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There is sufficient evidence on the negative consequences of cyberbullying victimisation depending on the coping styles. Social support seeking is among the most effective strategies for coping with cybervictimisation, but it is scarcely used. The robust Maximum Likelihood (ML) method was used to test the potential mediating role of individual (self-awareness, and responsible decision-making) and contextual variables (self-perceived parental and peer support) in the relationship between cybervictimisation and social support seeking in boys and girls. This cross-sectional study collected data from 1,276 Spanish secondary school students (51.2% boys, 48.8% girls) aged 11–18 ( M = 13.88, SD = 1.42). Structural equation modelling (SEM) results pointed out responsible decision-making and self-perceived parental support as relevant mediating factors for girls. By contrast, the model was not significant for boys. These findings highlight the importance of both individual and contextual variables in helping adolescents cope with cyberaggressions, considering gender differences.
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Objective: Individual risks factors of peer victimization have been widely identified in children and adolescents. However, little is known about how the classroom context may increase or decrease the frequency of victimization. The present short-term prospective longitudinal study used a a person-by-environment approach to examine whether peer perception and social anxiety, along with class social adjustment levels as a moderator, affect the likelihood of peer victimization over time. Method: These effects were modelled using a representative sample of 2,512 Andalusian (Southern Spain) (52% girls) aged 10 to 16 years old (M = 12.81; SD = 1.69 at Wave 1). Classroom social adjustment was assessed by within-classroom standard deviation in social adjustment. Results: Multilevel modeling indicated a negative relationship between peer perception at W1 and peer victimization at W2, as well as a positive association with social anxiety at W1, after controlling for gender, age and victimization at W1. The direct association between peer perception and peer victimization was intensified by class social adjustment. Conclusions: The results provide a more nuanced understanding of the influence of cognitive, emotional, and social variables when trying to address vulnerability to victimization.
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Specific social media behaviors have been found to be differentially associated with adjustment outcomes; however, the extant research has yet to consider the motivations behind why adolescents engage in these specific behaviors. This study examined the role of two developmentally relevant motivational correlates (social goals and pubertal status) on four social media behaviors (self-disclosure, self-presentation, social monitoring, and lurking) and two time-based measures of social media use (daily number of hours on social media and frequency of social media use). Self-report data were collected from 426 middle-school students (54.2% female, 73.6% White, 11.5% Black, 4.8% Hispanic, 10.1% other ethnicity, mean age = 12.91). Social goals and pubertal status were distinctly associated with different social media behaviors, with some relevant sex differences. Popularity goal was positively associated with all six measures of social media engagement, although the associations for self-presentation and social monitoring were stronger for girls. Lurking followed the same pattern but did not reach significance. Acceptance goal was associated with fewer hours spent on social media for girls only. Early developers reported more self-disclosure and lurking behaviors, and marginally more social monitoring (girls only). These findings indicate the importance of identifying motivational factors, especially social goals, when considering early adolescents’ social media behaviors.
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Bullying is known to be associated with social status, but it remains unclear how bullying involvement over time relates to social position (status and affection), especially in the first years at a new school. The aim of this study was to investigate whether (the development of) bullying and victimization was related to the attainment of status (perceived popularity) and affection (friendships, acceptance, rejection) in the first years of secondary education (six waves). Using longitudinal data spanning the first- and second year of secondary education of 824 adolescents (51.5% girls; M ag e T1 = 12.54, SD = 0.45) in the SNARE-study, joint bullying and victimization trajectories were estimated using parallel Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA). The four trajectories (decreasing bully, stable high bully, decreasing victim, uninvolved) were related to adolescents’ social position using multigroup analysis that examined differences in slope and intercepts (T1 and T6) of social positions, and indicated that the relative social position of the different joint trajectories was determined at the start of secondary education and did not change over time, with one exception: adolescents continuing bullying were besides being popular also increasingly rejected over time. Although bullying is functional behavior that serves to optimize adolescents’ social position, anti-bullying interventions may account for the increasing lack of affection that may hinder bullies’ long-term social development.
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Sexting refers to the exchange of sexual content material via technological devices. The definitions of this phenomenon vary greatly, mainly, depending on the types of sexting: primary and secondary. Besides the above, there is no common perspective on whether sexting is a risk behavior that entails some type of impact by itself or not and, in such a case, whether this impact varies according to gender. In addition, the need to be popular has shown to be a factor that could increase the probability of being involved in sexting. The present study analyzes the potential emotional impact of sexting as well as the effect of the need for popularity on this phenomenon and if it varies according to gender. The sample comprised 2,356 high school students (46.8% female, 53.2% male; age range 11–18 years old, M = 13.72; SD = 1.31) belonging to 12 compulsory secondary education (ESO) schools from the south of Spain. To assess sexting implication, four questions were presented to participants (sending, receiving, forwarding, and receiving sexts via intermediary). Scales, self-report, about emotional impact (depressed, annoyed, and active) and need for popularity were also applied. The results obtained show that, although sexting has a clear emotional impact on adolescents, it does not appear to generate a negative impact among those involved, at least in the short term. Concretely, this phenomenon seems to trigger emotions related to activation in boys and girls (I feel lively, energetic, satisfied, ready, determined, active). Additionally, with respect to the need for popularity, its relevance, specially, in relation to active emotional impact has been confirmed by the analyses. Statistical models found for boys and girls were similar. In addition, some differences in emotional impact by gender were found, girls feeling more depressed and annoyed in secondary sexting, and boys more active regarding both types of sexting.
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The aim of the study was to examine Swedish school pupils’ perspectives on why some pupils engage in bullying, support bullying or avoid standing up for the one(s) being bullied, despite a shared understanding that bullying is wrong. Through the use of focus group interviews combined with two bullying vignettes, a total of 74 pupils from grades 5 and 6 (i.e. 11–12 years of age) from two public primary schools in socioeconomically diverse areas were asked for their perspectives on various participant roles in bullying. In interpreting the vignette scenario, the participants emphasised the importance of perceived coolness, as well as the risk of being bullied. In seeking to avoid becoming a ‘victim’ of bullying, the situational roles of ‘bully’, ‘assistant’, ‘reinforcer’ and ‘outsider’ were understood as potential means for promoting, maintaining or protecting one’s own social position. The findings of the study challenge previous understandings of bullying as an act of harmful or aggressive intentionality and rather highlight the relational and situational aspects of bullying.
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Bullying is a group process in which youths have different roles (bully, assistant, reinforcer, defender, outsider, victim). Although many studies have examined the group process of bullying in childhood, few have examined the group process of bullying in adolescence. This paper addresses how the group process of bullying is different in adolescence than in childhood due to the greater importance of popularity in adolescence. We review studies on the prevalence of the bullying participant roles in adolescence and the social status and behaviors associated with them. We discuss practical implications for anti-bullying programs in secondary school and provide suggestions for further research.
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Recently, cyber-victimization has become an ever increasing concern for adolescents. Given the negative consequences of cyber-victimization, it is important to understand how adolescents learn strategies to cope (i.e., “coping socialization”) with cyber-victimization. The purpose of this study is to understand common coping strategies reported by adolescents, identify from whom youth learn cyber-victimization coping strategies (coaching), and explore how coaching is associated with adolescents’ self-reported use of coping. In a sample of 329 adolescents (49% male; 70% white), we found that positive coping strategies (e.g., problem solving, seeking social support) are used most frequently, and adolescents’ perceptions of both parent and peer coping socialization is associated with self-reported use of coping. Interventionists can use this information to adapt interventions to include influential positive socializers.
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Published evidence has suggested that engaging in school or cyber bullying may potentially be associated with a suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. The aim of our review/meta-analysis was to evaluate the potential association between school and cyber bullying and suicidality (including suicidal ideation, planning and/or committing a suicide attempt) in children and adolescents (< 19 years old) who are considered as a “healthy” population, without predispositions for suicidality factors (not subpopulations with characteristics that may constitute proneness to bullying and its consequences, including sexual minorities, drug users and youth with psychiatric comorbidity). Regarding school bullying, victims and bullies independently, and victims and bullies together, were significantly more likely to present suicidal ideation and commit a suicide attempt, compared to non-involved participants. Victims of school bullying were found to be significantly more likely to commit a suicide attempt that required medical treatment. Victims of cyber bullying were significantly more likely to present suicidal ideation and commit a suicide attempt. A positive relationship between involvement in both school bullying and cyber-bullying with suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior was observed. This review/meta-analysis contributes to further understanding bullying and suicidality as it includes results of participants without any predisposing factors for suicidality, thus providing more clear results with regard to the magnitude of the effects of both school and cyber bullying on suicidality.
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Youth in early adolescence are highly concerned with being popular in the peer group, but the desire to be popular can have maladaptive consequences for individuals. In fact, qualitative work suggests that youth with high popularity goals who are nonetheless unpopular have negative experiences with their peers. However, little quantitative work has examined this possibility. The purpose of the current study was to examine if popularity goals were linked with physical (e.g., being hit) and relational (e.g., being excluded) victimization and peer rejection, particularly for individuals who strived for popularity but were viewed by their peers as unpopular. Late elementary and early middle school participants (N = 205; 54% female) completed self-reports of popularity goals and peer nominations of popularity and peer rejection. Teachers reported on students’ experiences of relational and physical victimization. Peer nominated popularity and gender were moderators of the association between popularity goals and negative peer experiences. Consistent with hypotheses, girls who were unpopular but wanted to be popular were more likely to experience peer rejection and relational victimization. Unexpectedly, boys who were unpopular but did not desire to be popular were more likely to be rejected and relationally victimized. The findings suggest that intervention and prevention programs may benefit from addressing the social status goals of low status youth in a gender-specific manner.
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International research on the risk and protective factors of cyberbullying focus on individual personality variables and the use of technological devices. However, it is necessary to examine in greater depth the interpersonal context as a factor that may influence cyberbullying and the possible differences between cultures. The objective of this article was to analyze the relationship of influence of two interpersonal variables, multidimensional social competence and social motivation, on cyberaggression and cybervictimization through a cultural study of Spain and Colombia, which will permit generalizing the influence of interpersonal variables on cyberbullying in different cultural settings. The sample consisted of 3,830 secondary school students (50.4% Colombian and 49.6% Spanish). Self-reporting measurement instruments validated with different European samples were used. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were performed. A model of mutual influence revealing the inverse relationship of normative adjustment and the direct relationship of popularity goals in cyberaggression was obtained. Cybervictimization was explained by the direct influence of prosocial behaviors and avoidance goals and the inverse influence of perceived social efficacy, development goals, and social and normative adjustment. As conclusion, this study demonstrates the homogeneity of the Colombian and Spanish models and the important role that the face-to-face context plays in cyberbullying involvement. This article highlights and supports the design of cyberbullying prevention programs, which requires the inclusion of multidimensional social competence and social goals.
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The aims of this paper were twofold: to validate the Adolescent Multidimensional Social Competence Questionnaire (AMSC-Q) and to examine the social competence of those involved in bullying. The representative sample was composed of four thousand and forty seven (4047) Andalusian secondary school students (48.2% girls). Two measures were used: the AMSC-Q and the European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ). The AMSC-Q measure yielding a five-factor structure (prosocial behaviour, social adjustment, normative adjustment, cognitive reappraisal and social efficacy) and revealed adequate reliability and validity. Victims presented greater prosocial behaviour and normative adjustment but low social adjustment and social efficacy. Bullies and bully victims demonstrated worse normative adjustment and less developed cognitive reappraisal but similar social adjustment and social efficacy. The social competence characteristics of those involved and non involved in bullying are discussed.
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The recognition of some overlap between face to face harassment (bullying) and via digital harassment (cyberbullying) could indicate that variables of social cognition, whose influence has been identified in bullying, also are present in cyberbullying. The aim of this research was to determine the social adjustment of roles involved in cyberbullying and to analyze the differences in the perception of social competence, social goals and peer support, between victims, aggressors and bully-victims of cyberbullying. A number of 505 teenagers (47.3% girls) between 12 and 16 years old (M=13.95, SD=1.42) participated in the study. Validated instruments for Spanish teenagers were used and psychometric properties for the adaptation of the scale of social competence were analyzed. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed optimal scores of reliability and validity. The cyber-bullying victims showed greater involvement in cyberbullying. Comparisons between roles with nonparametric tests showed that cyberbullies had the highest levels of peer support and popularity social goals. Cybervictims were highlighted by a high perception of social competence. Cyberbully-victims were described by their high popularity goals and low peer acceptance. These results support the conclusion that the way in which the peer group manages its emotional and social life may be explaining the situation of cyberbullying among teenagers.
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The study of moral disengagement has greatly informed research on aggression and bullying. There has been some debate on whether cyberbullies and other cyber-aggressors show more or less of a tendency for moral disengagement than traditional aggressors and bullies. However, according to the triadic model of reciprocal determinism, an individual's behavior influences and is influenced by both personal factors and his/her social environment. This article reviews the literature to propose a new conceptual framework addressing how features of the online context may enable specific mechanisms that facilitate moral disengagement. Specific affordances for moral disengagement proposed here include the paucity of social-emotional cues, the ease of disseminating communication via social networks, and the media attention on cyberbullying, which may elicit moral justification, euphemistic labeling, palliative comparison, diffusion and displacement of responsibility, minimizing and disregarding the consequences for others, dehumanization, and attribution of blame. These ideas suggest that by providing affordances for these mechanisms of moral disengagement, online settings may facilitate cyber-aggression and cyberbullying.
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Bullying involvement in any form can have lasting physical and emotional consequences for adolescents. For programs and policies to best safeguard youth, it is important to understand prevalence of bullying across cyber and traditional contexts. We conducted a thorough review of the literature and identified 80 studies that reported corresponding prevalence rates for cyber and traditional bullying and/or aggression in adolescents. Weighted mean effect sizes were calculated, and measurement features were entered as moderators to explain variation in prevalence rates and in traditional–cyber correlations within the sample of studies. Prevalence rates for cyber bullying were lower than for traditional bullying, and cyber and traditional bullying were highly correlated. A number of measurement features moderated variability in bullying prevalence; whereas a focus on traditional relational aggression increased correlations between cyber and traditional aggressions. In our meta-analytic review, traditional bullying was twice as common as cyber bullying. Cyber and traditional bullying were also highly correlated, suggesting that polyaggression involvement should be a primary target for interventions and policy. Results of moderation analyses highlight the need for greater consensus in measurement approaches for both cyber and traditional bullying.
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There is considerable concern about adolescents producing, consuming, and distributing sexual materials via mobile phone communication. The purpose of this study was to examine key aspects of peer influence and the peer context in relation to two such practices: sexting and mobile porn use. The results of a high-school survey study (N = 1,943) revealed that 6% of Flemish teens (11–20 years of age) have sent a sext, while 9% use mobile porn. Teens who were more popular with the other sex and with a greater need for popularity were more likely to report both behaviors. Boys' mobile porn use was also predicted by perceived peer pressure. Same-sex popularity was unrelated to boys' sexting behavior and mobile porn use; for girls, a negative relationship was found.
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Current research indicates that an alarming number of students are affected by cyberbullying. However, most of the empirical research has focused on psychological explanations of the phenomenon. In an explorative survey study based on the reconstruction of 2 complete school networks (NP = 408), we expand the explanation strategies of cyberbullying to higher levels of social abstraction. Using statistical and structural analysis, and visual inspection of network environments, we compare explanations on individual and structural levels. In line with previous research, the findings support traditional explanations via sociodemographic and personality factors. However, the findings also reveal network positioning to be a comparably strong predictor for cyberbullying. Therefore, we argue that without taking structural factors into account, individual explanations will remain insufficient.
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Although the Internet has transformed the way our world operates, it has also served as a venue for cyberbullying, a serious form of misbehavior among youth. With many of today's youth experiencing acts of cyberbullying, a growing body of literature has begun to document the prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of this behavior, but the literature is highly fragmented and lacks theoretical focus. Therefore, our purpose in the present article is to provide a critical review of the existing cyberbullying research. The general aggression model is proposed as a useful theoretical framework from which to understand this phenomenon. Additionally, results from a meta-analytic review are presented to highlight the size of the relationships between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, as well as relationships between cyberbullying and other meaningful behavioral and psychological variables. Mixed effects meta-analysis results indicate that among the strongest associations with cyberbullying perpetration were normative beliefs about aggression and moral disengagement, and the strongest associations with cyberbullying victimization were stress and suicidal ideation. Several methodological and sample characteristics served as moderators of these relationships. Limitations of the meta-analysis include issues dealing with causality or directionality of these associations as well as generalizability for those meta-analytic estimates that are based on smaller sets of studies (k < 5). Finally, the present results uncover important areas for future research. We provide a relevant agenda, including the need for understanding the incremental impact of cyberbullying (over and above traditional bullying) on key behavioral and psychological outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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Drawing on the social-ecological perspective, this longitudinal study investigated the potential moderating effect of gender in the relationships among Machiavellianism, popularity goals, and cyberbullying involvement (i.e., victimization, perpetration) among adolescents from China, Cyprus, India, and the United States. Another aim was to examine cross-cultural differences in these relationships. There were 2,452 adolescents (Mage = 14.85; SD = .53; 13-16 years old; 49.1% girls) from China, Cyprus, India, and the United States included in this study. They completed surveys on Machiavellianism, popularity goals, and cyberbullying victimization and perpetration during the fall of 2014 (Time 1). One year later, during the fall of 2015, adolescents completed surveys on cyberbullying victimization and perpetration. Findings revealed that Machiavellianism and popularity goals were both associated positively with Time 2 cyberbullying victimization and perpetration for all adolescents. The associations between Machiavellianism and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration and between popularity goals and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration were stronger for Chinese and Indian boys than girls. Opposite patterns were found for popularity goals and Time 2 cyberbullying perpetration for adolescents from the United States. Gender did not moderate any of the associations for Cypriot adolescents or for Time 2 cyberbullying victimization. The social-ecological perspective provides a useful understanding of how various contexts influence bullying.
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Bullying is a serious concern worldwide and may compromise development for all involved. Growing evidence suggests that bullying may be viewed as a goal‐oriented strategy to achieve prestige and power or as a form of proactive aggression serving personal goals. The current paper reports a meta‐analysis of studies examining social goals‐bullying associations in youth. In addition to reporting an overall weighted‐average effect size, we compared the relative strength of associations of specific goals (status/dominance vs. antisocial/prosocial) with bullying, and examined goal type (situation‐specific vs. global), gender, and age as potential moderators. A thorough literature search identified 45 eligible effect sizes from 16 independent samples (14 sources). On average, bullying behavior was related significantly to social goal setting. Specifically, youth who displayed more bullying behavior were more likely to endorse status/power goals (r = .16, 95% CI [.11, .21]) and antisocial goals (r = .27, 95% CI [.04, .48]) and to disregard prosocial goals (r = −.10, 95% CI [−.19, −.02]) than their peers who displayed less bullying behavior. None of the included moderators related to differences in the weighted average effect size. The findings support conceptualization of bullying as instrumental behavior aimed at achieving personal goals. They also advance the understanding of motivations for bullying by indicating that, for example, goals for status/power among peers and goals of antisocial nature (e.g., revenge goals) are both related to the risk of bullying. Implications for basic research and bullying interventions are discussed.
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The imbalance of power affords individuals to bully others. However, limited studies have explored the specific aspects of power imbalance in predicting cyberbullying. Furthermore, a fun-seeking tendency as a motive for cyberbullying and attitudes toward cyberbullying as cognitive stimuli have rarely been studied in relation to mediating the associations between power imbalance and cyberbullying in an integrated framework. This study aims to narrow these research gaps. Multistage cluster random sampling was employed to recruit a total of 1103 adolescents (52.5% females) ranging in age from 12 to 18 years. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that proficiency in technology use is not only directly and positively associated with cyberbullying but also indirectly associated with cyberbullying via fun-seeking tendency. Although social status among peers had no direct effect on cyberbullying, the indirect effects of social status among peers on cyberbullying via the fun-seeking tendency and attitude toward cyberbullying were significant. Notably, physical power was neither directly associated with cyberbullying nor through the fun-seeking tendency or attitude toward cyberbullying in associating with cyberbullying. Implications of these findings for developing effective interventions are discussed.
Article
Background Increasing use of online network has a positive impact on the psychosocial development of adolescents, but at the same time has a negative impact such as cyberbullying. Yet, research on the characteristics of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration in adolescence is limited, despite its potential importance to provide adequate implications for adolescent protection. Objective We aimed to clarify latent classes characterized by cyberbullying victimization and perpetration, and to examine what factors predict the latent classes of the cyberbullying trajectories. Participants and Setting The study included 3656 students (13–18 years) who had information about cyberbullying victimization and perpetration. The data was taken from the Seoul Education Longitudinal Study. Methods Latent class growth analysis and multinomial logistic regression were conducted to identify patterns of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration. Results Cyberbullying victimization patterns were identified: high risk increasing (n = 144, 3.9 %), transient (n = 219, 6.0 %), and low risk group (n = 3293, 90.1 %). Cyberbullying perpetration pattern were identified: mid risk maintaining (n = 115, 3.1 %), low risk (n = 3474, 95.0 %), and transient group (n = 67, 1.8 %). Regression results indicate that female students, students with high self-esteem, and more support from parents and friends experience less cyberbullying. Perpetration experience increases the risk of cyberbullying victimization, whereas victimization experience increases the risk of cyberbullying perpetration. Conclusion Adolescents experience distinct patterns of cyberbullying victimization and perpetration based on the individual and social support factors. This study provides important implications that characteristics of subgroups should be considered for interventions in cyberbullying.
Article
The study investigated the longitudinal relations between students’ roles in bullying (i.e., bullying, defending, and victimization) and social status within the class. Moreover, we tested the hypothesis that students’ perception of their own status may mediate these relations. A sample of 432 early adolescents completed peer nominations for behavior and status and a self-report on perceived social status. Path analysis showed a positive bidirectional relation between bullying others and popularity. Moreover, low popularity and low self-perceived social preference emerged as significant risk factors for victimization. Finally, defending behavior positively predicted social preference over time, but neither social preference nor popularity predicted this behavior 1 year later. However, students’ perception of being low in popularity and high in social preference acted as driving forces for defending. Findings highlighted perceived social status as an important construct in explaining the relationship between students’ role in bullying and their status within the class.
Article
Joint growth trajectories of bullying perpetration and victimization were examined using 5-year panel data (2004–2008) from a sample of 2,844 South Korean adolescents between the ages of 11 and 15 (fourth to eighth grade). The second-order growth mixture model revealed three distinct subgroups: bully-victims to low bully-victims transition (9.9%); moderate bully-victims to victim transition (6.8%); and a limited involvement/stable group (83.3%). Respondents with less self-control who associated with delinquent peers were more likely to be members of both the bully-victims to low bully-victims transition and the moderate bully-victims to victim transition groups, compared with the limited involvement/stable group. Relative to the limited involvement/stable group, adolescents with less self-control were more likely to be members of both transition groups even after controlling for opportunity measures. Delinquent peer associations partially mediated these associations.
Article
This study tested self-control and opportunities theories to examine cyberbullying developmental trajectories through the estimation of a latent class growth analysis. Data from a 6-year longitudinal study of middle- and high-school students from South Korea were analyzed to examine if there are unique growth trajectories for cyberbullying perpetration when accounting for low self-control and opportunity factors. Results suggest that there are three distinct subgroups: (1) a normative trajectory group, (2) an increasing and late-peak group, and (3) an early onset and decreasing group. Low self-control was found to be significantly associated with early onset/decreasing cyberbullying. Opportunity to utilize cyberspace was significantly related with increasing/ late peak cyberbullying but did not significantly mediate the effect of low self-control on class membership.
Article
The present study sought to investigate the short-term growth in the levels of traditional and cyber forms of bullying and victimization and examine how growth in one form of bullying relates to that of others’, for students in late elementary and early high school grades (ages 10 to 15) and to examine how the educational level of the students affects this growth. In total 868 students participated in the study during four measurement waves with an approximate five-week time-lag between each wave. The Latent Growth Modelling technique was implemented in data analysis and results indicated considerable differences between traditional and cyber forms of bullying. For example, a steeper fluctuation was indicated for cyber forms of bullying and victimization, which was more precipitous for students who were already reporting high levels of such behaviours, contrary to what was found for traditional forms of bullying. Nonetheless, similarities between the two forms were also present. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Article
Previous studies have shown that bullying and victimization can be experienced simultaneously by an individual and can change over time. Understanding the joint longitudinal development of the two is of great significance. We conducted a 4-year longitudinal study to examine the joint developmental trajectories of bullying and victimization, gender and grade differences in trajectory group membership, and changes in specific forms of bullying and victimization (verbal, relational, and physical bullying /victimization) in each trajectory group. A total of 775 children from China participated in our study. The average age of participants at the first wave was 10.90 years (SD = 1.12), and boys accounted for 69.5% of the sample. Based on mean scores, four distinct joint developmental trajectories of bullying and victimization were found: the involvement group (both bullying and victimization increased from low to high over time, accounting for 7.6% of the total), the desisted group (both bullying and victimization decreased from high to low over time, 6.1%), the victimization group (victimization remained at a high level, whereas bullying remained at a low level for 3 years, 13.2%), and the noninvolved group (bullying and victimization remained at a stable low level, 73.1%). Boys were more likely than girls to belong to the involvement group, desisted group, and victimization group, whereas girls were more likely than boys to belong to the noninvolved group. There was no significant grade difference in the trajectory group. All forms of bullying/victimization were consistent with the overall trend and showed similar levels. These results have important implications for the prevention of and interventions for school bullying.
Article
Cyberbullying has been established as a serious problem that affects all countries. However, the phenomenon of duality in cyberbullying, whereby an individual assumes two completely opposite roles, i.e., being a cybervictim and a cyberbully at the same time, has not been sufficiently examined in depth. The study population of this meta-analysis of 22 studies (K = 27) comprised 47,836 adolescents whose mean age was 13.68 years. The effect size of the correlation between being both a cybervictim and a cyberbully was moderate-high (r = 0.428), and its significance was high (p<0.001). The moderator variables sex, age and culture were studied by meta-regression; only culture was found to be significant, explaining 66% of the variance (R² = 66%). It was found in the data that Central European, Mediterranean culture, North American, South America and Asian culture in particular accounted for most of the moderator effect, while the other two variables were insignificant. The systematic review showed that the group of cyberbully-victims was chiefly formed by females with unstable family links (laissez-faire parental style, lack of communication and rules, offensive communication with parents). Lack of clear, appropriate rules and behavioural patterns in this family type reinforces problematic Internet use, which in turn increases the risk of individuals in this group becoming cybervictims. Longitudinal studies have revealed a series of grave problems and a relation between reporting being a cybervictim in the first survey waves and becoming a cyberbully in later waves. The cybervictim-bully population also proved to be more prone to suffer other psychological disorders (depression and anxiety) and emotional difficulties with peers.
Article
Cyber bullying and victimization are prevalent in the daily lives of a large number of individuals in the current digital age. Both traditional and cyber bullying and victimization among adolescents have raised global concern. Accumulating evidence suggests that there are inter-individual differences between patterns of bullying and victimization among adolescents. However, previous research has primarily relied on variable-centered approaches and failed to reveal the heterogeneity among groups with regard to bullying and victimization. Using a cross-sectional design, we included traditional and cyber bullying and victimization as indicators and employed a person-centered approach to identify distinct subgroups and their associations with demographic, individual, family, school, and peer factors. A total of 1,529 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 14.74 years, SD = 1.48) participated in the study. Latent profile analysis identified three profiles that evidenced heterogeneity of bullying and victimization groups: uninvolved group (92%), high traditional bully-victims group (6%), and high cyber bully-victims group (2%). The findings suggest that these distinct subgroups can be predicted by factors from multiple domains. High traditional bully-victims can be predicted by male, younger age, high depressive symptoms, low classmate support, and high deviant peer affiliation. High cyber bully-victims can be predicted by male, younger age, high depressive symptoms, high interparental conflict, and high deviant peer affiliation. In addition, interparental conflict, parental warmth and acceptance, school climate, and peer attachment can further differentiate high traditional bully-victims from high cyber bully-victims. Our results provide implications for tailored prevention and intervention strategies to reduce adolescent bullying and victimization.
Article
This study aims to explore joint trajectories of parental supervision and cyberbullying for boys and girls, respectively. Drawing on a longitudinal sample of South Korean youth, we employ a latent group-based trajectory modeling approach to examine overlapping patterns of parental supervision and cyberbullying trajectories, and gender differences in the bivariate overlap. We found that boys with higher levels of parental supervision were more likely to be in the Noninvolved cyberbullying group, whereas girls with the highest level of parental supervision tended to engage in cyberbullying at an early age but soon desisted from it after the initial involvement. Results suggest that effects of parental supervision on cyberbullying may vary across gender.
Article
Twenty-three samples from 22 longitudinal studies assessing both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization were selected from a sample of 1,408 candidate studies using several prespecified criteria (i.e., participants ≤ 18 years of age; self-reported bullying victimization and perpetration assessed with a lag of at least 1 month but no more than 24 months; not a treatment or program study). A random effects meta-analysis was then performed on the concurrent and cross-lagged longitudinal associations between bullying victimization and perpetration in the 23 samples. A large pooled effect size ( r = .40, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [.34, .45]) was obtained for the concurrent association between bullying victimization and perpetration, whereas modest to moderate effect sizes (victimization to perpetration: r = .20, 95% CI [.17, .24]; perpetration to victimization: r = .21, 95% CI [.17, .24]) were obtained for the two cross-lagged longitudinal correlations. The results did not change when analyses were conducted separately for traditional bullying and cyberbullying outcomes. These findings indicate that bullying victimization and perpetration correlate strongly and that their cross-lagged longitudinal relationship runs in both directions, such that perpetration is just as likely to lead to future victimization as victimization is to lead to future perpetration. Different theoretical models are proposed in an effort to explain these results: cycle of violence, general strain, and social cognitive theories for victimization leading to perpetration and risky lifestyles, routine activities, and peer selection theories for perpetration leading to victimization.
Chapter
Cyberbullying has built on a previous research tradition in school bullying, but with inputs from other disciplines. There has been a decade of a rapidly increasing number of research studies. This has been a global phenomenon, with an initial impetus from North America but by now an even greater volume from Europe. By continent, only South America and Africa have so far lagged behind in this global development. Cyberbullying has both similarities to and differences from traditional bullying. There is still continuing debate about issues of measurement and definition, which the changing technological scene only exacerbates. Many studies have reported prevalence rates, but these vary hugely, depending on methodologies employed. Considerable work has focussed on age and gender differences, and other predictors of involvement. Another common focus of studies has been on correlates of cyberbullying involvement and negative outcomes, often found to be as much or more than for traditional bullying. The great majority of empirical studies have been quantitative, and cross-sectional. There is a need for more longitudinal studies, and also more qualitative and mixed methods approaches.
Article
Bullying and cyberbullying are extremely damaging violent behaviors present in schools. A promising research line focuses on social and emotional competencies in relation to bullying and cyberbullying. The aim of this study was to describe social and emotional competencies in Spanish adolescents in relation to age and gender and to find out if the level of social and emotional competencies was related to different bullying and cyberbullying roles. This study was conducted with a representative sample of 2139 adolescents enrolled in 22 schools. Social and emotional competencies differed by gender and age. Bullying and cyberbullying perpetrators and bully-victims scored low in social and emotional competencies. There was no significant difference between victims and uninvolved students. Controlling for age and gender, low social awareness and prosocial behavior were independently related to bullying perpetration and being a bully-victim. Low responsible decision making was related to being a bully-victim and being a cyberbully-cybervictim. These findings suggest that social and emotional competencies can protect adolescents against bullying and cyberbullying but future studies are needed to establish possible causal relationships between these competencies, bullying and cyberbullying.
Article
Many studies have reported on gender differences in bully and victim rates, but with the majority of reports from a small number of countries. Here we report on such gender differences from five large cross-national data bases. We report on overall male:female (M:F) ratios, and variations in these by age (or grade), by survey time point, and by offline/online bullying. We also compare consistency of M:F ratios across countries, over the five surveys. The preponderance of male perpetrators of bullying is found consistently across surveys, and survey time point. It is also consistent by age, but HBSC data suggest a curvilinear trend in early adolescence. Males also tend to more frequently be victims of bullying, consistent across age and survey time point, but with variations by survey. There is some indication of a decrease in M:F ratio recently in mid-adolescence, possibly related to online bullying. At least relatively, females are more involved as victims of online than offline bullying. Comparing recent findings on M:F ratio across countries for the five surveys, correlations vary from high to near zero. Implications for the explanation of gender differences in different countries, the comparability of data from different surveys, and for gender-specific interventions, are discussed.
Article
Cyberbullying has been subject to a debate about whether it is a subtype of traditional bullying or a distinct deviant behavior from traditional bullying. Applying a longitudinal South Korean youth sample and latent group-based trajectory modeling, the current study examines: 1) an overlap of developmental trajectories between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, and 2) effects of predictors on developmental trajectory groups for both cyberbullying and traditional bullying. It is concluded that cyberbullying is close to a variation of bullying rather than a distinct deviant behavior and reported an overlap of developmental trajectories between cyberbullying and traditional bullying and strong associations between both forms of bullying and peer-related predictors. Implications of the research findings and suggestions for future research are also discussed.
Chapter
Social identity theory is an interactionist social psychological theory of the role of self-conception and associated cognitive processes and social beliefs in group processes and intergroup relations. Originally introduced in the 1970s primarily as an account of intergroup relations, it was significantly developed at the start of the 1980s as a general account of group processes and the nature of the social group. Since then, social identity theory has been significantly extended through a range of sub-theories that focus on social influence and group norms, leadership within and between groups, self-enhancement and uncertainty reduction motivations, deindividuation and collective behavior, social mobilization and protest, and marginalization and deviance within groups. The theory has also been applied and developed to explain organizational phenomena and the dynamics of language and speech style as identity symbols. Chapter 1 provides a relatively comprehensive and accessible overview of social identity theory, with an emphasis on its analysis of intergroup conflict.
Article
Research on cyberbullying started at the beginning of the 21st century and the number of studies on the topic is increasing very rapidly. Nevertheless, the criteria used to define the phenomenon and evaluation strategies are still under debate. Therefore, it is still difficult to compare the findings among the studies or to describe their prevalence in different geographic areas or time points. Thus, the current systematic review has been conducted with the objective of describing the studies on the phenomenon in Spain taking into account its different definitions and evaluation strategies in relation to its prevalence. After conducting systematic searches and applying the inclusion criteria, 29 articles reporting the results of 21 different studies were included. It was found that the number of studies on the topic in Spain is growing and that most of the definitions include the criteria of repetition, intention, and power imbalance. It was also found that timeframes and cut-off points varied greatly among the studies. All the studies used self-reports with one-item or multi-item instruments. The prevalence also varied depending on the evaluation strategies and when assessed with multi-item instruments it was about twice as high as when assessed with one-item instruments. It is suggested that specific instruments should be chosen depending on the research questions posed in each investigation and that it could be useful to unify the criteria for further advancement of the field.
Article
The present study examines the reciprocal associations between cyberbullying behavior and young adolescents’ social status. For this purpose, a two-wave panel study with an 8-month time interval was conducted among an entire grade of 154 secondary school pupils (age 12-14). The survey featured items on traditional bullying and cyberbullying as well as peer-nomination questions on sociometric and perceived popularity. Cyberbullying was related to subsequent increases in perceived popularity of the perpetrators. In contrast, traditional bullying perpetration was not longitudinally associated with social status during the studied period. Although perceived popularity was also expected to precede cyberbullying behavior, this was not observed. Taken together, the results suggest that electronic forms of bullying, rather than traditional forms, can provide a means to acquire additional perceived popularity in early adolescence. The findings warrant future research on the factors that moderate the association between cyberbullying and social status.