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Multilingualism and Education
Against the backdrop of the critical importance of recognising the specificity of learning languages other than English (LOTEs) in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, this volume focuses on a state-of-the-art presentation of the research approaches and methods that characterise French as second language (L2) within contemporary SLA research. The presentation problematises those approaches and methods as a critique of what has been done, identifying a methodological roadmap of what needs to be done in order to advance the methodological agenda in L2 French and its contribution to wider SLA research. The discussion further aims to bridge the interface between methodological issues and the research investigation of a specific LOTE, French, such as in terms of its linguistic characterisation and developmental issues underpinning its acquisition. The analysis extends to approaches and methods across different theoretical paradigms in L2 French, in different areas of linguistic development, among learners in different learning contexts.
This article reports on a large-scale study investigating the overall perception of multilingualism in the family environment of children enrolled in an English immersion program in primary schools across Spain and the potential relationship between these attitudes and the student’s academic performance. One thousand and one families participated in the study, based on a tailored questionnaire that evaluated three main aspects: (1) parents’ and guardians’ ratings of their children’s language skills; (2) language practices in the home, especially with respect to time allocated to different languages and multilingual practices such as code-switching; and (3) attitudes and general perception of the benefits and drawbacks of multilingualism in socio-economic, cultural, cognitive and professional terms. The complex results from this questionnaire, in addition to providing a more accurate picture of the family environment of students enrolled in these programs, show some significant correlations with academic performance, which we discuss here, with some reference to their educational implications.
A central question in multilingualism research is how multiple languages interact. Most studies have focused on first (L1) and second language (L2) effects on a third language (L3), but a small number of studies dedicated to the opposite transfer direction have suggested stronger L3 influence on L2 than on L1 in postpuberty learners. In our study, we provide further support for stronger L3-to-L2 than L3-to-L1 influence and show that it extends to (a) phonetics and the lexicon and (b) childhood learners. Fifty Spanish–Basque–English trilingual adults who had acquired Spanish from birth and Basque between 2 to 4 years of age through immersion participated in a speeded trilingual switching task measuring production of voice onset time and lexical intrusions. Participants experienced more phonetic and lexical crosslinguistic influence from L3 English during L2-Basque production than during L1-Spanish production. These findings show that even highly proficient early bilinguals experience differential influence from a classroom-taught L3 to L1 and to L2.
In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), the design of a language policy at school level is not only bound up with the number of languages used for learning and the number of hours devoted to teaching those languages, but also with the fact that language becomes specialised in relation to the subject, which impacts on the methodology used. These are the reasons for both language teachers and subject teachers to work together in design and implementation; and for the teachers’ use of a translanguaging-based approach to language learning (San Isidro, 2018). Previous research has dealt with teachers’ opinions (Calvo & San Isidro, 2012; Coonan, 2007; Infante et al., 2009; Pladevall-Ballester, 2015) on the difficulties of curriculum integration and its effects on both the different languages of instruction and the learning of content; or on the difficulties of language and content integration. However, methodology-oriented research on teachers’ views and work in specific contexts is direly needed so as to gain a deep insight into the methodological commonalities that make CLIL what it is. Our qualitative study is focused on a two-year monitoring of teachers’ (N=6) views on CLIL implementation in a rural multilingual setting in Galicia. The teachers were monitored by means of interviews held between 2012 and 2014. After being trained, they took part in a CLIL project based on curriculum integration with two different groups of students. The findings reported showed that 1) teachers’ initial views on CLIL implementation turned more positive over the two years; 2) teachers believed that CLIL provides a very good framework for the development of pluriliteracies; 3) their views regarding content learning in CLIL turned more neutral in the course of the two years; and 4) teachers stressed the need for methodology-oriented training.
In this article the researchers analyze university students and teachers working in English‐medium instruction (EMI) settings in terms of the second language (L2) motivational self system (L2MSS) (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009) from a qualitative perspective through the use of focus groups. This qualitative approach yields personal and group information about the participants’ perceptions and opinions on L2MSS in EMI in a Spanish university setting. The researchers approach participants’ L2 motivation and selves in terms of valued personal and professional identities, which are defined, among other things, by proficiency in English. Similarly, the researchers discuss the interaction between the L2MSS and the constructs of identity, investment, imagined community, vulnerability, and immunity in the EMI context. The results indicate that the ideal self (i.e., the speaker's vision of him‐ or herself as a competent user of the L2) clearly prevails over the ought‐to self (i.e., other people's vision for the individual) in the case of the teachers, whereas both components are more balanced in the case of students. It should be noted that the EMI experience also interacts with both students’ and teachers’ L2 motivation.
This volume challenges traditional approaches to foreign language education and proposes to redefine them in our age of international migration and globalization. Foreign language classrooms are no longer populated by monolingual students, but increasingly by multilingual students with highly diverse language backgrounds. This necessitates a new understanding of foreign language learning and teaching. The volume brings together an international group of researchers of high caliber who specialize in third language acquisition, teaching English as an additional language, and multilingual education. In addition to topical overview articles on the multilingual policies pursued in Europe, Africa, North America, and Asia, as well as several contributions dealing with theoretical issues regarding multilingualism and plurilingualism, the volume also offers cutting edge case studies from multilingual acquisition research and foreign language classroom practice. Throughout the volume, multilingualism is interpreted as a valuable resource that can facilitate language education provided it is harnessed in appropriate conditions.
In Spain, more than 40%of the population lives in officially bilingual regions in which the minority language
is used as a means of instruction at school and university. In addition, the increasing importance
attached to learning English has led to the proliferation of multilingual school programs in which different
languages are used to teach content.With this background in mind, this article analyzes students’
motivation to learn Spanish, minority languages (Basque, Catalan, or Galician), and English (as the predominant
foreign language). Because the percentage of immigrant students has steadily increased in
the last 2 decades, special attention will also be paid to how they react to the multilingualism they have
to face in the education system. The review of the literature will critically discuss the impact of global
English on motivation to learn the other languages in contact and will examine the adequacy of current
research approaches with a view to developing an agenda for needed research.
This is an ambitious work, covering the whole breadth of the field from its theoretical underpinnings to research and teaching methodology. The Editors have managed to recruit a stellar panel of contributors, resulting in the kind of 'all you ever wanted to know about instructed SLA' collection that should be found on the shelves of every good library. " Zoltán Dörnyei, University of Nottingham, UK The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition is the first collection of state-of-the-art papers pertaining to Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA). Written by 45 world-renowned experts, the entries are full-length articles detailing pertinent issues with up-to-date references. Each chapter serves three purposes: (1) provide a review of current literature and discussions of cutting edge issues; (2) share the authors' understanding of, and approaches to, the issues; and (3) provide direct links between research and practice. In short, based on the chapters in this handbook, ISLA has attained a level of theoretical and methodological maturity that provides a solid foundation for future empirical and pedagogical discovery. This handbook is the ideal resource for researchers, graduate students, upper-level undergraduate students, teachers, and teacher-educators who are interested in second language learning and teaching.
Within the European strategy towards multilingualism, which has guided linguistic policies in recent years, ‘Languages for all!’ is the prevailing motto. This idea has been extremely well captured by one of the central planks in the strategy, the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach at primary and secondary educational levels, which has quickly become popular both top-down and bottom-up. CLIL has its natural continuation at university level, where the preferred term used is Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education (ICLHE). This chapter underlines the instrumental role played by such approaches in the promotion of internationalisation as a position and as a de facto situation. In doing so, it is argued, they are central in meeting the language demands of education, the preparation for mobility being part and parcel of them. CLIL and ICLHE can help students ‘learn to learn’ in multilingual academic settings, and perhaps eventually work in multilingual settings. And for those who do not get to travel, ‘internationalisation at home’ might be a foreseeable objective.
In this article, we establish direct links between language policy on the one hand and assessment in multilingual contexts on the other hand. We illustrate the bi-directional relationship with the examples of the USA, Canada, and the Basque Country. That comparison is placed in the context of the changing views about the use of languages in education where a shift can be observed away from an emphasis on separating languages to approaches that more closely suit daily practices of multilinguals. This concerns a shift from language isolation policies in language teaching and assessment towards more holistic approaches that consider language-as-resource and promote the use of the whole linguistic repertoire. However, the implementation of programs based on holistic approaches is limited and application in language assessment modest. Traditions and monolingual ideologies do not give way easily. We show some examples of creative new ways to develop multilingual competence and cross-lingual skills. The assessment of interventions with a multilingual focus point to a potential increase in learning outcomes. Multilingualism is a point of departure because in today's schools, students who speak different languages share the same class, while at the same time learning English (and other languages). We conclude that holistic approaches in language education policy and multilingual assessment need to substitute more traditional approaches.
The article gives a brief analytical survey of multilingualism practices, its consequences, its benefits in education and discussions on the appropriate ways towards its achievement in education. Multilingualism refers to speaking more than one language competently. Generally there are both the official and unofficial multilingualism practices. A brief survey on multilingualism practices outside Africa indicates that Canada, Belgium and Switzerland are officially declared multilingual countries. Likewise countries like South Africa, Nigeria and Kenya experience multilingualism in Africa. Multilingualism exhibits both the political and the linguistic consequences. The linguistic consequences include the development of a lingua franca, creation of mixed languages within a linguistic milieu, enhances cross cultural communication strategies and cross cultural communication skills. Benefits of multilingualism practices in education include the creation and appreciation of cultural awareness, adds academic and educational value, enhances creativity, adjustment in society and appreciation of local languages.
This study investigates the differential effects of two learning contexts, formal instruction (FI) and content and language
integrated learning (CLIL), on the written production skills of intermediate-level Catalan Spanish adolescent learners of
English as a foreign language. Written samples elicited through a composition at two data collection times over one academic
year were quantitatively and qualitatively assessed for complexity, accuracy, and fluency and for task fulfilment, organization,
grammar, and vocabulary, respectively. Based on the findings, the superiority of CLIL cannot be confirmed: although improvement
in the case of the FI + CLIL group is shown, results were only significant in the domain of accuracy.
This article analyzes diversity as related to different types of multilingual education. Diversity in education is linked to different factors that can be classified as linguistic (language distance, different scripts, etc.), sociolinguistic status (minority, official, international, immigrant, etc.) and educational (school subjects, medium of instruction, age of introduction, methodologies). Language practices can be an important part of the make-up of language diversity among multilingual speakers at a micro level. The paper discusses the Continua of Multilingual Education as a tool to classify and compare different types of multilingual schools all over the world as a more efficient way to deal with diversity in multilingual education than traditional typologies. The advantages of the new tool can be shown by applying it to the case of multilingual education in the Basque Country in Spain, where Basque, Spanish, English and sometimes French, are the languages used by different actors in the education system. The paper also deals with diversity as linked to sustainable development and focuses on the advantages of multilingual education.
The learning of prestigious international languages becomes a process fraught with tensions in multilingual settings. The process of internationalisation in many universities has led to the spread of English-medium instruction (EMI), which tends to raise linguistic debates particularly in the case of bilingual institutions. However, and despite a few exceptions, there is scant research into the effect of EMI on the different bodies that make up the university community, especially in the case of teaching staff and administration personnel (as most studies focus on students). The participants in this study were 648 students, teachers and administration personnel who filled out a questionnaire. The analyses of the data revealed the existence of language tensions among the different languages in contact. Parallelisms and differences were found among the three different bodies, which led us to put forward a series of implications related to the implementation of EMI courses, as well as to multilingual language policies at university.
Educational policies that impact second language (L2) learners—a rapidly-growing group—are often enacted without consulting relevant research. This review synthesized research regarding optimal conditions for L2 acquisition, facilitative L2 learner and teacher characteristics, and speed of L2 acquisition, from four bodies of work—foreign language education, child language research, sociocultural studies, and psycholinguistics—often overlooked by educators. Seventy-one peer-reviewed journal articles studying PK-12 L2 learners met inclusion criteria. Findings included: 1) Optimal conditions for L2 learners immersed in a majority-L2 society include strong home literacy practices, opportunities to use the L2 informally, well-implemented specially-designed L2 educational programs, and sufficient time devoted to L2 literacy instruction, whereas L2 learners with little L2 exposure require explicit instruction to master grammar; 2) L2 learners with strong L2 aptitude, motivation, and first language (L1) skills are more successful; 3) Effective L2 teachers demonstrate sufficient L2 proficiency, strong instructional skills, and proficiency in their students’ L1; 4) L2 learners require 3-7 years to reach L2 proficiency, with younger learners typically taking longer but more likely to achieve close-to-native results. These findings, even those most relevant to education, are not reflected in current US policy. Additional research is needed on the characteristics of successful or unsuccessful L2 learners and L2 teachers. Such research should attend systematically to the differences between L2 learning in maximal versus minimal input settings; whereas the psycholinguistic challenges of L2 learning might be common across settings, the sociocultural and interactional challenges and opportunities differ in ways that can massively impact outcomes.
This paper presents aspects of a longitudinal study assessing integrative bilingual learning based on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), implemented in three Swiss primary schools. From Grades 1 to 6, three classes of German-speaking pupils were taught 50% of the curriculum, notably mathematics, in Italian or in Romansh as a second language (L2). The longitudinal study concerns the assessment of L2 oral production, oral and written comprehension, as well as mathematics. After a presentation of the bilingual teaching concept we discuss the role of interaction for L2 acquisition, notably the importance of L1/L2 repair sequences to achieve focus on form (Doughty & Williams, 1998). Through the longitudinal analysis of the repair sequences in oral narrative tests, we observe the decreasing use of L1 as a strategy to fill in L2 missing words. We then draw the developmental profile of clause linkage (Berman & Slobin, 1994), giving insight on the development of verbs and of morphological elements in L2. Finally, the paper presents an analysis of the pupils' results in standardised mathematics tests and their qualitative link to oral and written comprehension tests.
This article provides a comprehensive, updated, and critical approximation to the sizeable literature which has been produced on the increasingly acknowledged European approach to bilingual education: content and language integrated learning (CLIL). It begins by tracing the origins of CLIL, framing it against the backdrop of its predecessors: North American immersion and bilingual education programs, and European international schools. It then provides a synthesis of the research which has been conducted on our continent into the effects of CLIL programs. It transpires from this review that, while at first blush it might seem that outcome-oriented investigations into CLIL effects abound throughout our continent, there is still a well-documented paucity of research in this area. The article concludes by identifying future research agendas to continue mapping the CLIL terrain. The ultimate aim of this three-pronged examination of the past, present, and future of CLIL is to depart from the lessons learned from recent research and to signpost ways forward in order to guarantee a success-prone implementation of this timely solution to European plurilingual education.
Linguistic and cultural diversity is becoming an inherent feature of most schools in Europe. This is specially so in contexts such as the Basque Autonomous Community in Spain, where the presence of two official languages (Basque and Spanish) is complemented by the early teaching of English, which sets out as early as the age of four in the majority of schools. Nevertheless, the low foreign language command of Spanish students in general and the Basque students in particular has led to the implementation of CLIL experiences, which have been mushrooming in the last decade. Some voices have been raised though against the ever increasing presence of English due to its probable negative impact on language attitudes, especially on attitudes towards Basque. Many efforts have been made to normalize the situation of Basque at school and some scholars consider that these achievements can be jeopardized if the minority language yields too much space to the two international languages (Spain and English). In this paper the effect of CLIL programmes on attitudes towards trilingualism is examined through a holistic questionnaire completed by 277 secondary students. The results obtained demonstrate that CLIL can help to boost positive attitudes towards trilingualism at school, a matter of the utmost importance due to the ever increasing number of multilingual educational systems in Europe.
Studies on the acquisition of a third language (L3) in a bilingual context have shown that
literacy in two languages facilitates the acquisition of a third (Cenoz & Valencia, 1994;
Swain, Lapkin, Rowen, & Hart, 1990). The present study seeks to contribute to this line of
research by comparing the acquisition of English as an L3 by Catalan/Spanish bilingual high
school students in an immersion program with the acquisition of English by Spanish
monolinguals. Data from 201 participants were submitted to a hierarchical multiple regression
analysis, rendering results that show that bilingualism indeed has a positive effect on the
acquisition of an L3. The evidence is discussed from a cognitive perspective.
Study abroad offers second language (L2) speakers the opportunity to employ the L2 in a wide range of settings, for various purposes, and with different interlocutors. Through participation in everyday activities that involve the L2, study‐abroad students can be exposed to the pragmatic practices of the host community which, in turn, can facilitate L2 pragmatic development. Therefore, study abroad would appear to be an ideal context for pragmatic development, and, indeed, many study‐abroad students do become more native‐like in pragmatics after a stay abroad. However, due to a variety of factors, there is considerable variability in pragmatics learning outcomes. This entry discusses the role of study abroad in pragmatic development, highlighting the aspects of pragmatics that tend to be learned and discussing variables that influence pragmatic development in study‐abroad contexts.
Résumé Le plurilinguisme individuel et social est normal, représente l’épanouissement optimal de la faculté de langage ; l’unilinguisme représente de plus en plus, dans le monde d’aujourd’hui, un handicap. Pourtant, dû, entre autres, à de nombreux et anciens préjugés contre le bi- ou plurilinguisme, grand nombre de théories et modèles linguistiques n’en tiennent guère compte. Sur le fonds d’une approche holistique de la compétence plurilingue, cet article distingue différentes formes de « devenir bilingue », discute la question de l’évaluation d’un répertoire plurilingue et se penche en particulier sur le « parler bilingue » en postulant que toute théorie du langage doit, pour être valable, rendre compte de répertoires plurilingues et de la manière dont un locuteur plurilingue tire partie de l’ensemble de ses ressources dans différentes formes de parler unilingue aussi bien que bilingue.
The Douglas Fir Group (2016) sought to articulate a transdisciplinary agenda for SLA but said little about multilingualism specifically. Moreover, many multilinguals are under siege in a worrisome world where threats to human difference have risen to the mainstream in the aftermath of Brexit and the 2016 U.S. presidential election. I argue that considering multilingualism as the central object of inquiry and embracing social justice as an explicit disciplinary goal are two moves necessary to provide sustainable support for the kind of transdisciplinary SLA that the Douglas Fir Group (2016) envisioned. I examine some missing pieces of the puzzle of transdisciplinary transformation that may make it possible for SLA researchers, and particularly those who investigate linguistic–cognitive dimensions of language learning, to contribute knowledge about the human capacity for language while supporting equitable multilingualism for all.
Drawing on self-based L2 motivation theories, the present study explored changes in the English learning motivation of eight Mainland Chinese undergraduates after their arrival at a Hong Kong university, where they took most of their courses in English. The participants were surveyed and interviewed retrospectively about their English learning experiences both in Mainland China and Hong Kong. After their relocation to Hong Kong, most participants reported heightened motivation. While their motivation generally remained stable at a high level, there were some fluctuations. The motivational enhancement may be influenced by the continuous interaction between the participants’ perceptions of different contexts of Hong Kong and their shifting actual and ideal L2 selves. The motivational fluctuations appeared to be affected by an interplay between the participants’ L2 selves and specific L2-related learning experiences such as preparation for English proficiency tests. As these activities came to an end, the participants’ motivation returned to its original state. Implications are offered to support the transitions of English as a foreign language learners to an environment where English is used as the medium of instruction.
Anglophone students abroad: Identity, social relationships and language learning presents the findings of a major study of British students of French and Spanish undertaking residence abroad. The new dataset presented here provides both quantitative and qualitative information on language learning, social networking and integration and identity development during residence abroad.
The book tracks in detail the language development of participants and relates this systematically to individual participants’ social and linguistic experiences and evolving relationship. It shows that language learning is increasingly dependent on students’ own agency and skill and the negotiation of identity in multilingual and lingua franca environments.
This article summarizes the essential theoretical and empirical findings of a large-scale doctoral dissertation study on content and language integrated learning (CLIL) streams at German secondary schools ( Gymnasium ) with up to three content subjects taught in English (Rumlich, 2016). A theoretical account rooted in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), language acquisition and educational psychology provides the basis for the development of a comprehensive longitudinal model of general EFL proficiency, which incorporates cognitive, affective-motivational, and further individual variables.
In a second step, the model is used to estimate the effects of CLIL on general EFL proficiency, EFL self-concept and interest over a span of two school years (Year 6 to Year 8). The statistical evaluation of the quasi-experimental data from 1,000 learners finds large initial differences prior to CLIL due to selection, preparation, and class composition effects brought about by the implementation of CLIL within streams. After two years, the analyses found no CLIL-related benefits for general EFL proficiency or interest in EFL classes and solely a minor increase in EFL self-concept that might be attributable to CLIL. The results make a strong claim for comprehensive longitudinal model-based evaluations and the inclusion of selection, preparation, and class composition effects when conducting research on CLIL programmes in similar settings. The findings also suggest that not all language competences and affective-motivational dispositions might benefit from CLIL (the way it is currently taught in Germany) to the same extent.
This article draws upon data from 1880 students across Europe, gathered through an online survey. It aims at identifying general trends regarding their beliefs about multilingualism: Are these still shaped by the dominant standard language ideology (SLI)? In the article, results from factor analysis that examined underlying dimensions of beliefs about multilingualism and language learning are presented. These dimensions are evaluated differently by subsamples of students. On the one hand, students are divided by national backgrounds; for instance, Central European students differ from Belgian students. On the other hand, variables such as geographical mobility play an equal role: Students who consider moving to another country differ in their beliefs from their peers who prefer to stay in their home countries.
There is a lack of research on the impact of study abroad (SA) on the development of L2 English when students study in non-anglophone countries. The aim of the present study is to fill this gap by examining 39 Catalan/Spanish students who, as part of an Erasmus exchange, spent a term at universities in non-English-speaking European countries. In this context, English was used as the vehicular language for their studies and in their daily extracurricular activities when interacting with other students. Our research focuses the impact of this specific type of SA on students’ L2 English proficiency, and in particular their writing skills. Before and after the SA, students completed the Quick Oxford Placement Test (a general measure of L2 proficiency) and also drafted a short written paragraph in English. Their writing was analysed for syntactic complexity, lexical complexity and subordination. The results show that participants improved significantly after their SA on two out of the four measures: general L2 proficiency and lexical complexity. Though threshold levels of general proficiency have been posited for students’ ability to benefit linguistically from SA, in this case, L2 proficiency at the outset of the SA experience was found not to influence the development of writing skills, except on the measure of subordination. Implications are drawn for further research and pedagogic practice in developing English as a lingua franca skills in a European context.
Second language acquisition scholars have long recognized that language attitudes and motivation can play a critical role in second language (L2) learning, leading to variations in willingness to communicate (WTC) and initiate interactions in that language. This paper reports on the pre-sojourn phase of a mixed-method study that investigated the language and intercultural learning of 149 Chinese students from a Hong Kong university who participated in a semester-long exchange program in an English-speaking country. By way of a questionnaire survey, document analysis (e.g., study plans), and in-depth interviews, the first phase examined their pre-sojourn language use, attitudes, and motivation, as well as their aims, expectations, and concerns about their impending study and residence in the host environment. Studies of this nature are essential to provide direction for pre-sojourn orientations and other interventions that can support and optimize the language enhancement and intercultural engagement of outgoing L2 international exchange students.
This volume brings together studies dealing with second language learning in contexts that provide intensive exposure to the target language. In doing so, it highlights the role of intensive exposure as a critical distinctive characteristic in the comparison of learning processes and outcomes from different learning contexts: Naturalistic and foreign language instruction, stay abroad and at home, and extensive and intensive instruction programmes. The different chapters represent a wide range of learning contexts and types of learning, as well as different approaches that yield much needed evidence on the role of context of acquisition in second language learning.
This publication constitutes essential reading for academics, teachers and language policy makers wanting to understand, plan, and implement an educational language program involving learner mobility. The book provides data and analyses from a long-term program of research on study abroad (the SALA Project), which looked into the short and long-term effects of instructional and mobility contexts on language and cultural development from two perspectives: the participants’ language acquisition development over 2,5 years, and the practitioners’ perspective in relation to the design and implementation of a mobility program. The book is innovative in the longitudinal data it offers, the light it sheds on (i) an array of language skills, both productive and receptive, oral and written, tapping into phonology, lexis, grammar and discourse, (ii) the role of individual differences (including attitudes, motivation, beliefs, and intercultural awareness), and (iii) the insights on the effects of length of stay. In sum, this book represents a welcome addition to previous research on the outcomes of mobility policies to promote L2 learners’ linguistic development and the individual and educational conditions that appear to facilitate success in study abroad programs.
This volume critically examines the effects of the spread of English from colonialism to the ‘New World Order’. The research explores the complex and often contradictory roles English has played in national development. Historical analyses and case studies by leading researchers in language policy studies reveal that deterministic relationships between imperial languages, such as English, and societal hierarchies are untenable, and that support of vernacular languages in education and public life can serve diverse ideologies and political agendas. Areas and countries investigated include Europe, North America, Australia, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, and Sri Lanka. The role of theory in language policy scholarship and practice is critically evaluated. A variety of research methodologies is used, ranging from macro-sociopolitical and structural analyses to postmodern approaches. The work collectively represents a new direction in language policy studies.
This paper examines the spread of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) through a number of lenses. It argues that the supporters and promoters of CLIL position it as a near-panacea and attribute to it a large number of benefits, not all of which are supported by research. Looking at the issues arising from recent attempts to define CLIL, the paper proposes a distinction between weak and strong CLIL. The paper points to the lacunae in the research into CLIL, and suggests that these gaps are the result of educational policies that privilege a second language over other curricular subjects. Looking at the contexts where CLIL seems to succeed, as well as places where such teaching has been acknowledged to fail, it emerges that success is often connected to a high level of student selection on a number of criteria, as well as a high level of investment in teachers and teaching, and that CLIL often privileges those students who are already high achievers both in language and content. The paper then looks at the way in which the spread of CLIL policies can be understood through theories of policy borrowing and educational transfer.
Basic orientations toward language and its role in society influence the nature of language planning efforts in any particular context. Three such orientations are proposed in this paper language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource. The first two currently compete for predominance in the international literature. While problem-solving has been the main activity of language planners from early on (language planning being an early and important aspect of social planning in ‘development’ contexts), rights-affirmation has gained in importance with the renewed emphasis on the protection of minority groups. The third orientation has received much less attention; it is proposed as vital to the interest of language planning in the United States.
Bilingual education is considered in the framework of these orientations. Many of the problems of bilingual education programs in the United States arise because of the hostility and divisiveness inherent in the problem- and rights-orientations which generally underlie them. The development and elaboration of a language-resource orientation is seen as important for the integration of bilingual education into a responsible language policy for the United States.
Language is both a means and an end in educational systems. As a means to learning, it manifests itself in countless, shifting modalities; while as an end or objective of learning, it is often perceived as an autonomous, formal entity. Through a case study of an interdisciplinary secondary school project in Luxembourg, this paper explores the tension between formal, standardizing ideologies of language and the diversifying realities found in many classrooms and beyond. Beginning with discussion of different ideological stances towards multilingualism, language education and classroom participation, this paper analyses ways in which these ideologies impact educational systems in general, and language education in Luxembourg in particular, and advocates for heteroglossic, inclusive approaches to language education. The case study presented illustrates successful heteroglossic pedagogy, marked by inclusion of numerous languages, numerous content areas, numerous modalities of expression, and shifts in school participation hierarchies. At the same time, analysis of this case also illustrates continued influences of standard, monoglossic language ideology and areas of difficulty that need to be addressed in order to further develop and normalize effective multilingual pedagogy.
The study reported in this article is part of a research project which intended to attain a more comprehensive understanding of the growth and transformations of the professional identity and knowledge of a group of four future language teachers, as they expanded their awareness about plurilingualism and intercomprehension. Based on a central question: Are the student teachers able to develop a different self-image as language teachers based on a plurilingual conception of language teaching? Phase 1 of the research project focused on the language student teachers’ professional discourse. The developing representations about plurilingualism, intercomprehension and themselves as language teachers were analysed. The conclusions helped to conceptualise Phase 2 of the project and reflect upon the Language Didactics curriculum.
The purpose of the present paper is to describe, for a North American audience, how “study abroad” or “residence abroad” is understood in the European context. Here, it is not merely an educational matter: the historical, geographical and political context of Europe has an important influence on the rationale for student residence abroad and on its organisation. As well as highlighting differences from the American context, the paper will describe features of current practice, focusing particularly on the United Kingdom, for several reasons. Residence abroad has been a compulsory part of most degrees in modern languages in the UK for many years, the UK has larger numbers of students involved in the process, and the evaluation of residence abroad has arguably been more systematic than elsewhere in Europe, where residence abroad is normally optional, is not closely integrated into the degree structure, and (at least until recently) has carried little or no weight within the credit structure of the degree. Finally, I shall review the published research into residence abroad, especially with regard to foreign language proficiency and to intercultural competence. The paper is divided into four sections dealing respectively with the European context, residence abroad in Europe, UK specific information, and research findings.