Contribution of Remote Sensing and Geophysical Prospecting (1D) to the Knowledge of Groundwater Resources Burkina Faso

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American Journal of Water Resources, 2023, Vol. 11, No. 2, 49-64
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajwr/11/2/2
Published by Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/ajwr-11-2-2
Contribution of Remote Sensing and Geophysical
Prospecting (1D) to the Knowledge of
Groundwater Resources Burkina Faso
Faye Moussa Diagne*, Biaou Angelbert Chabi,
Doulkom Palingba Aimé Marie, Koita Mahamadou, Yacouba Hamma
Laboratoire Eaux Hydro-Systèmes et Agriculture (LEHSA), Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement
(Institut 2iE), 1 Rue de la Science, 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou 01, Burkina Faso
*Corresponding author:
Received May 02, 2023; Revised June 04, 2023; Accepted June 12, 2023
Abstract In Burkina Faso, the use of groundwater in a basement environment represents a major asset for rural
populations, due to the questionable quality of surface water. It is exploited through boreholes installed with the help
of 1D electrical geophysical investigations. Analysis of the database of 206 boreholes reveals that 30% are negative
and 40% are unproductive or have a low flow rate of less than 2.5 m3/h in the study area. This has an impact on the
access rate, which was set at 80% in 2015, and which is 71.9% in 2015 and 76.4% in 2020. In view of this
observation, in order to define the geometry of the aquifer and productivity, we propose to see whether the
methodology (1D) presents certain limitations or difficulties in correlating the lineaments with the preferential water
circulation corridors in this type of geological context. Does it also allow us to highlight the thickness and nature of
the alteration? To achieve this, remote sensing is used followed by validation. Subsequently, possible correlations
between the types of geophysical anomalies and the productivity of the boreholes were identified using a statistical
analysis of the 206 boreholes. Geophysical prospecting was used to propose new drilling locations based on fracture
directions.
Keywords: hydrogeology, electrical profile, crystalline basement, remote sensing, water management
Cite This Article: Faye Moussa Diagne, Biaou Angelbert Chabi, Doulkom Palingba Aimé Marie, Koita
Mahamadou, and Yacouba Hamma, “Contribution of Remote Sensing and Geophysical Prospecting (1D) to the
Knowledge of Groundwater Resources Burkina Faso.” American Journal of Water Resources, vol. 11, no. 2
(2023): 49-64. doi: 10.12691/ajwr-11-2-2.
1. Introduction
Research and exploitation of groundwater in the middle
of the bedrock has remained at the prospective stage
compared to similar aquifers [1,2,3,4].
In this country, the average volume of water available is
850 m3 per year per capita, slightly below the water
scarcity threshold of 1000 m3/year/hbt [5]. Groundwater in
the basement environment represents a major asset in
terms of drinking water for rural populations, as surface
water is not perennial in addition to its often impure
quality [6,7,8].
If the importance of fracturing is no longer to be
demonstrated, the problem of fault location is not resolved,
because it is strongly linked to geology and and climate
change [9,10]. The Sissili sub-basin occupied by 12
municipalities and 3 provinces is one of these areas where
groundwater is most often located in alterites and uses
privileged corridors which are fractures. In the early 1970s,
many works were aimed at studying tectonics. However,
aerial photography was the most widely used and had
certain limitations resulting from the difficulty of
correlating lineaments to preferential water circulation
corridors [11]. With the need to exploit groundwater felt by
the growing population, a large number of boreholes are
drilled every year to improve the water supply, but these
remain costly and unsatisfactory, as 67 of the 206 boreholes
surveyed are polluted, 30 have been abandoned by the
population, 60 are negative and 83 with a productivity rate
of less than 2.5 m3/h [12]. Added to this, a climatic context
where precipitation show high spatial variability with a
downward trend [12,17].
The objective of this study is to help improve the
mapping of hydraulically favorable fractures by remote
sensing, which is essential, and geophysics, with the aim
of improving the rate of positive drilling implantations
without having too much impact on investment [17-21].
Through the profiles carried out, the geometry of the
aquifer was defined. To do this, we will adopt linear
mapping to define the rectilinear structures defining the
groundwater corridor with statistical analysis. Then a
validation will follow by geophysics (1D) with the

50 American Journal of Water Resources
adaptation of the electrical resistivity method because the
cuirass has a higher propagation speed than that of the
underlying alterites. And finally a statistical analysis will
be made to study the correlation which exists between the
lineaments and the productivity of the works.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study environment
The Sissili sub-watershed is located in southern
Burkina Faso (Figure 1). It covers an area of 7559 km2. It
extends between longitudes 1° and 2° West and latitudes
11° and 12° North [12].
The relief is characterized in places by small rock
masses. There are also small hills (elephant back), chaos
of balls (granite) and barely marked hilltops. The average
slope of the hydrological units is 2.03m/km, the overall
slope index is 0.2m/km.
The catchment area Sissili includes 3 types of land use:
agricultural areas, pastoral areas and wetlands.
Agricultural areas include rainfed crops, crops under
agroforestry parks or agroforestry territories, mosaics of
fallow crops and large natural areas, and forest and
irrigated plantations [22]. These are the most important
from the point of view of spatial occupation. This tree
cover is generally equal to or greater than 25% of the total
area. Mosaic areas/natural spaces are vast expanses of
natural formations (savannah or steppe) dotted with fields.
These are pasture areas where small ruminants are mainly
kept in the winter season. Its Sudanian-type climate
(South Sudanese) located south of the 11°30’N parallel,
covers the entire catchment area Sissili. It is characterized
by an average annual rainfall greater than 900 mm; a rainy
season that lasts more than 6 months of the year, fairly
low annual thermal amplitudes Direction de la Météo,
(2001).
Hydrographically, the study site is crossed by the
Sissili River (tributary of the Nazinon) which gives
its name to the province (area). It is 322km long
with an average gradient of 1.48m/km over the first
42 km.
From a geological point of view, the formations
encountered are varied and can be grouped into two major
geological units of Proterozoic ages: the plutonic unit and
the sedimentary volcano unit [19,23,24,25]. At the
hydrogeological level, hydraulic productivity is defined by
geological formation. Plutonic formations such as
granodiorites, tonalites and quartz diorites have the
highest hydraulic productivity with permanent flowsthat
can exceed 20 m3/h. Then follow formations such as
orthogneiss, kyanite micaschists, garnet leptynites, garnet
micaschists, sillimanites and staurolites which show an
average productivity of around 20 m3/h.
Low hydraulic productivities are generally encountered
in sedimentary volcano formations. It can exceed 5 m3/h
but this can drop due to clogging. While the weakest are at
the level of intrusive plutons and can hardly reach 2 m3 /h
[12].
Figure 1. Localization of the study zone of study

American Journal of Water Resources 51
2.2. Data Processing from Remote Sensing
Method
In this work, it is through Landsat satellite imagery to
map the distribution of lineaments in the basement zone in
order to analyze the role of fracturing in the circulation of
underground water. Authors like [26-30] recommend the
use of satellite imagery, particularly Landsat 8 images, for
a good study of water resources in the basement zone.
These images of scenes 195 (052-053) composed of 11
bands and acquired in February 2014, generally appear
clear because this period of the year corresponds to the dry
period. Added to this is the combination of the geological
and topographic map. To do this, the processing was done
in two phases: the fusion of the images because the study
area does not fit on a single image [31-35] and the
application of the filters [26,36-40]. The structures
identified were the subject of a frequency analysis and the
directions compared with those of the recorded
discontinuities. These pre-processed satellite images have
undergone corrections and processing. Then they were
grouped by class of 10° in 10° for their statistical
processing, with the aim of obtaining classes of
preferential directions which are reported on the rosette of
directional distribution [27,30,41,42]. Thus with the Envi
software, the ACP made it possible to merge the OLI
bands (multi-spectrum and infrared) for the purpose of
improving image quality, removing redundant information
and compiling data. A second ACPS is then carried out
with the infrared bands. The resampling of the pixels of
the panchromatic bands was additionally necessary to
bring the pixels from 60 m to 30 m side [43,44,45]. The
application of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on
the Sobel filters allowed an enhancement lineaments
associated with megastructures and large shear corridors.
A visual analysis has eliminated all kinds of false
presentations [46]. These different bands also allowed the
application of the technique of fusion by RGB coding
which makes it possible to compose the final image. It is
for example necessary to attenuate the blue channel
(OLI1), in the composition OLI 2 and 3, because its level
is artificially increased by atmospheric Rayleigh scattering.
The Sobel filters made it possible to identify a few
lineaments. In practice, the 7×7 Sobel filters (assigned the
weight 6) in the NS directions; EO, NE-SW and NW-SE
were used in this study. The highlighting of the following
Landsat 8 lineaments was possible thanks to the
highlighting of the ratios (OLI5/OLI6; OLI5/OLI4;
OLI7/OLI4; OLI6/OLI5). We also used the ARSIS
method described by [47], to identify the normalised
vegetation index.
2.3. Manual Extraction of Lineaments
by Visual Analysis Method
It is advisable to apply it on the colored composition to
see the variation of the gray tone. Then we proceed to
manual surveys. This consists in symbolizing by a straight
section the image discontinuities and the sudden changes
in tonality observed on the processed images. [48]
recommends a length of 280 m for surveys, whereas [49]
takes 9 km as major lineaments and 480 m for small
lineaments. This was possible thanks to the software
Geomatica for the extraction of lineaments [42,50],
Rockwork to calculate the extracted directions in number
and length [51,52]. The lineaments identified from the
Landsat images were the subject of a frequency analysis
making it possible to highlight the main directions using
the directional rosette [53]. The lineaments thus observed
can be closed or open fractures; subvertical or reverse
faults; veins generally associated with fractures;
geological contacts; the foliation of metamorphic rocks
especially as the fractures follow the foliation planes.
2.4. Validation of the Lineament Map Method
For validation, the literature has shown us several types.
The first refers to superimposing the directional rosette
map which has been the subject of a frequency analysis
making it possible to highlight the main directions then
compare them to those of previous work carried out in the
Sissili sub-basin [19,54]. According [55], observation on
different supports, at different scales and by different
photo-interpreters, can lead to the consideration of
lineaments as effective fractures in the field, [56] used
this technique in his study area and thus had a correlation
by comparison. Subsequently, it was a question of
superimposing productive boreholes according to the
CIEH classification and negative ones already drilled in
the study area on the lineament map. This gave us an
indication of the preferred directions. The methodology
consisted of a comparative analysis of the electrical
prospecting results with the drilling logs. This analysis
was carried out by grouping the prospecting
measurements into families of geological formations
encountered in the study area. And finally the validation is
completed by a geophysical survey (1D). The objective of
the trail is to determine the variation in apparent resistivity
for a given depth of investigation in order to understand
the increase in the roof of the substratum. It is shown not
to effectively establish the thickness of the weathered
aquifer. Subsequently, in addition, soundings will be
established, the purpose of which is to define the vertical
classification of the apparent resistivities. As a result,
through in-depth research, he agrees to travel through the
different formations to determine the thicknesses of the
terrain. In the case of the validation of lineaments for
the implantation of HandPumps, a single profile is
often sufficient, especially in the case of green rocks or
migmatites. But in this study, we opted to make parallel
profiles to see the direction of the fractures and then
compare it with the position of the productive and
negative boreholes. Sequences acquisition of data are
programmed under the Prosys II software with a
Schlumberger device as shown in Table 1. Then using the
IP2WIN software, we interpreted the data in terms of
resistivity and thickness in order to characterize and
quantify the thicknesses of the underlying lands. In this
study, a total of 12 drags (3 profiles per site) and 5
boreholes were carried out in order to improve the
implantation of the boreholes as shown in Figure 2. The
choice of measurement sites in the sub-basin was made
taking into account the different geological formations
present in the study area. This will allow us, after
validation, to group the two categories of positive and
negative drilling according to the type of formation.

52 American Journal of Water Resources
Table 1. Characteristics of drag profiles
Site
Koukin
Kada
Sissili Mossi
Tiakane
Distance (m)
860
400
400
400
AB/2 (m) 200 200 200 200
NM (m)
10
10
10
10
Figure 2. Presentation of electrical profile zones in the municipality of Kada and Sapouy
2.5. Data Processing from the Statistical
Analysis Method
Based on the cross tables, the first step is to find the
correlation between the qualitative parameters and the
hydrogeological parameters; and thus to visualize the data
in 2D then to link the elements of the same character
according to their negative or positive state. Thus, we will
determine the rate of success and failure according to the
type of formation, the form of anomaly, and the direction
of the fractures.
2.6. Estimation of the Distance of Boreholes
Fractures and Flow Classes Method
The parameters related to hydrogeology were obtained
from the technical sheets of 206 positive and negative
boreholes. The proposed technique consists in estimating
the distance between positive boreholes - lineaments,
negative boreholes - lineaments and the flow classes -
lineaments, while putting the relationships that remain
between the major discontinuity and the flow rates (Q) of
the boreholes. The flow classification adopted is that of
the CIEH: [0−1 m3/h] Very low, [1−2.5 m3/h] Low,
[2.5−5 m3/h] Medium, [>5 m3/h] High.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Image Processing
3.1.1. Data Processing from Remote Sensing
The identification of the main corridors was possible
thanks to the analysis of certain processed images.
These images also allow the vectorization of the
hydrographic network and possibly the geological
accidents attached to it [49]. The ACP (Figure 3), very
clearly draws a domain in a fine gray tone in the
southwestern part. And the lineaments of NE-SW and NS
direction defined by the regional accident are clearly
visible there. The Sobel filters on the raw image channels
of Landsat 8 OLI3/OLI4 (Figure 4) make it possible
to identify the means for recognizing hitherto poorly
known lineaments and corresponding to lithological or
structural discontinuities in the images by causing
an effect shadow optics cast on the image [57]. The
NS-trending Sobel filter maintains structural cracks
and accurately EW, NO-SE (Liberian) and NE-SW
(Eburnean) trending lineaments [58]. We also note that
certain lineaments governing the direction of different
water arms in the region correspond to parallel faults that

American Journal of Water Resources 53
probably have the same geological history. This
methodology resulted in the visualization of many
discontinuities, sometimes kilometric and materialized
by dark and gray areas of direction N°10-20. Many
other additional regional accidents have been highlighted
and identified from the analysis of certain colored
compositions. Analysis of this detailed lineament
map reveals that almost all of the hectometer-sized
lineaments follow either the NW-SE direction or the
NE-SO direction. These fractures are much sought after
during hydrogeological prospecting for the search for
underground water [27].
Figure 3. Highlighting ACP lineaments
Figure 4. North South filter application
3.1.2. Manual Extraction of Lineaments
by Visual Analysis
Lineaments were drawn by hand. Figure 5 represents
the results obtained after extraction of the lineaments
carried out on the Landsat images and its rosette to
indicate the directions. Extraction of lineaments from
satellite images reveals different sizes and directions. This
confirms the tectonic studies carried out by [19] in
Burkina who assert that the Sissili sub-basin would have
been influenced by several tectonic phenomena which led
to the pronounced fragmentation of the geological
formations. There is a large representation of the major
directions of the NO-SE and NE-SW family and a
minority class of the NS and EO family. The directions
given by the filters are superimposed on the geological
map and show the Liberian (NS) and Eburnean (NE-SW)
formations of the West African craton. This makes this
map not complete, but very representative.

54 American Journal of Water Resources
Figure 5. Map of lineaments from Landsat satellite images
3.2. Lineament Map Validations
3.2.1. Validation of the Lineament Map in Imaging:
Overlay Directional Rosette Map
The directional rosettes from the Landsat images of this
study and those from the aerial photography of [23] were
analyzed by figure 6. It appears that the two rosettes
have a fairly good correlation with directions N60°-70°,
N140°-150° with frequency peaks. On the aerial
photography, we find peaks in the vicinity of N10°, N20°,
N40°, while at the level of our directional rosette of
the Landsat images, it emerges from the preferential
directions N10°-15°, N30°-35°, N185°-90°. The directions
can be associated in pairs of directions
N°10-20°, N°60-70°, N100°-110°. There are also
non-existent directions on the N30°-N35°, N165°-N175°
images, and in the aerial photography it is rather the N80°
and N110° directions. This absence of direction can be
explained by the fact that the satellite scans the East-West
direction, which is visible on the aerial photography as
well. The two maps present frequency peaks N40°-50°,
N60°-70°, N120°-140° and directions which form
perpendiculars (right angles) are visible there: N15°-105°,

American Journal of Water Resources 55
N45°-135°, N60°-150. We can add to this that the
hydraulic role of the different fractures makes it possible
to distinguish between open and closed joints. By
superimposing the boreholes on the lineaments, we notice
several directions including N0°-N20°, N60°-N70° which
represent the negative boreholes and therefore closed
joints. Indeed, open joints at the surface can end up closed
at depth causing a reduction in permeability and causing
the disappearance of satellite lineaments at the same
time as the reduction of voids. Others, on the other hand,
in directions N90°-N100°, N120°-N130° and N160°
represent positive boreholes and therefore open joints. It
was retained that the open directions are the most capable
of playing a drainage role with respect to the surrounding
alterites. The difference in fracturing density recorded at
the level of the two rosettes can be linked on the one hand
to the quality and resolution of the photographs which did
not make it possible to map the fractures properly and on
the other hand to the absence of techniques improvement
of images at the level of photography acquired only in the
visible. However, in a modeling approach, fitting a normal
distribution per family would be acceptable. In short, it
should be noted here that the major lineaments present
a great heterogeneity in their orientation, with a
preponderance and will be considered as fractures The
difference in fracturing density recorded at the level of the
two rosettes can be linked on the one hand to the quality
and resolution of the photographs which did not make it
possible to map the fractures properly and on the other
hand to the absence of techniques improvement of images
at the level of photography acquired only in the visible.
However, in a modeling approach, fitting a normal
distribution per family would be acceptable. In short, it
should be noted here that the major lineaments present a
great heterogeneity in their orientation, with a
preponderance and will be considered as fractures The
difference in fracturing density recorded at the level of the
two rosettes can be linked on the one hand to the quality
and resolution of the photographs which did not make it
possible to map the fractures properly and on the other
hand to the absence of techniques improvement of images
at the level of photography acquired only in the visible.
However, in a modeling approach, fitting a normal
distribution per family would be acceptable. In short, it
should be noted here that the major lineaments present a
great heterogeneity in their orientation, with a
preponderance and will be considered as fractures [56].
3.2.2. Validation of the Lineament Map by Overlaying
Boreholes
• Positive drilling positioning
It is applied to all the directions of the lineaments as
shown in Figure 7. In this sense, to validate the lineaments
in fractures, we propose to study the relations between
direction of orientation and distance. For a total of 146
boreholes, we note that 60 boreholes or 41.10% of the
boreholes correspond to the different intersections of the
lineaments, which suggests that this is consistent with the
fractures in the basement. Subsequently, we see that the
remaining 86 boreholes, i.e. 58.90%, do not overlap on the
images. Insofar as a borehole can capture several
directions, the percentage of impacted boreholes
according to the orientations are as follows: the NO-SE
direction is exploited by 11 boreholes, i.e. 18.33% the NE-
SW direction is exploited by 39 boreholes, i.e. 65.00%,
the NS direction is exploited by 11 boreholes, i.e. 11.67%,
the EW direction is exploited by 3 boreholes, i.e. 5.00%.
This can be explained by the fact that some boreholes
capture secondary lineaments which are poorly known.
The analysis of the different percentages makes it possible
to classify the lineaments according to their influence in
the positioning of the boreholes: NE-SW > NO-SE > EW
> NS. The predominant directions and the preferential
directions of lineaments oriented N60°-70°, N100°-115°
and N120°-130° (NE-SO) and (NO-SE) are the most
represented, then the N10° directions -20° (NS) follow.
Similar results by a dominance of NO-SE directions have
been obtained by different authors [58,59,60,61] in the
same base environment and which describe that there is a
low percentage of correlation on the directions. The
intensities of dominant lineaments correspond mainly to
the domains of schists, granite and magmatic granites
which results from a tectonic activity giving rise to a
hydrographic network. On a large scale, directions with a
high local density appear, whereas on a regional level they
are at a low frequency rate. The superimposition also
gives us information on open joints, in directions
N90°-N100°, N120°-N130° and N160°. It was retained
that the open directions are the most capable of playing a
drainage role with respect to the surrounding alterites [19].
Figure 6. a) Aerial photography rosette b) Landsat rosette

56 American Journal of Water Resources
Figure 7. Superposition of positive boreholes in relation to the orientations of the lineaments of the Sissili sub-basin
• Positioning negative boreholes
For the 60 negative boreholes as illustrated in Figure 8,
it is noted that the direction captured mainly in line with
the boreholes is the NS direction. Indeed, out of 60
boreholes concerned, 27 boreholes are NS directions, i.e.
45.00% of the negative boreholes: the NO-SE direction is
exploited by 14 boreholes, i.e. 23.33%, the NE-SW
direction is exploited by 15 boreholes, i.e. 25.00%, the NS
direction is exploited by 26 boreholes, i.e. 43.33%, the
EW direction is exploited by 5 boreholes, i.e. 8.33%. This
confirms following the superposition of several directions,
that some directions can have closed joints (NS) N0°-
N10°, but also the directions (EO) N60°-N80°. Indeed, the
observation on the ground and the data collected on the
negative drillings confirm that the direction can play on
the nature of the joint.
Figure 8. Superposition of negative boreholes in relation to the orientations of the lineaments of the Sissili sub-basin

American Journal of Water Resources 57
• Separation distances
Subsequently, the distance of each borehole from the
lineaments was measured. The percentage of positive and
negative boreholes impacted according to the orientations
is represented by Figure 9 and listed in Table 2. According
to the results, the implantation of boreholes in the
sub-basin was most often done by trial and error.
Figure 9b shows us a peak of 93.33% at the level of
negative boreholes and 38.36% for positive boreholes at
200 meters distance.
Table 2. Percentage of boreholes following all orientations
Distance [0−200] [200-400] [400−600] [600-800] [800−1000] [1000−1200] [1200−1400]
Number 10 56 91 120 128 133 136
F. Positive % 6.85 38.36 62.33 82.19 87.67 91.1 93.15
F. Negative % 61.67 93.33 80 88.33 93.33 96.67 100
Figure 9a. Distance of each borehole from the lineaments
Figure 9b. Distance of each borehole from the lineaments
Table 3. flow classification
CIEH flow class Number %
[0−1] Very low 49 38.58 NW-SE
[1−2.5] Low 34 26.77 NW-SE
[2.5−5] Means 21 16.54 NE-SW
[>5] Strong 23 18.11 NE-SW
Total 127 100

58 American Journal of Water Resources
Figure 10. Relationship between flow class and fracture orientations
• Flow class
The study of flow classes in relation to lineaments and
directions of fractures NS, EO, NE-SW and NO-SE was
carried out and represented by Figure 10. Among the 146
boreholes, only 127 boreholes have flow rates varying
from 0.04 m3/h at Taré to 18 m3/h at Boala and are
concerned by this study. Flow classes greater than 5 m3/h
are observed in granite zones with “V” and “U” anomaly
shapes, but the “W” shape has the highest success rate.
The highest discharges correspond to type “H” curves,
followed by type “A”. In terms of productivity, granite
formations are the most productive. However, all
orientations are likely to provide low discharge. Table 3
represents the classification of flows according to the
[24,63,64]. The analysis shows us that 65.35% of the low
flows are lower than 2.5 m3/h. This rate is certainly due to
the fact that these boreholes capture or are positioned on
the secondary lineaments. This may also be due to the fact
that the locations of these boreholes have not been the
subject of an in-depth study and should above all be close
to dwellings. The lowest flows in the area are observed in
the directions of fractures harboring the NW-SE direction.
The zone with a strong structural trend identified by
remote sensing certainly corresponds to an underground
corridor which is expressed by small fractures, but in large
numbers as in the case of Koukin and Thiakané. The
remaining 34.65% of boreholes have flow rates greater
than 2.5 m3/h; which suggests that these boreholes were
the subject of a lineament mapping study followed by
validation by geophysics. The best flows in the area are
observed in the directions of fractures sheltering the NE-
SW direction.
• Flow classes and depth
The relationship between the flow classes and the depth
of the structures (Figure 11) gives an average of 58.3
meters. The greatest depth is observed at 86 meters in the
locality of Nation and the smallest of 37 meters in the
locality of Kombila. Figure 11 illustrates that low flows
are found at all depths, while high flows are between 43
meters to 84.75 meters distributed in the 3 provinces and
medium to high flows are between depths 45 meters 80
meters away. This high throughput productivity confirms
the study of [48] which describes that the limit of
occurrence of open joint fractures is between 30 and 60
meters, whereas [61] sets this limit between 50 and 70
meters. This analysis confirms that the depth of the
boreholes does not necessarily guarantee high flows, for
example in the locality of Sapouy for 3 boreholes of
respective depths of 74 m, we have flows of 10 m3/h,
6.14 m3/h and 0.60 m3/h. This supposes that at great
depths there can be the presence of a productive fracture.
Figure 11. Relationship between flow rates and total borehole depth
• Flow classes and alteration thicknesses
The relationship between flow classes and alteration
thicknesses (Figure 12) shows that between the depths of
12.94 to 40.31 meters, the highest flows are recorded with
an influence on the thicknesses. Low flows are noticeable
below 12.94 meters and above 40.31 meters thick. These
results are similar to those of [65] which explains that this
result is linked to an accumulation of water from alterites
through drainage phenomena. Then, the strongest
thicknesses at low flow reveal that the drainage is
obstructed while the weakest thicknesses describe that the
holding capacity is biased and that the aquifer is subject to

American Journal of Water Resources 59
seasonal fluctuation. In addition, the load tends to
compress cracks as the depth increases. The leaching of
materials altered by infiltration can also partially seal the
cracks. In this case, the top of the fractured zone is
expected to have hydraulic parameters close to those of
the arenas above it.
Figure 12. Relationship between flows and weathering thicknesses
3.3. Validation of the Linear Map by
Geophysical Investigations
3.3.1. Case of Electric Trails
The interpretation of the 12 trails carried out reveals
discontinuity zones whose characteristics are represented
in Table 4. The determination of their directional
orientations by the parallel profiles obtained by
geophysics, made it possible to validate the lineaments
which alter the sound rock in fractures. These are usually
represented by areas of low resistivity. The validation of
the lineaments in the villages of Kada and Sissili Mossi
showed other lineaments which could not be perceived at
the level of the satellite images. The drag profiles
implanted tell us about high (hard rock) to low (associated
with high permeability fractures) resistivity and the shape
of the anomalies. The main profile meets a peak at the
location of the existing borehole. The drag profile carried
out in the villages of Koukin and Tiakané shows that the
anomalies encountered give the best results, whatever the
geological context. The identification of discontinuity
zones and their orientations allowed us to map the
fractures that alter the sound rock. The parallel profiles on
the same graph make it possible to highlight the extension
and the orientation of these discontinuities materialized by
alignments of conductive anomalies. This is the case of
the variation where the bedrock is covered with highly
conductive clay veneer. The profiles show less contrasting
values on the granites or migmatites. The lineaments
located by the satellite images favor a greater extension of
the zone of influence, and often a single drag profile is
sufficient for the implantation of the boreholes. But if the
required speeds are high, many profiles are studied. There
is therefore a vast zone of resistivity varying from 200 to
400 Ω.m and direction N° 156 N°180 at Kada, N°146
N°190 N°142 at Sissili Mossi, N°212 N°174 at Koukin,
and No. 145 No. 149 No. 202 in Tiakané. The thicknesses
of the zone vary from 20 m to 50 m and are a probable
index of the intense fracturing that has occurred in the
sub-watershed. The impact of the change in depth of
investigation on their pace highlighted several
discontinuities or fractures favorable to the implantation
of boreholes. In effect [66] and [67], show that the shape
of the anomaly determines the success rate. It is therefore
important to take into account the shape of the anomaly
highlighted on the resistivity profile for the drilling
locations. These levels correspond in our case to 6 varied
forms of anomaly (“V” at 30%,”U” at 10%,”W” at
8.9%,”H” at 6.8%, the “M” forms, and “ K” are not taken
into account, because they are insignificant) and are most
often associated with zones of discontinuities. We have a
higher rate with anomalies in “W and V” shapes which are
associated with NE-SW directions on the granites. Indeed,
it is considered that the anomalies of “V” shapes are
linked to minor fractures settling on either side of a major
accident and those of the “W” shape are linked to parallel
fractures. On the other hand, 19% of failed boreholes are
“U” shaped. The results of our study confirm those of the
work of [68] in a basement environment in Burkina with
the use of this prospecting method. The most
recommended method is the one with the Schlumberger
drag profile device. We can observe on the different drag
profiles that in some areas, the fractures are of low
extension or they may be discontinuous pockets of water
separated by sills. The studies of [69] on the analysis of
productivity and those of [64] on water search methods
show us that a fracture parallel to the tectonics is open
while those that are orthogonal are closed. The study of
[30] in the same basement environment confirms these
same results. In the village of Sissili Mossi, we observed
negative boreholes on the same drag profile, because most
of them are in the NW direction which according to [70] is
waterproof. We can therefore conclude that the NE and
SO directions are productive while the NO and SE
directions are tight in our sub-basin as shown in
Figure 13a for the main profiles and Figure 13b for the
paralleling profiles.
Table 4. Representation of electrical profile characteristics
Site Koukin kada Sissili Mossi Tiakane
Distance 860 400 400 400
AB/2 200 200 200 200
MN 10 10 10 10
Direction N° 90 N° 70 N° 70 N° 90
Observed resistivity (Ω.m) 261 280 340 203
Thickness (m) 18 20
Type of anomaly U&H&K V V W
Direction of lineaments N° 212 & 174 N° 156 & 180 N° 146 & 190 & 142 N° 145 & 149 & 202

60 American Journal of Water Resources
Figure 13. Fractures recognized from the main profile and three parallel profiles
3.3.2. Case of Electrical Soundings
The surveys carried out as part of this study give us
three (3) types of curves, namely the “H” type at 40%, the
“A” type at 35%, and finally the “KH” 25%. These curves,
which have different shapes, are representative of the
conceptual models of the basement formations. Indeed,
the basement formations can be represented by a vertical
profile composed of three layers including Saprolite
(Alloterite [17m to 20m] and Isalterite [19m to 22m]),
fissured source rock (18m to 20m) and rock healthy
mother (6m to 10m).
A gait at the bottom of the boat of the “H” curve type
designates a conductive formation made up of granite, and
whose fracture is not materialized. It does not give any
indication of the cracked zone due to its low thickness at
great depths. This is the case of SE3 Koukin Figure 14a
(ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3) which generally characterizes regions with
superficial lateritic armour. This type of curve is most
often characterized by a 45° rise at the level of the sound
substratum corresponding to three layers. In many cases,
the resistivity of the cuirass is lower compared to arenas
with variegated clays. However, if one faces two layers of
layers formed at the level of the drowned cuirass and the
arenas, the curve becomes a five-layer curve. The
conductive enclosures point to the boat bottom of the
curve. They are composed of fluent clayey quarries and
fissured rock which, when thin, goes unnoticed on the
sounding curve. This is why the true resistivity are
difficult to calculate especially when they are not very
powerful. On granite rocks, a high permanent humidity
of clayey alterites makes them very conductive even
though they do not contain usable water. Very low
resistivity is then obtained which, despite the high
resistivity of the armour, give a boat bottom. There is a
good correlation between the curve and the field data on
shales than on granites where the resistivities are generally
high. This allows us to say that in a shale zone, whatever
the type of sounding, the success rate is relatively high
compared to that in the granite zone. The thicknesses of
alterations of the order of 20 m to 30 m seem the most
favorable, whatever the nature of the geological formation
[23,66,71].

American Journal of Water Resources 61
Figure 14. Electrical wave of the Municipality of Thyou and Sapouy
Boreholes SE1 and SE2 at Koukin Figure 14a and SE2
Kada Figure 14b present a pattern with a single rising
branch of type A corresponding to two layers with a small
slope. The first layer corresponds to a horizon of
conductive arenas with variations in clay, laterite or water
content. The second layer corresponds to the resistant
substratum which constitutes the altered or fissured
horizon and highlights a strong alteration especially in the
schistous domain which is more conductive. This type of
sounding is related to the influence of a mega fracture. It
should also be remembered that a conductive anomaly can
produce negative boreholes. The study of the ground
layers shows an inconsistency especially at the level of the
SE1 drilling of Koukin Figure 14a. The drilling cross-
section gives 5 layers of land while the sounding profile
gives 3 layers of land knowing that the shape of the
sounding curves is at the origin of the difference observed
in the number of layers. This can be explained by the fact
that at the level of the sounding, the change in slope does
not necessarily correspond to changes in terrain. Rather,
they correspond to variations in water content in the same
layer. In addition, two layers on the drilling log are
identified as being a single layer at the borehole level. By
summing the thicknesses of the terrains in question on the
log, we obtain the thickness of the layer identified with the
sounding. These results are similar to those of Rather, they
correspond to variations in water content in the same layer.
In addition, two layers on the drilling log are identified as
being a single layer at the borehole level. By summing the
thicknesses of the terrains in question on the log, we
obtain the thickness of the layer identified with the
sounding. These results are similar to those of Rather, they
correspond to variations in water content in the same layer.
These results are similar to those of [72]. They explain
this phenomenon by the fact that the layers have almost
identical resistivities; which does not facilitate the
observation on the sounding curve of a change in slope
which would mark a change in terrain. Indeed, the only
rising branch can be productive if the supply is good as in
the case of coarse tectonized granites or lowland areas.
The SE1 Kada sounding in Figure 14b presents a bell
shape then a KH-type boat bottom corresponding to four
layers. The first layer corresponds to the superficial terrain
with resistivities of 172 Ω.m and a low thickness of 1.5 m.
The second layer corresponds to the conductive arenas
which are split into 2 layers. And finally we observe a
resistant substratum corresponding to the fissured horizon
[19]. Another scenario with a similar appearance is when
the thick ferruginous armour is dismantled (reworking by
a termite mound, quarrying). It should also be noted that

62 American Journal of Water Resources
on SE2 at Kada Figure 14a, the lateritic cuirass is
compact and influences the curve by a vertical translation
over the entire curve. In this case, the sounding
curve is presented in curves of 3 plots; which gives low
values to the streaks while the covering thickness is low.
Resistivity values are lower on schists and sedimentary
volcanic rocks than on granites and migmatites; which is
due to the clay content. At the level of the migmatite
granites, micro-fractures are observed which favor a
greater extension of the zone of influence. Indeed, when
the profile intersects the fracture to be validated, it is the
intersection which is most often known with precision.
The direction of the axis rarely is, as it is determined
interpretively.
In general, the failure rate of boreholes in the Sissili
sub-basin can be attributed to geophysical prospecting
methods or to several phenomena related to the subsoil
during implantation. These failures are related to a
conductive anomaly due to a superficial phenomenon.
Indeed, some anomalies may be due to variations in
resistivity of the surface covering unrelated to fracturing.
This is the case of the presence of a thick layer of
waterlogged clay in the low resistivity alterites which is
similar to a fissured rock. To remedy this, [72] offers
resistivity profiles with a square device especially in
crystalline medium. Other authors define these failures by
the fact that the fracture can be inclined according to the
direction of the flow from which the water accumulates in
depth. The fracture defined by the electric sounding can
also be sterile or mineralized with very low water content.
These authors give priority in hydrogeological prospecting
of crystalline and crystallophyllian basement to sounding
curves at the bottom of the boat. This difference is
explained by the fact that the choice of sites does not take
into account the combination of indicators of types of
forms of anomalies and types of soundings.
However, the practice of this method (1D) remains.
Indeed, the (1D) probing technique has well-known
advantages and limits. Its implementation comes after that
of the trailing profile which makes it possible to identify
the discontinuity to be intersected. The major difficulty
lies in the presence of greenery and cultivable area which
do not facilitate a good characterization of the geometry of
the aquifer (1D). It tends to group the layers of the drilling
log into a single layer which underestimates the thickness
as in the case of the Koukin drilling.
The trailing (1D) technique has its limitations, as trails
are interpreted based on apparent resistivities [21], or
based on the width and shape of the discontinuity [66].
But the profile analysis reveals that the zone containing
lateritic clay presents very surprising structures in terms of
diversity, sometimes superior to that of the discontinuity
structures of the fissured zone. To this we can add that the
method used as the Schlumberger can lead to
discrepancies. Indeed, this is confirmed by the results of
the synthetic modeling which concludes that the Wenner
device is more suitable and produces less deviation [16].
However, it has limitations in estimating the depth of
fissured zones and its implementation. [21] shows that
regardless of the dragging method implemented, the
discontinuities sub verticals in the unweathered zone
cannot be determined.
4. Conclusions
The advent of satellite images these days constitutes a
powerful tool for groundwater exploration. The processing
and analysis of Landsat 8 images has contributed to the
mapping of poorly known fracture networks in our sub-
basin. The fracturing map taken from satellite imagery
must necessarily be coupled with hydrogeological data
through a GIS for a better exploitation of water resources.
The Sissili sub-basin appears to us to be a very favorable
zone for the installation of boreholes. Nevertheless, it has
areas where negative boreholes or low flows are recorded.
Depending on the method used, the results show us
preferential fracture directions N15°, N60° and N120°.
We also determined the NE and NS directions as
productive and the NW and EW directions as tight. The
conclusions of the geophysical prospection by the trailed
show us anomalies of form U, V, and K. The parallel
profiles give us directions N° 156 N°180 in Kada, N°146
N°190 N°142 in Sissili Mossi, N°212 N°174 in Koukin,
N°145 N°149 N°202 in Tiakané. The soundings give us
three forms A, H and KH with different productivities.
The dissimilarities at the level of the layers and
thicknesses are the probable causes of many failures
during the implantation of the boreholes. The drilling
conclusions confirm those obtained by the data from the
geophysical surveys. The electrical investigations (1D)
and the statistical analysis of the drilling data allowed us
to understand and justify the failures of the drillings due to
the absence of resemblance at the level of the layers, the
characteristics of the alteration and the direction of the
fracture. In the rest of this work, these results will be
coupled with hydrodynamic data to optimize the failure
rate of the boreholes. The association of this study with
that of underground flow through numerical modeling
would be interesting.
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