Kindergarten physical setting guidelines: A review from indoor air quality perspectives

Abstract

The kindergarten’s indoor air contained a number of pollutants, including total volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, carbon monoxide and insufficient ventilation with high carbon dioxide levels, which exceeded the indoor air quality (IAQ) guideline. The presence of these pollutants is caused by various factors including inappropriate physical setting. Indisputably, authorities throughout the countries provide guidelines for designing kindergartens' spaces, however it is limited to general explanations and only guided by early education compliance. It is vital to determine which kindergarten regulations may contribute to poor IAQ. This paper explores national kindergarten physical setting guidelines and how it affects IAQ. A document analysis method was used to determine the characteristics and differences between kindergarten guidelines. Firstly, the composition of each kindergarten guideline was itemised. Then, the study was conducted by making comparisons of the identified items. All the criteria were further reviewed from IAQ perspectives. This study was conducted on guidelines in Australia, Canada, the United States, Singapore and Malaysia. There are five physical setting requirements that influence IAQ : minimum indoor space required per child, sleep area, kitchen and food preparation area, ventilation requirements and furniture and finishes. All activities happen in this microenvironment contribute to IAQ, which is also affected by the ventilation system, furniture and finishes selection. It can be concluded that there is still room for improvement in existing guidelines by taking into account the indoor air perspective. Aside from the main function of kindergarten to provide education, the physical setting of kindergarten also plays a significant role in the growth and health of chidren.

Full text

Kindergarten physical setting guidelines: a review from indoor
air quality perspectives
Zakaria. I.B1,3 , Mahyuddin. N* 1,2 , and Mohd-Sahabuddin. M.F4
1 Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2 Centre for Building, Construction and Tropical Architecture (BuCTA),
Faculty of Built Environment,
Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3 Programme of Building Surveying,
Department of Built Environment Studies & Technology,
College of Built Environment,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus,
32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
4 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment,
Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract. The kindergarten’s indoor air contained a number of pollutants, including total volatile organic
compounds, particulate matter, carbon monoxide and insufficient ventilation with high carbon dioxide
levels, which exceeded the indoor air quality (IAQ) guideline. The presence of these pollutants is caused by
various factors including inappropriate physical setting. Indisputably, authorities throughout the countries
provide guidelines for designing kindergartens' spaces, however it is limited to general explanations and
only guided by early education compliance. It is vital to determine which kindergarten regulations may
contribute to poor IAQ. This paper explores national kindergarten physical setting guidelines and how it
affects IAQ. A document analysis method was used to determine the characteristics and differences between
kindergarten guidelines. Firstly, the composition of each kindergarten guideline was itemised. Then, the
study was conducted by making comparisons of the identified items. All the criteria were further reviewed
from IAQ perspectives. This study was conducted on guidelines in Australia, Canada, the United States,
Singapore and Malaysia. There are five physical setting requirements that influence IAQ : minimum indoor
space required per child, sleep area, kitchen and food preparation area, ventilation requirements and furniture
and finishes. All activities happen in this microenvironment contribute to IAQ, which is also affected by the
ventilation system, furniture and finishes selection. It can be concluded that there is still room for
improvement in existing guidelines by taking into account the indoor air perspective. Aside from the main
function of kindergarten to provide education, the physical setting of kindergarten also plays a significant
role in the growth and health of chidren.
1 Introduction
Early education has become an essential component of
children's social development and the future of society.
Many governments and stakeholders around the world
have put forward their focus on children's development,
learning opportunities, and healthy living. Each country
has preliminary school education regulations and has
been a subject considered in a systematic education
system [1]–[3]. Looking at the global scale, the
UNESCO Incheon Declaration and Framework for
Action 2030 underline the endeavour of Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 4 for education to ensure that
everyone has access to quality education, a safe learning
environment and given a chance to learn throughout
their lives.
_____________________________
* Corresponding author : hayati@um.edu.my
By 2020, the SDG 4.2 aspires to provide children with
quality early childhood development, care and pre-
primary education to prepare them for primary
education [4]. However, for kindergartens to fully
maximise the children's development, kindergarten
lessons must be conducted not only using high quality
curriculum and pedagogy but also in high quality
physical environment [5].
In general, the kindergarten layout can be divided
into five spaces as suggested by [6], i.e., entrance,
learning area, playing area, kitchen and toilet, depending
on the activities and learning practises of the children.
Ideally, the space can be segmented into wet and dry
regions and further subdivided regions into zones, such
as an active zone, a quiet zone and an outdoor [7].
However, there are kindergarten buildings that were not
initially designed for kindergarten purposes and require
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some alteration to meet the authority’s establishment
requirements. This may influence the kindergarten’s
space allocation and congestion [8]. Research conducted
by [9] revealed that over 90% of randomly sampled
classes (a total of 711 classrooms) were less than 2 m²
per person, indicating that these classrooms were unable
to accommodate the appropriate number of children as
per guidelines. In other case studies, inappropriate space
allocation such as separating the dining area from the
classroom by placing the dining area in the kitchen area,
was observed [8]. The inappropriate space allocation
contributes to poor indoor air quality (IAQ).
[10] stated that crowded classrooms and play areas
were significantly associated with higher carbon dioxide
(CO2) and particulate matter (PM) concentration levels.
Similar findings were obtained in the study by [11],
which investigated the microbiological and chemical
quality of indoor air in Slovenian playrooms. The
authors emphasised that in 89.3% of playrooms, the CO2
concentration exceeded the maximum limit of 1000
ppm. Although CO2 is not a pollutant, a concentration of
more than 1000 ppm in kindergarten classrooms
indicates that the space is not sufficiently ventilated
[12]–[14]. In Korean childcare centres, the total
concentrations of airborne bacteria (TBC) and fungi
(TFC) were averaged at 931 and 536 CFU/m3 and the
values are the highest among tested public buildings;
hospitals, elderly welfare facilities and postpartum nurse
centres [15]. TBC level also recorded the highest with
mean 1251 CFU/m3 in three Turkey kindergartens
compared to other indoor environment buildings
[16].The possible contributors to the highest level of
TBC and TFC are the higher occupant density, poor
ventilation and the existence of kitchen and the
bathrooms, high RH and substrate presence at levels that
promote the biological growth [17]–[20]. It can be seen
that the kindergarten physical setting impacts IAQ.
Each country has kindergarten education guidelines
affiliated with public and private kindergarten
institutions. These guidelines outline the preschool
education system's goals, guiding principles, operation,
philosophy and instructional approach. The regulation is
organised according to cultural, socio-economic
aspects, as well as physical setting, usage rules,
furniture, equipment and educational tools. Although
the kindergarten guidelines have regulated the
requirement for physical settings, kindergarten still
faces the above mentioning problems. It becomes clear
that the guidelines for establishing kindergartens are still
immature, making it significant to contribute to its
betterment. Studying the existing kindergarten
guidelines and improving it based on IAQ findings is
essential.
This study aims to present a document analysis
study that examines different data in order to determine
appropriate spatial conditions. Our specific objectives
are to (a) identify physical setting requirements in
kindergarten guidelines that affect IAQ; (b) compare the
similarity and differences of each guideline; and (c)
review the guidelines from IAQ perspectives. The
research findings can assist in improving established
kindergarten guidelines and easing the kindergarten
operators in the preliminary setting of their premises.
2 Materials and method
This study has used a document analysis method to
determine the characteristics and differences between
kindergarten guidelines. Document analysis is a type of
qualitative research that employs a systematic approach
to assess document-based data in order to respond to
particular research questions. Document analysis
requires evaluating, scrutinising, and finally interpreting
data to understand the studied structure accurately. As a
first step, the composition of each kindergarten
guideline was itemised. Then, the study was conducted
by making comparisons of the identified items. This
study was conducted on kindergarten guidelines in
Australia, Canada, the United States, Singapore and
Malaysia, as stated in Table 1. The criteria for selecting
kindergarten guidelines were limited to English
language documents, similar space division and
available full versions. All guidelines included child
care and kindergarten provision and separate
requirements according to age groups.
Table 1. The guidelines of the kindergarten were
reviewed
Country
Guideline Title (Year of Publication)
Australia
Design Guide for Victorian Children's
Services (2005)
Canada
(City of
Vancouver)
Childcare Design Guidelines (1993,
updated January 19, 2021)
United
States
U.S General Services Administration
Child Care Center Design Guide
(2003)
Singapore
Guide to Setting Up Early Childhood
Development Centre (2019)
Malaysia
Guideline on the Establishment of
Kindergarten and Child Care Centre
(2017)
The scope of discussion is limited to requirements
that have an effect on IAQ. The minimum floor area
indicates the size of each class's allocation. CO2
emissions increase proportionally with the number of
students in a classroom. The sleeping area is where
children sleep for an extended period (between two to
three hours). CO2 generated during sleeping activities
accumulates over long hours. A kitchen is a location
where cooking activities take place. This activity adds
to the production of particulate matter with aerodynamic
diameter ≤2.5µm (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The ventilation system has an effect on the CO2 and
particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤10µm
(PM10) levels in a building. Furniture and finishes lead
to the increase of volatile organic compounds (TVOC),
bacteria and fungi.
3 Results and Discussion
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The analysis focused on five main kindergarten
requirements influencing indoor air quality: the
minimum floor area, sleep area, kitchen and food
preparation area, ventilation, furniture and finishes. A
comparison of these five requirements is discussed in
each selected guideline.
3.1 Minimum floor areas
3.1.1 Kindergarten guidelines
All kindergarten guidelines have defined a guiding
principle for the space that should at least be available
to children. The indoor space should be large enough to
accommodate a desirable number of children. The
accommodation capacity is calculated using the areas
designated for teaching and learning. The area assigned
for children's activities does not include the floor used
for circulation, furniture, classroom support, and centre
support. There are minimum floor area standards for
every country. The requirements range from less than 3
square metres to 4.4 square meters as stated in Table 2.
In the Internal Spaces chapter in Design Guide for
Victorian Children's Services, as a reference to the
Children's Services Regulations of 1998, where in its
regulation 42 stipulates that the classroom shall 3.3
square metres for children younger than 3 and older than
3 years old, excluding the space occupied by permanent
furniture. Under item 2, Facility Size and Shared Spaces
in the City of Vancouver Childcare Design Guidelines
states an area of 3.9 square metres for preschool children
(part-time) with reference to 20 space program and net
activity area is 78 square metres. The Child Care Center
Design Guide. In the U.S GSA- Child Care Center
Design Guide under Chapter 5 of Space Planning and
Location, for a group of 20 preschoolers, the minimum
size for classrooms is 4.4 square metres per child. The
classroom area does not include support areas such as
cubby storage, sinks, toilets and storage.
In Singapore, the capacity of kindergarten is
determined based on the space dedicated for teaching
and learning and excludes other service areas. The
presence of adequate sanitary facilities and space for
gross motor activities is also a prerequisite for
accommodation capacity. For Class B Licence (full day
for children from 18 months to below 7 years old), the
accommodation capacity is computed based on 3 square
metres of floor space area for each child. For Class C
Licence (half day for children from 18 months to below
7 years old) , the accommodation capacity is computed
based on 1.88 square metres of floor space area for each
child [21]. Malaysian Guideline on the Establishment of
Kindergarten and Child Care Centre in item 7 of
Planning Guideline subsection 7.6 Minimum Space
Requirements for Children states an area of 1.4 square
metres for children in groups up to 25 children, and net
activity area is 35 square metres.
Table 2. Minimum indoor space
Country
Minimum indoor space required per
child
Australia
3.3 square metres for each child
Canada
(City of
Vancouver)
3.9 square metres for each child
United
States
4.4 square metres for each child
Singapore
3 square metres for each child (full day
registration)
1.88 square metres for each child (half
day registration)
Malaysia
1.4 square metres for each child
From the guidelines above, each country has a
different minimum amount of indoor space per child,
with the United States having the highest and the lowest
in Malaysia. For example in Malaysia, a provider who
wishes to care for ten children in a single children's
room, must have at least minimum 14 square metres of
clear space accessible in that room (1.4 square metres
for each child x 10 child). Although the provider
complies with this minimum allocation of space per
child, it impacts IAQ especially high buildups of CO2
concentration levels.
3.1.2 Indoor air quality research in the classroom
High CO₂ concentrations and insufficient ventilation
were documented in kindergarten classrooms
worldwide, according to research conducted in Portugal
[22], [23], Poland [24], France [25], Korea [26] and
Malaysia [14]. A study in Portugal found that CO2
concentration in kindergarten classrooms was high and
several times exceeding the Portuguese standards. The
high concentration happens because of overcrowding.
Surprisingly, the number of children per classroom was
always found according to Portuguese legislation for
educational purposes [27]. In Malaysian kindergarten, it
is observed that most classrooms had a higher number
of occupants; during activity in class, the CO₂ levels
increased and exceeded the reference value of 1000 ppm
[14]. Findings from [28] indicate that indoor CO2
concentration exceeded 1000 ppm in classrooms with
more than 15 children. In a fieldwork study conducted
in Canada, 71% of childcare centres had an average
floor space equal to or higher than 2.75 square
metre/child for children older than 18 months, which
complied with the provincial standard. The mean CO2
concentrations were found to be substantially lower than
in centres that did not meet floor space requirements
[10]. Another indoor air pollutant recorded is PM and it
associated with classroom density. In Taiwan
kindergarten, PM concentration was lower in classroom
with low occupant density; one person per 10m3
compare to classroom with three people per 10m3 [29].
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3.1.3 Suggestions
From an IAQ standpoint, classroom density is
recommended to adhere to the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) Standard 62.1-2019 specified criteria of 25
people per 100 square metres for 5 to 8-year-olds,
representing 4.00 square metres for each child [30]. The
appropriate indoor space per child is that higher than
national recommended minimum value, provides more
area per child within classrooms, and the space is
equipped with proper ventilation system [31].
Otherwise, this enclosed area may have a higher risk of
virus transmission if overcrowded [32].
3.2 Sleep area
3.2.1 Kindergarten guidelines
Napping is an essential routine in child care. Most
children take regular afternoon naps while they are in
kindergarten. The comfortable space for napping helps
children relax and get the rest they need. As stated in
item 7.6, Loft and Platform in the United States
guidelines, there is no express designated sleep area in
kindergarten. However, it takes place in the classroom.
There will be cots to sleep in, which can be stored in the
classroom when not in use. Storage spaces for cots/mats
must be designated. In Australia, reference to Children's
Services Regulations 1998 Regulation 49 provides that
operator is required to offer suitable beds, cots, beds,
mattresses or stretchers for the use of children while they
are sleeping. Cots must be stored away after use.
Permenant cots cannot be counted as part of floor space
calculation [33]. Under item 3 Internal Design
Consideration in Childcare Design Guidelines
determines that the nap room should appropriate to
accommodate all napping children and allow them to
sleep undisturbed by nearby activities. This nap room
also can be used interchangeably as activity room. This
space can be set up for activities including storage [34].
The sleep area requirement only includes the need for
sleep, and this requirement is not stated in the Malaysian
guideline [35]. Children usually sleep on cots or mats in
the classroom, which are stored when not in use.
In the guidelines, the division or allocation of the
napping area is not explicitly explained. Long sleeping
activities (two to three hours) cause a buildup of CO2 if
the space is overcrowded and lacks an adequate
ventilation system. Using a mattress as a sleeping pad
also increases PM during sleeping preparation.
3.2.2 Indoor air quality research in sleep area
In addition to the classroom, the sleeping room is also a
focus of the investigation. In sleeping rooms, PM
concentrations increased before and after naps, probably
due to re-suspension processes related to the setting up
of the sleeping need and the presence of children. In
addition, during the second campaign, [36] also
discovered PM concentration remained high in the
classroom taking into account all activities (morning
reception before lessons, playground time, nap time, and
activities after classes). Recent research conducted by
[37] also observed that PM2.5 concentrations are higher
in the bedroom than in younger children's classrooms. It
is agreed with the previous finding that the use of
bedcovers while setting up afternoon nap is the
determinant of higher concentrations of PM2.5 in the
bedroom. Besides high PM concentrations during nap
time, CO2 concentrations were also higher during this
period. The action of closing windows and doors to
ensure silence during nap time has the effect of reducing
ventilation [36]. This finding is similar to that of [23],
who discovered that the CO2 level were highest (7448
mg m-3) when the window was closed for an extended
time in the morning and during sleeping period (12.00
to 15.00 h). CO2 started to decrease when the windows
were opened after the sleeping period. [38] assessed PM
and CO2 in winter seasons in four naturally ventilated
preschools in Gliwice, Poland. Their findings show that
classrooms with older children had greater
concentrations of PM (PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and TSP);
whereas classes with younger children who slept in the
afternoon had higher concentrations of CO2. Aside from
the most substantial effect of high CO2 during classroom
teaching hours, the afternoon nap role appears to be
another contributing factor as also evidence in [39]
research . In reviewed studies by [40], authors suggested
that, because higher CO2 concentrations were frequently
found during nap, sleep time and sleeping-only rooms
should be of particular importance.
3.2.3 Suggestions
The sleeping location should be defined in the rules and
positioned in a space apart from the classroom, such as
an open area with natural ventilation. An adequate
ventilation system is a must if there is a designated sleep
room. Using another location for naps assists any CO2
concentrations that may have accumulated in the
classroom during the learning period to decrease before
the next session [41].
3.3 Kitchen and food preparation area
3.3.1 Kindergarten guidelines
Every kindergarten should have a designated space for
preparing food and snacks. The size of kitchen depends
on the type of food service the centre offers as per the
specifications listed in Child Care Center Design Guide
(7.6 Lofts/Platforms). The kitchen is mainly needed for
preparing basic meals and a place to receive catered
meals. The kitchen is recommended to be situated
centrally with access to the service entrance, close to the
multiple-purpose area, but away from the classrooms.
Proper ventilation, lighting and clearances must all be
adequate. Design Guide for Victorian Children's
Services determines kitchen requirements according to
the program offered, if long day care is involved, then
the large kitchen will be utilised to prepare a few meals
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for all children. The suggested kitchen location is
partnered with a dining room or adjacent to the
children's room [33]. Under item 3.2 Support Spaces in
Childcare Design Guidelines determines that kitchens
should be located and designed near the Activity Room
so that staff can keep an eye on children while they are
in the kitchen. The kitchen should not be in the way of
other service areas like the laundry room, janitorial and
washrooms [34]. In Malaysia, cooking activities are
only permitted to be carried out by means of electrical
appliances or electric stoves. Gas stoves (LPG) are
allowed if the kitchen area and other areas are separated
based on the provisions of the Uniform Building Bylaws
(UBBL) 1984.
The location of the kitchen is suggested to be in a
place that is easy to see such as near to children room or
activity room. There is no explanation related to
additional ventilation system that needs to be there when
cooking activities are done. It was discovered that
extensive cooking contributed considerably to higher
PM and CO concentrations.
3.3.2 Indoor air quality research in kitchen
Another microenvironment that contributes to poor
IAQ is the kitchen. An examination of three nurseries in
Portugal indicated that the mean particle concentrations
ranged from 1.15 to 1.82 x 104 particle/cm3
respectively. The canteens area had the highest levels of
ultrafine particles (UPF), most likely because the space
was close to a kitchen with gas stoves [42]. In another
kindergarten located in Złoty Potok, Poland, a kitchen
coal stove was utilised, resulting in elevated levels of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) indoors [43]. [44] investigated the
association between IAQ and health outcomes in
children. The authors emphasised that PM2.5 is
significantly associated with respiratory inflammation.
One contributing factor is that the kitchen is close to
other rooms, which means children are exposed to
cooking smoke while preparing meals. [45] performed a
study on 10 urban daycare centres in Negeri Sembilan,
Malaysia and included 90 children. One of the findings
indicated that cooking activities in the kitchen
contributes to higher concentrations of PM2.5 and may
raise the risk respiratory diseases in exposed children.
Another identified IAQ parameter in the kitchen is
carbon monoxide (CO). In addition to external traffic,
the kindergarten kitchenette stove could be a source of
CO in the indoor air [26], [46].
3.3.3 Suggestions
Based on the guidelines, the preparation of food is
determined by the kindergarten provider whether it is
outsourced or cooked in-house. If food preparation
involves cooking, the location of the kitchen should be
considered. Extensive cooking activities were found to
contribute to elevated PM levels. In particular, frying
was significantly associated with elevated PM,
especially finer fractions (i.e., PM1 and PM2.5)[47]. It
is found that opening wide windows during cooking,
does not diminish generated particles in the air [48].
Open windows may result in cold and discomfort for
occupants. The kitchen needs to be equipped with
exhaust fans or ventilation hood. Additionally, a
partition is required between the kitchen and any spaces
especially the classroom to prevent infiltration of
excessive PM2.5 and CO [49]. The best way is to
eliminate cooking activities in this confine space.
3.4 Ventilation
3.4.1 Kindergarten guidelines
Ventilation is essential for the proper air comfort of a
space used by children. Thus, comfort can be increased
by enhancing the ventilation system. The United States
outlines more detailed requirements related to
ventilation with CO2 monitoring and thermal comfort
requirements in the building during winter (21°C
temperature; 35 % minimum relative humidity (RH))
and summer (24-26 °C temperature; 50 % maximum
RH). Each microenvironment shall be supplied with a
minimum of 15 liters/second (L/s) of fresh air. Provider
also suggests to use indoor plants where it may improve
IAQ by filtering pollutants out of the air [50].
Naturally ventilated rooms are permitted under the
Building Code of Australia (BCA), provided they
adhere to section F4.6 of the code. The use of fixed
ventilation (wall grates and sash vents) should be
evaluated for efficiency. Fixed ventilation may hinder
thermal performance by permitting hot air into a
building or allowing cool air to exit. Designing the doors
and windows should strike a balance between the need
for safety and the desirable natural airflow. For instance,
double-hung windows (sashless or otherwise) let air
flow naturally while keeping children safe from the
dangers of other types of windows. The efficacy of
natural ventilation relies on cross ventilation. Cross
ventilation must be designed to seek a balance between
natural ventilation and the drawbacks of draughts. If
there are no mechanical cooling systems in the centre,
ceiling fans might be an option. All restrooms,
bathrooms and diaper-changing spaces should have
intense exhaust fans.
In Singapore, all spaces with operable windows and
doors must be ventilated daily to maintain good air
quality. If the window can not be opened, air purifiers
can be utilised to improve and maintain air quality. The
rooms' temperature must be maintained at an optimal
level for activities to take place. Fans or air-conditioning
units can be used to regulate the rooms' temperature and
ventilation needed [21]. Concerning ventilation,
Malaysia does have regulations on this though it is in a
general form with an obligation to follow UBBL 1984
and Fire Department Regulations. All guidelines
emphasise the need for natural ventilation in
kindergartens to preserve good air quality.
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3.4.2 Ventilation in kindergarten
Natural ventilation through frequent window openings
affects the rate of air exchange [51] and can eliminate or
dilute indoor air pollution (IAP). One research claimed
that opening a single window enhanced the air change
rate by an amount typically equal to the opening width,
with rises as great as 1.3 air changes per hour (hr−1). The
air change rate rose from 0.10 to 2.8 h−1 when numerous
windows were opened [52]. Mechanical ventilation
maintains a consistent indoor room temperature,
whereas natural ventilation provides higher air exchange
quality. The central HVAC system had a fresh air intake
control with a set fractional air exchange rate that could
be employed to reduce pollution accumulation in the
rooms. The minimum ventilation rates recommended by
ASHRAE was set at 5 L/s per person for education
facilities classrooms (ages 5 to 8) [53].Ventilation rates
between 16 to 24 L/s per person have been shown to
have positive impact on short-term absence rates,
learning and performance [54]. There was no provision
for air exchange in wall-mounted split air conditioning
systems. Therefore, it is not recommended to install
wall-mounted split units without a separate fresh air
intake system [55].
The use of air purifiers could also aid in lowering
IAP . The study conducted in two kindergartens in India
found a decreased concentration of bacteria from 1178-
1307 CFU/m3 to 316-417 CFU/m3 and fungi from 136-
345 CFU/m3 to 93-269 CFU/m3 after installing an ozone
air purifier[56]. This agrees with the finding of
experiments in residential buildings [57]. [58]
experimented with four kindergartens and concluded
that classrooms' air quality when there is air purification
was nearly 40%-50% better (PM2.5 concentration
reduction). In a similar context in China crossover
intervention study, the concentration of PM2.5 in
kindergarten classrooms equipped with FAVS-HEPA
(29.1 ± 17.9 μg/m3) was significantly lower than that
without FAVS-HEPA (85.7 ± 43.2 μg/m3) [59].
Furthermore in recent research conducted in United
Arab Emirates, the installation of an air purifier in a
nursery considerably lowered the percentage of TVOC
to 46.4%, and the concentration of total suspended
particles (TSP) to 21.7% [60]. This is due to a high-
efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, which removes
suspended particulates.
3.4.3 Suggestions
All guidelines mention about the importance of fresh air.
Fresh air in a space preserves thermal comfort, adjusts
air humidity, eliminates odours, and reduces dust levels.
Mechanical equipment, such as humidifiers
/dehumidifiers, air purifiers, ceiling fans, and exhaust
fans, can also aid in balancing IAQ. Priority must be
given to the spatial design of the kindergarten, including
the distribution of each area, particularly the placement
of classrooms. There must be window openings in the
classroom. Whenever possible, the planning and
placement of windows should facilitate cross-
ventilation. Increasing ventilation through opening
windows and doors or employing extraction fans can
assist reduce indoor pollution levels in crowded
classrooms. However, improved ventilation/filtration
methods should also be considered to reduce daily
exposure of indoor/outdoor pollution. The ventilation
rate (minimum 5 L/s as recommended by ASHRAE)
shall be stated in the guidelines and calculated based on
the number of occupants in the space[53].
3.5 Furniture and finishes
3.5.1 Kindergarten guidelines
Floor finishes of kindergarten suggested according to
guidelines are carpet and the floor should not be of bare
concrete. Carpets must be VOC-tested, have a green
label, and have a high quality yarn system with stain
resistance and non-PVC backing. Acrylic paint is often
recommended for use on wall surfaces. Interior paint
must be non-toxic and meet Green Seal's "Paints"
criteria, which restricts VOCs to 50 grams per liter (flat)
and 150 grams per liter (non-flat) [50]. The Singaporean
guidelines stipulate that all furnishings and resources for
children must be appropriate for their stage of
development, age, size, as well as their intended activity
use. Material selection must take into account the varied
functions of each room.Carpet and vinyl flooring of high
quality should be considered. Roll up rugs can be used
in areas for quiet play and story telling [33].
3.5.2 Emission from furniture and finishes
Proper placing of furniture is also essential. Heat and
humidity enhance the release of formaldehyde (HCHO)
into the air. Therefore, putting that latest piece of
furniture over or close to a heat source must be avoided
[61]. [62] found that a 10°C variation boosted HCHO
emissions by 1.9-3.5 times while a 35% rise in RH
boosted emissions by 1.8-2.6 times. Therefore,
increasing the ventilation rate in kindergarten,
particularly after bringing new sources also helps reduce
HCHO levels.
Soft carpet is a typical option for play spaces, yet it
provides enormous surface areas and reservoirs for dust
mite development and multiplication [63], [64].
According to study by [18] other sources of bacterial
aerosol in kindergarten were bacteria associated with
dust on indoor surfaces such as carpets and furnishings.
Cleaning activities can cause bacteria on carpets and
furniture to be resuspended. Carpeting, whether full or
partial is associated with higher dust mite allergen
levels. According to [65], the significant sources of
bioaerosols are probably building occupants (children
and their activities) and finishes like carpets that support
microbial development. Mould levels were also much
higher in carpeted areas [66].
3.5.3 Suggestions
Any flooring system requires proper cleaning and
maintenance. In order to protect IAQ, carpet must be
vacuumed regularly. With low-VOC cleaners, resilient
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IAQVEC2023
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flooring can be easily cleaned and maintained. In
addition to overall composition, VOC content should be
considered when selecting paint. The use of "zero-
VOC" or "low-VOC" paints can reduce indoor air
pollution. If a change in building material is being
considered, it should be done during a lengthy break.
4 Concluding Remarks
Overall, the physical setting in the kindergarten is
interrelated with all spaces. All kindergartens should
have the suitable capacity to accommodate their
children and activities. Kindergarten with a higher
number of enrolments should be larger in size and vice
versa. Some children's activities may require larger
spaces than another.Contaminants from furniture,
various play equipment and building materials were
released and gathered in the enclosed spaces. Therefore,
to maintain a healthy indoor air environment in
kindergartens, adequate natural ventilation should be
carried out before children arrive. A proper ventilation
system in windowless classrooms should be
emphasised, especially when fresh air intake is
unavailable.
The review suggestion can be used to improve the
existing guidelines.The requirement of this physical
setting is not only looking at compliance with the
education guidelines but also from the point of view of
the implications for the children's health because they
are in kindergarten for a long period. Indirectly, these
actions will support the achievement of SDG of good
health and well being of children. Carefully and
deliberately arranging the kindergarten may offer a
substantial dimension to children’s experiences and
growth.
This work was possible due to funding and support from the
Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia, Universiti
Malaya (UM) and Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM).
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