close distance between it and TT 320, a royal tomb, may
indicate the lady depicted has some relation to the tomb in particular or the
place in general. Many of the textual graffiti found in the wadi relate to
scribes; therefore, they may represent men who may have come to the site
with a ritual purpose or maybe commissioned by a higher authority. Women
are not explicitly mentioned or represented in the corpus of graffiti and,
although the lady does not include any royal insignia, the unique features of
this depiction within the corpus of the graffiti attested in wadi C2 points to
a significant woman. Furthermore, the doorway represented on the right hill
could be identified as a tomb entrance, bearing in mind the context of the
graffito near the so-called Royal Cachette. The presence of a rounded object,
tentatively identified with a tomb shaft, could be a further connection with
funerary symbolism.
The Embracing Mountain
112
As to graffito 8002, the presence of a royal emblem on the head of the figure
suggests that a king or a royal symbol is represented. Leaving aside the
potential historical connections of both graffiti in relation to TT320 and the
function of the wadi, the scenes depicted on them deserve further attention.
The authors of these figurative depictions, probably draughtsmen or artists
with a trained hand, seemed to follow a realistic approach, which is quite
similar to a modern perspective. Both scenes are unique within the corpus
of graffiti (and not only Theban) and may be understood as an innovative
way of representing a landscape.
References
Aston, David. 2015. ‘TT 358, TT 320 and KV39. Three early eighteenth
Dynasty Queens Tombs in the Vicinity of Deir-el-Bahari’, Polish
Archaeology in the Mediterranean: 15-42.
Aston, David. 2013. TT 320 and the q3y of Queen Inhapi: A reconsideration
based on ceramic evidence. Göttinger Miszellen, 236: 7–20.
Bietak, Manfred. 2013. ‘La Belle Fête de la Vallée: l’Asasif revisité’. In
Christiane Zivie-Coque and Ivan. Guermeur (eds), Parcourir L’Éternité.
Hommages à Jean Yoyotte, Turnhout: Brepols: 135-164.
Cerny, Jaroslav. 1956. Graffiti hieroglyphiques et hieratiques de la
necropole thebaine. Nos. 1060 a 1405. Le Caire.
Cerny, Jaroslav. & Sadek, Abdel Aziz. (1974) Graffiti de la Montaigne
Thebaine. Cairo.
Daniels, Stephen. and Cosgrove, Denis. 2000. Introduction: Iconography
and Landscape. In Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (eds), The
Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation,
Design and Use of Past Environments: 1–11. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
David, Bruno. and Thomas, Julian. 2016. Handbook of landscape archaeology.
London: Routledge
Gitton, Michel. 1976, ‘La résiliation d’une fonction religieuse: Nouvelle
interprétation de la stèle de donation d’Ahmès Néfertary’, Bulletin de
l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 76: 65-89.
Graefe, Erhart. & Belova, Galina. 2010. The Royal Cache TT 320: a re-
examination. Cairo.
Hassan, Selim. 1943. Excavations at Gîza 4: 1932-1933. Cairo: Government
Press.
Hassan, Selim. 1953. The Great Sphinz and its secrets. Historical studies in
the light of recent excavations. Cairo: Government Press.
José Ramón Pérez-Accino Picatoste, Inmaculada Vivas Sainz
and Antonio Muñoz Herrera
113
Heidegger, Martin. 1962. Being and time. Translated by John Macquarrie
and Edward Robinson. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hirsch, Eric. 1995. ‘Introduction. Landscape: Between Place and Space’. In
Eric Hirsch and Michael O’Hanlon (eds), The Anthropology of
Landscape: Perspectives on Place and Space. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Jacquet-Gordon, Helen. 2003. Graffiti on the Khonsu Temple Roof.
Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications.
Kurz, Marcel. 1973. Graffiti de la Montagne Thébaine. Le Caire: Centre de
Documentation et D’Études sur l’ancienne Egypte.
Lekov, Teodor. 2010. ‘The Shadow of the Dead and its Representation’,
Journal of Egyptological Studies, III: 43-61.
Martin, Geoffrey. 1989. The Memphite Tomb of Horemheb, Commander-
in-Chief of Tutankhamun, I, London: Egypt Exploration Society.
Maspero, Gaston. 1889. Les momies royales de Deir el-Bahari. Le Caire.
Pimpaud, Alan. 2014. Archaeological map and atlas of Western Thebes. Le
Caire.
Rummel, Ute. 2013. ‘Gräber, Feste, Prozessionen: Der Ritualraum Theben-
West in der Ramessidenzeit’. Göttinger Orientforschungen 54: 207-23 2.
Russmann, Edna. 2006. ‘Art in transition: The Rise of the Eighteenth
Dynasty and the Emergence of the Thutmoside Style in Sculpture and
Relief’, in Catharine Roehrig, Renee Dreyfus, Cathleen Keller (eds),
Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Publications: 23-44.
Rzepka, Slawomir. 2004. “Graffiti of Nubkheperre Intef in Deir el Bahari”.
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo,
60, 149- 158.
Spiegelberg, Wilhelm. 1921. Ägyptische und andere Graffiti (Inschriften
und Zeichnungen) aus der Thebanischen Nekropolis. Text und Atlas.
Heidelberg.
Staring, Nico. 2010. ‘Interpreting figural graffiti: case studies from a
funerary context’, In Maarten Horn, Joost Kramer, Daniel Soliman, Nico
Staring, Carina van den Hoven, Lara Weiss, Current Research in
Egyptology 11: 145-156.
Stevens, Anna. 2016. ‘Visibility, private religion and the urban landscape
of Amarna’. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 30: 77-84.
Thomas, Elizabeth. 1966. The Royal Necropoleis of Thebes. Princeton.
Thomas, Julian. 2001. Archaeologies of Place and Landscape. In Ian
Hodder (ed.), Archaeological Theory Today: 165–86. Cambridge:
Polity.
Winlock, Herbert. 1942. Excavations at Deir el Bahari 1911-1931. New
York.
The Embracing Mountain
114
Yoffee, Norman. 2007. Peering into the Palimpsest. In Norman Yoffe (ed.),
Negotiating the Past in the Past. Identity, Memory, and Landscape in
Archaeological Research: 1–9. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
