REVIEW Open Access Herbal rodent repellent: a dependable and dynamic approach in defiance of synthetic repellent

Abstract

Background
Rodents are the most common and diverse order of mammals, the most troublesome pest in agriculture, gardening, forestry, and public products, and to blame for the spread of many illnesses to humans and animals. In terms of rodenticidal exposure, rodenticide use is only to kill the rodent, not to repel it. On the other hand, herbal rodent repellents are compounds that, by taste, odour, or both, keep rodents away from human habitat and prevent diseases spread due to them. Herbal rodent repellents are more potent, economical, biodegradable, and do not persist in the soil or water, and they also have a broad range of other biological properties.

Main body of the abstract
Rodents are a prevalent and harmful pest that accounts for more than 2277 species distributed all over the world. The growing public awareness of the ethical and animal welfare problems associated with traditional pest animal control methods has progressively switched to non-lethal alternatives for the management of rodents. This article promotes herbal rodent repellents due to the various reported toxic effects of synthetic rodenticides on human health and the environment. The review discusses some of the important herbs that have the potency to repel rodents thereby raising awareness for the use of non-toxic methods for pest control. Data from different database like PubMed, Google Scholar, Research Gate, PLOS One, and others were retrieved, and then, an extensive literature review was carried out to prepare the article.

Short conclusion
From the information provided, it can be concluded that rodenticide poisoning could cause a serious public health issue with a high case death rate. Increasing public understanding of rodenticide toxicity, as well as stringent monitoring of rodenticide sales and use, might assist to reduce indiscriminate use and poisoning. Therefore, herbal rodent repellents, due to their least toxicity, could provide a safe and dynamic approach over the use of synthetic rodenticides.

Full text

Quasimetal.
Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-023-01055-4
REVIEW Open Access
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Bulletin of the National
Research Centre
Herbal rodent repellent: adependable
anddynamic approach indeance ofsynthetic
repellent
Md. Asad Quasim1, Abhishek Kumar Karn1, Sujata Paul1, El Bethel Lalthavel Hmar1 and
Hemanta Kumar Sharma1*
Abstract
Background Rodents are the most common and diverse order of mammals, the most troublesome pest in
agriculture, gardening, forestry, and public products, and to blame for the spread of many illnesses to humans and
animals. In terms of rodenticidal exposure, rodenticide use is only to kill the rodent, not to repel it. On the other hand,
herbal rodent repellents are compounds that, by taste, odour, or both, keep rodents away from human habitat and
prevent diseases spread due to them. Herbal rodent repellents are more potent, economical, biodegradable, and do
not persist in the soil or water, and they also have a broad range of other biological properties.
Main body of the abstract Rodents are a prevalent and harmful pest that accounts for more than 2277 species
distributed all over the world. The growing public awareness of the ethical and animal welfare problems associated
with traditional pest animal control methods has progressively switched to non-lethal alternatives for the
management of rodents. This article promotes herbal rodent repellents due to the various reported toxic effects of
synthetic rodenticides on human health and the environment. The review discusses some of the important herbs that
have the potency to repel rodents thereby raising awareness for the use of non-toxic methods for pest control. Data
from different database like PubMed, Google Scholar, Research Gate, PLOS One, and others were retrieved, and then,
an extensive literature review was carried out to prepare the article.
Short conclusion From the information provided, it can be concluded that rodenticide poisoning could cause a
serious public health issue with a high case death rate. Increasing public understanding of rodenticide toxicity, as
well as stringent monitoring of rodenticide sales and use, might assist to reduce indiscriminate use and poisoning.
Therefore, herbal rodent repellents, due to their least toxicity, could provide a safe and dynamic approach over the
use of synthetic rodenticides.
Keywords Rodent, Agriculture, Pest management, Rodenticide, Herbal repellent
*Correspondence:
Hemanta Kumar Sharma
hemantasharma123@yahoo.co.in
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Background
Rodents are one among the most problematic
mammalian pests, causing major pre-harvest losses
worldwide (Hansen et al. 2016), with about 46 genera
and 128 species reported in India (Parshad 1999).
Rodents are considered the most common and varied
group of mammals (Bala, Bindu Bala, and Babbar 2019).
Except for Antarctica, every continent has a wide variety
of animals (Witmer et al. 2022). Despite the fact that
wide varieties of rodents are known to destroy crops
and other public properties (Wondifraw et al. 2021).
In a published publication, the Indian Grain Storage
Management and Research Institute (IGMRI) reported

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
4.75% rodent damage to grain storage (Bala, Bindu Bala,
and Babbar 2019). Rodents are also carriers of diseases
such as viruses, fungi, and bacteria and are associated
with human health issues. At least 80 zoonotic diseases
transmitted by rodents have been identified (Singla etal.
2014). Only a few synthetic rodenticide products are
now on the market since they are responsible for the
majority of toxicoses in companion animals. ere have
been reports of rodenticide toxicoses in several different
countries (Rached etal. 2020). Natural rodent repellents
are preferable to synthetic rodenticides because they
have fewer negative effects on human health and the
environment and have better repelling activity (Mendoza
etal. 2020). e essential oils of several plant species have
been tested to establish their efficiency as an important
natural resource for repelling pests (Sharma etal. 2019).
Main text
Rodent species
Rodents are a severe nuisance in horticultural and
commercial environments (Bala et al. 2019). ere
are about 40% of all mammals in India (Gorbunova
et al. 2008). ere are 18 species that have commensal
and horticultural irritations (for example, Bandicota.
bengalensis, Tatera indica, Millardia meltada, Meriones
hurrianae, Gerbillus gleadowi, Rattus nitidus, Nesokia
indica, Rattus. Rattus, Rattus norvegicus, Mus musculus,
etc.) in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and the north-eastern hill
areas and other regions of India (Nada et al. 2016). In
India, there are 18 different varieties of rodents that are
bugs in farming, agriculture, forestry, animal and human
habitation, and rural and urban storerooms, and around
5% of rodent species are dangerous to humans (Hansen
etal. 2016; Sharma etal. 2019).
e mouse belongs to one of five rodent families.
Muridae is the most prevalent family, and it has a great
number of species (approximately 1082) (Mendoza etal.
2020). Muridae is divided into four subfamilies: Old
World rats and mice (Murinae), New World rodents
and mice (Sigmodontiae), voles (Arvicolinae), and ham-
sters (Cricetinae). jerboas, bouncing mice (Zapodidae),
and Dormice (Gliridae and Seleviniidae) are examples
of different families (Dipodidae) (Gorbunova etal. 2008).
House rats (Rattus rattus) and house mice (Mus muscu-
lus) are important commensal species, but brown rats
(Rattus norvegicus) are invasive species around the world
due to their intimate relationship with people (Islam etal.
2021). Whereas Cape mole rats live alone and social mole
rodents live in large colonies, naked mole rodents and
regular mole rodents (genus Cryptomys) are social and
inhabit vast colonies (Gorbunova etal. 2008). e Asian
house rat (Rattus tanezumi) is the closest sister group
to the black rat (Yu etal. 2022). e Indian mole rodent
Bandicota bengalensis is a significant bug in South Asia
(Saini etal. 1991). Major species of rodent found in India
are summarized (Sharma etal. 2019; Mumtaz etal. 2022)
in Table1.
Agriculture losses byrodents
According to several discoveries, rodents damage pests in
public goods, agriculture, and the food business (Neena
Singla et al. 2022). Rodent outbreaks result in severe
losses that put people’s access to food in danger (Kumar
et al. 2021). Rodents have a wide range of harmful
impacts, including pre-harvest crop destruction and
post-harvest damage to stored materials and structures
(Phukon et al. 2019). Rodents frequently cause crop
Table 1 The major rodents species found in India
Species Colour Average wt (gm) Body shape/size Muzzle (mouth part,
nostril) Tail Feeding
Mus musculus (House
mouse) Grey 12–20 Small Slender (Sharp) The tail is equal to the
body and head Omnivorous
Rattus rattus (Black rat) Black 100–120 Slender Pointed The tail is longer than
Body and head Omnivorous
Rattus norvegicus
(Brown rat) Brown 250–300 Heavy set Blunt Tail is more limited
than body and head Omnivorous
Bandicota bengalensis
(Indian mole rat) Brownish or Brownish
grey 350 Large Broad and rounded Tail is more limited
than the head and
body length
Omnivorous
Bandicota indica
(Greater bandicoot rat) Brownish to blackish 0.5–1000 Large Broad and short Tail is more limited
than its head Omnivorous
Suncus murinus (Indian
musk Shrew) Grey to blackish 23–147.3 Small Muzzle is tapers, nar-
row, and long rostrally A piece smaller at the
tip and thick at the
base
Insectivorous

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
damage before harvest in Asia and Africa (Hansen etal.
2016). Rodents may destroy almost any crop planted
anywhere on the globe, including cereal grains, potatoes,
vegetables, sugarcane, alfalfa, tree fruits, cotton, and
many more (Witmer etal. 2022). In India, rats and mice
contaminate food products with their urine, excrement,
and hair, negatively affecting their quality and quantity.
At the same time, they are being stored, causing at least
$5 billion in annual grain losses (Herawati et al. 2021;
Ganjeer etal. 2021). According to a previous report, up
to 450kg/ha of various grains suffered damage due to
improper food handling (Phukon etal. 2019).
ere have been reports of up to 100% loss of oyoun-
gul wheat, 34% loss of grain, and Maize crops damaged
by 20% in Western Kenya (Hansen etal. 2016). Estimates
reveal a 15–40% loss in pulses and oil seeds, 13–29% in
roots, 9–48% in coffee, and 21–60% in cotton due to rat
damage in Ethiopia. e survey also discovered a 26.4%
loss ofmaize harvests in central Ethiopia, a 9–44% loss
of wheat in northern Ethiopia, and a half-harvest loss
in Ethiopia’s east. Rattus and Mus, which are commen-
sal rodents, generally do less damage than other rodent
species in the region, although their impact can range
from 1 to 15%, and it can be much greater on certain
islands. e quantity of grain swallowed by rodents in
Asia alone would provide enough nutritious food for 200
million humans for a year, as an example of the incred-
ible amounts of rat damage that may occur (Witmer etal.
2022; Wondifraw etal. 2021).
Wild Indian house rats (Rattus) pose a significant haz-
ard to agricultural development in West Bengal (Sharma
et al. 2019). Rodent prevalence in rice farms in India
ranges from 0.44 to 60.8%. is study discusses four
mouse species found in rice fields in Assam. Bandicota
bengalensis was the most prevalent species, accounting
for 36.60% of the total overflow, with B. indica accounting
for 19.08%. Rattus sikkimensis at 5.82% and Mus booduga
at 15.42%. According to Assam research in 2015–2017,
the pumpkin had the greatest live burrow count (LBC) of
field rodents (36.60%) in a cropping pattern that included
rice and vegetables, followed by potatoes (34.40%), peas
(29.90%), brinjal (28.80%), and carrots (24.00%). e
vegetables that produced the most damage were pota-
toes (14.46%), peas (14.0%), and pumpkins (12.20%). e
amount of grain stored by lesser bandicoot rodents has
been shown in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh due to
their irritation level and negative financial impact on rice
and wheat output (Phukon etal. 2019). Rodents damage
4 to 26% of groundnuts in India. Rodents damaged up to
85% of the crops in Gujarat, while rodent activity reduced
groundnut yield in Panjab by roughly 50kg/ha (Ganjeer
etal. 2021). ese are generally identified as the leading
rice irritant in Southeast Asia, behind only weeds (Htwe
etal. 2019). Rats and mice can destroy up to 4.9% of rice,
6.4% of sugarcane, 3.9% of groundnuts, 4.5% of wheat,
5.9% of peas, and 10.7% of winter maize in India’s Panjab
area (Kaur etal. 2019).
According to Malhi and Prashad’s research, there was
a pre-harvest and post-harvest loss of around 4.31%
of wheat and 4.64% of rice. Moreover, rodents (Indian
gerbil, Tatera indica, soft-furred field rats, Millardia
meltada, and B. bengalensis) affected high-protein seeds
(pulses and oilseeds) like moong, arhar, and lentil pods,
soybeans, and Bengal gramme. Rattus damages cocoa,
cardamom, and coconut plants by 10–32%. In 1996, the
Indian government formed a commission to document
storage losses of 9.33% of food supplies and 2.5% due to
rats. e overall post-harvest loss of wheat might reach
4.75%, according to national studies done by IGMRI, with
rodents accounting for 0.59% of the loss (Rao 2003).
Rodents associated withhuman health & environmental
problems
Rodents are also responsible for transmitting various
diseases of humans and animals and improving defence-
lessness to viral, fungal, and bacterial infections such as
Rat-bite fever, salmonellosis, the plague, toxoplasmosis,
Capillaria hepatica, leishmaniasis, and leptospirosis that
resembles Lassa fever, taeniasis, haemorrhagic fever with
renal syndrome (HFRS), zoonotic babesiosis; and the han-
tavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and South
American Haemorrhagic Fevers (SAHF) both brought
on by Hantavirus and other Arenaviruses; a number of
complicated bacteria, including Mycobacterium tuber-
culosis and Lyme disease, Escherichia coli, Mycobacte-
rium microti, agents of tularemia, listeriosis, tick-borne
relapsing fever, Q fever, ehrlichiosis, bartonellosis, others
(Sharma et al. 2019; Gorbunova etal. 2008; Nakayama
et al. 2019). Parasites include toxoplasmosis, giardiasis,
and echinococcus infection (Hansen etal. 2016). In 2016,
the World Health Organization (WHO) highlighted the
notice’s urgently innovative work for mentioning seri-
ous new disorders that might lead to a worldwide public
health emergency (Nimo-Paintsil et al. 2019). Rodent-
borne illnesses are transferred either directly or indi-
rectly. Indirect transmission occurs when people are
infected by polishing off food and drink contaminated
by their faeces or urine. Still, direct transmission occurs
when people are infected by biting or breathing in the
microorganism containing the rat bite (Biswas 2018).
Pathogens from Gliridae, Dipodidae (Gerbilinae, Muri-
nae, and Dendromurinae), Muridae, and other rodent
families (33 species) are transmitted to humans (Sin-
gla etal. 2013). More rodents increase the possibility of
people coming into contact with them and, if necessary,
the risk of transmitting highly contagious diseases. e

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
brown and dark rats (Linneaus, Rattus rattus, Berken-
hout, and Rattus norvegicus) originates in Asia and are
found near people worldwide today. Pathogenic bac-
teria transported by rodents included Yersinia pestis,
Bartonella, and Hantavirus. Both dark and brown rats
have acquired a variety of macro parasites outside of
their natural habitats. As a result, they act as efficient
disease carriers among wildlife, domesticated animals,
vectors, and humans (Strand etal. 2019; Griffiths etal.
2022). e oriental house rodent (Rattus tanezumi) is
the source of rickettsial infections as well as Hantavi-
ruses, Trypanosoma spp., Bartonella spp., and Leptospira
spp., (Prompiram etal. 2020). Mus musculus has carried
14 illnesses, Rattus rattus has carried 13 diseases, Meri-
ones persicus has carried 7 diseases, Apodemus species
has carried 5 diseases, Tatera indica has carried 4 dis-
eases, Rhombomys Optimus has carried 3 diseases, Cri-
cetulus migratorius has carried 3 diseases, and Nesokia
indica has carried 2 diseases (Rabiee etal. 2018). Lassa
viruses (LASV) are caused by a variety of rodent species,
including Mastomys erythroleucus, Mastomys natalen-
sis, Mastomys natalensis, Hylomyscus pamfi, and Masto-
mys erythroleucus (Nimo-Paintsil etal. 2019). Bank voles
(Myodes glareolus Schreber) and Wood mice (Apodemus
sylvaticus Linnaeus) are hosts to many rodent-borne ill-
nesses, including Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia miyamotoi,
Babesia microti, and Neoehrlichia mikurensis (Kraw-
czyk et al. 2020). Ectoparasite transmission agents are
rodents. Scrub typhus and other typhus are caused by
ectoparasites, which are present in vegetable food in
India. Ectoparasites spread quickly during the rainy sea-
son, then in the winter and summer (Samuel etal. 2020,
2021).
Plague, one of the oldest, most startling, and most stun-
ning pestilential rodent-borne zoonotic illnesses, contin-
ues to be a serious general medical problem in multiple
countries across the world (Griffiths etal. 2022), and the
disease is caused by Yersinia pestis, an Enterobacteriaceae
family member (Ganjeer etal. 2021). e plague was one
of three global epidemic diseases subject to International
Health Rules and notifiable to the WHO (Biswas 2018).
e plague has spread over North and South America,
Asia, and Africa. e multimammate rat (Mastomys
natalensis) is primary source of direct or indirect trans-
mission of the Lassa virus, which causes an exceedingly
fatal haemorrhagic fever in people in West Africa. In
September and October 1994, a fresh epidemic of plague
in India sickened roughly 4000 people, with approxi-
mately 10 fatalities (Parshad 1999). ere are two types
of rodents that are typically responsible for plague trans-
mission in India: the smaller bandicoot, Bandicota ben-
galensis, and the house rat, Rattus rattus (Namala etal.
2022). e National Institute of Communicable Diseases
(NCDC) recognised evidence of plague disease among
small vertebrates of various species, including Rattus
(0.54%), Tatera indica (4.76%), Bandicota bengalensis
(0.6%), and Funumbulus palmarum (8.0%), during their
expanded examinations in 1970 (Biswas 2018).
e subfamilies Murinae and Arvicolinae of hantavi-
rus-carrying rodents cause HFRS, whereas Neotominae
and Sigmodontinae induce HCPS. HFRS has also been
connected to the Puumala virus, an arvicoline-borne
virus. e Hantaan and Seoul viruses, which have a
worldwide distribution, are hosted by Apodemus agrarius
and Rattus norvegicus (Ganjeer et al. 2021). e Seoul
hantavirus (SEOV), which causes severe sickness, has
been found mostly in brown rats in China and South-
east Asia but also in other parts of the world. e illness
caused by SEOV is known as HFRS, and it is character-
ised mostly by high fever, weakness, and severe kid-
ney problems, with a fatality rate of 2–3% (Strand etal.
2019; Griffiths etal. 2022). According to research, more
than 2000 persons in Brazil have been diagnosed with
hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) (Ganjeer et al.
2021), and six hantavirus genotypes (Araraquara, Ana-
jatuba, Castelo dos Sonhos, Juquitiba, Laguna Negra, and
Rio Mamore viruses) have been found. ese viruses are
spread by wild rodent species (Calomys callidus, Oligory-
zomys mattogrossae, Oligoryzomys nigripes, Oligoryzomys
utiaritensis, Necromys lasiurus, and Oligoryzomys micro-
tisare) (Fernandes etal. 2019).
Rickettsiae is an intracellular microbe in rats that is car-
ried by arthropod vectors and is impacted by rodent spe-
cies as natural reservoir hosts. Murine, and tick typhus
are agents that responsible for causative infections such
as Rickettsiae, Rickettsia honei, Rickettsia typhi, and Ori-
entia tsutsugamushi, which are communicated from the
rodent (Griffiths etal. 2022). e Armed Forces Research
Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS) revealed that the
irregular frequency of scrub typhus in people was 7.11
and 5.82 per 100,000 population during 2018 and 2019
(Prompiram etal. 2020).
Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonotic illness carried
by wild and urban rodents, and it is caused by 26 patho-
gens produced by Leptospira species (Ganjeer etal. 2021;
Griffiths etal. 2022). In India, three rodent species have
been identified as being implicated in this illness: Rat-
tus norvegicus, Rattus, and B. bengalensis (Nada et al.
2016). Patients suffering from leptospirosis illness fre-
quently have lung bleeding, hepatic failure, and renal
failure (A. Sharma et al. 2020). In 2013, there were 71
fatal instances, and in 2014, there were 92. Over the last
10years, leptospirosis outbreaks have been widespread in
India. (Ganjeer etal. 2021).
e lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is the
virus responsible for lymphocytic choriomeningitis and

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
discovered by Armstrong and Lillie in 1933, the viral
infection carried by rodents. LCMV is a family Arenaviri-
dae and member of the Arenavirus genus (Pal etal. 2022;
Kinsella and Monk 2012). e reservoir hosts for LCMV
include the house mouse (Mus musculus), the wood
mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), and the yellow-necked
mouse (Apodemus flavicollis). Infected rodent bites,
inhalation of aerosolized body fluid droplets, or infusion
of contaminated substances into open wounds, the eyes,
or the mouth can all result in human transmission (Pal
etal. 2022; Emonet etal. 2007).
Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is an
infection caused by ticks that carry the Crimean–Congo
haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), which is a member
of the family Nairoviridae and the genus Nairovirus.
CCHF is essential to the tick life cycle because it has
been isolated from rodents. 10,000 to 15,000 cases of
CCHF are reported annually in Asia, Balkans and Africa,
according to the WHO (Ganjeer etal. 2021). From 2011
to 2019, Gujarat, India, documented CCHF cases. Jodh-
pur, Jaisalmer, and Sirohi districts in Rajasthan, India,
all reported CCHF outbreaks between August 2019 and
November 2019 (Sahay etal. 2020).
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an intracellular pro-
tozoan and is the cause of toxoplasmosis, a widespread
illness in both people and animals. Rodents act as inter-
mediate and reservoir hosts for T. gondii during main-
tenance and transmission (Ganjeer et al. 2021). When
humans eat rodents as food, as is the case in many human
cultures, toxoplasmosis can be transferred directly from
rodents to humans (Galeh et al. 2020). According to
research on toxoplasmosis in humans, latent toxoplasmo-
sis affects almost a third of the world’s population. Differ-
ent species of rodents are associated with human health
issues and the environment (Ganjeer etal. 2021), summa-
rized in Table2.
Environmental andhuman health problems associated
withsynthetics rodenticides
Rodenticides are primarily used in industrialized coun-
tries to manage commensal rodents such as house mice
(Mus spp.), roof rats (Rattus rattus), and brown rats
(Rattus norvegicus) for sanitary and public health rea-
sons, in agricultural animal husbandry, in the food
industry, and to a lesser extent for storage and mate-
rial preservation (Regnery etal. 2019). Rodenticides are
the most widely used approach in this country to man-
age the rodent problem (Okoniewski et al. 2021). Two
primary rodenticide categories are anticoagulants and
non-anticoagulants (Valchev et al. 2008). ey can be
grouped based on their modes of administration, such
as poisoned baits, lethal gases, and contact foams, and
their rates of action, such as acute, subacute, and chronic
(Regnery etal. 2019). Acute rodenticides whose toxicity
and effectiveness against rodents have been evaluated
include zinc phosphide, aluminium phosphide, barium
carbonate, arsenic trioxide, strychnine alkaloid, thal-
lium sulphate, α naphthyl thiourea (ANTU), norbor-
mide, scillirocide, sodium fluoroacetate, and gophacide.
Bromethalin (0.005% or 0.01%), flupropadine, calciferol
(ergocalciferol, vitamin D2), and cholecalciferol (vita-
min D3) are subacute rodenticides. e only anticoagu-
lant rodenticides are hydroxy coumarins or indane-dione
compounds (iagesan et al. 2022; Fisher et al. 2019).
Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) often harm a specific
organ according to its mode of action, resulting in coagu-
lopathy. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides
(SGARs) are still categorized hazadious for reproduction.
However, this has lately been called into doubt because
they do not transfer to the foetus as much as first-gen-
eration anticoagulant rodenticides (FGAR), but instead,
accumulate in the liver (Hohenberger etal. 2022; Hind-
march etal. 2018). e effects of first-generation anti-
coagulant rodenticides are cumulative and long-lasting.
Warfarin (0.025%), fumarin (0.025%), coumatetralyl,
diphacinone, and chlorophacinone are only a few of the
chemicals that can successfully decrease rodent popula-
tions. SGARs such as difenacoum, brodifacoum (0.005%),
bromadiolone, flocoumafen, and difethialone (0.0025%)
have improved our capacity to control rodents (Topping
etal. 2016; Elmeros etal. 2019). SGARs have a stronger
binding affinity to the target enzyme Vitamin K epoxide
reductase (VKOR) in the liver, resulting in a longer reten-
tion duration in the rodents’ bodies. (Rattner etal. 2021;
McGee etal. 2020).
One among the most often used non-anticoagulant
rodenticides is bromethalin, a highly potent neurotoxin.
It is dangerous because mitochondrial oxidative
phosphorylation becomes uncoupled, resulting in a
decrease in the quantity of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
that is readily available (iagesan etal. 2022). e liver
swiftly converts it into a more dangerous metabolite.
Rodenticide baits with vitamin D3 are available over
the counter in a variety of brands. Upon intake,
vitamin D-binding proteins in the liver rapidly absorb
cholecalciferol. In animals, the major pathophysiological
consequence of cholecalciferol overdose is
hypercalcemia. e effects of hypercalcemia on excitable
tissues may result in soft tissue mineralization (Zafalon
et al. 2020). Zinc phosphide (2%) concentration is the
most often used acute rodenticide. e establishment of
bait shyness and the lack of a strong treatment limits its
application. Its use is typically advised when there are no
known toxicological problems with non-target species
(Sangle etal. 1987). e principal intoxicant is phosphine
gas, which is produced in the stomach when zinc

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
Table 2 The following table provides vector-borne diseases along with an illustration of the kind of pathogen that promote the disease in the host
Sl. No. Diseases Pathogenesis Reservoir/carrier References
01 Leptospirosis Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae Bandicoots Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus,
Bandicota bengalensis, Nesokia indica, Mus
musculus, Apodemus spp., Meriones libycus,
Rhombomys opimus
Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Rabiee et al. (2018)
02 Plague Yersina pestis Tatera indica, Bandicota bengalensis, Meriones
persicus, Meriones libycus, Mus platythrix, Mus
booduga, Meriones vinogradovi, Meriones
tristrami, Rattus rattus,
Sharma et al. (2019), Rabiee et al. (2018), Bordes
et al. (2015)
03 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Rickettsia rickettsia Domestic and wild rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021)
04 Salmonellosis Salmonella spp., Salmonella enteritidis Mus Musculus, Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018)
05 Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) KFD Virus (Gen. Flavivirus), Flaviviridae Small Rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Bordes et al. (2015)
06 Yersiniosis Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Yersinia entero-
colitica
Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus Rabiee et al. (2018)
07 Leishmaniasis Leishmenia donovani, Leishmania infantom,
Leishmania major, Leishmania tropica
Meriones persicus, Cricetulus migratorius,
Meriones libycus, Rhombomys opimus, Tatera
indica, Mus musculus, Nesokia indica, Gerbillus
sp., Meriones hurrianae, Mesocricetus brandti,
Rattus rattus, Ruttus norvegicus
Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Bordes et al. (2015)
08 Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEE) VEE Virus (Gen.Alphavirus) Wild Rodents’: Sigmoden spp., Prochimys spp.,
Peromuscus spp., Oryzomys spp.
Sharma et al. (2019), Bordes et al. (2015), Goei-
jenbier et al. (2013)
09 Venezuelan Haemorrhagic fever Guanarito virus, Arenaviridae Cotton Rat: Sigmodon alstoni Cane Mouse:
Zygodontomys brevicanda
Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021), Goei-
jenbier et al. (2013)
10 Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus Ganjeer et al. (2021), Bordes et al. (2015)
11 Tick-borne Encephalitis (TBE) TBE Virus, Flaviviridae Wild rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Bordes et al. (2015)
12 Tick-borne relapsing fever Borrelia spp. Rattus norvegicus Rabiee et al. (2018)
13 HFRS Hantavirus, Puumala virus, Dobrava virus, Seoul
virus
Rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Bordes et al. (2015), Goeijenbier et al. (2013)
14 Q fever Coxiella burnetii Rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Rabiee et al. (2018)
15 Lassa Fever LASV, Arenaviridae Rodents’: Mastomys natalensis Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021)
16 Scrub Typhus Rickettsia tsutsugamushi, Orientia tsutsuga-
mushi
Rattus spp. Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021), Goei-
jenbier et al. (2013)
17 Listeriosis Listeria spp., Listeria monocytogens Rodents Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018)
18 Lyme disease Borrelia burgodorferi Rodents Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018), Bordes
et al. (2015)
19 Bartonellosis Bartonella spp. Mus musculus Rabiee et al. (2018)
20 Rickettsial pox Rickettsia akari Mus musculus Ganjeer et al. (2021)
21 Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex Mus musculus Rabiee et al. (2018)

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
Table 2 (continued)
Sl. No. Diseases Pathogenesis Reservoir/carrier References
22 Murine typhus R ickettsia typhi (mooseri) Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus, Rattus exulans Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021)
23 Babesiosis Babesia spp., Babesia microti Meriones persicus, Rattus norvegicus, Mus
musculus
Ganjeer et al. (2021), Bordes et al. (2015)
24 Hepatitis E HEV, Calciviridae Rodents Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018)
25 Tularemia Francisella tularensis Microtus paradoxus, Tatera indica Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018), Bordes
et al. (2015)
26 Crimean–Congo Haemorrhagic fever CCHF, Bunyaviridae family Allactaga williamsi, Mus musculus, Meriones
crassus
Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018)
27 Boutonneuse Fever Rickettsia sibirica
Rickettsia conori
Rickettsia australis
Rattus spp. Sharma et al. (2019)
28 Chagas Disease Trypnosoma cruzi Rodents Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021),
Bordes et al. (2015)
29 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis (LCMV) (Arm-
strong’s disease) LCMV, Arenaviridae Mus musculus Sharma et al. (2019), Ganjeer et al. (2021)
30 Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium spp. Mus musculus, Mus norvegicus, Rattus rattus, Ganjeer et al. (2021), Bordes et al. (2015)
31 Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (Giardia duodenalis) Rodents Ganjeer et al. (2021)
32 Fasciolosis Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica Rodents Rabiee et al. (2018)
33 Taeniasis Taenia spp. Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus,
Apodemus spp.
Ganjeer et al. (2021), Rabiee et al. (2018)
34 Hepatic capillariasis Capilaria hepatica Meriones persicus, Mus musculus, Rattus rattus,
Rattus norvegicus, Cricetulus migratorius
Rabiee et al. (2018)
35 Hymenolepiasis (Rodentolepiasis) Rodentolepis nana, Rodentolepis diminuta Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, Mus musculus,
Rhombomys opimus, Tatera indica, Apodemus
spp., Meriones persicus, Microtus socialis, Crice-
tulus migratorius
Rabiee et al. (2018)
36 Alveolar echinococcosis Echinococcus multilocularis Microtus transcaspicus, Ochotona rufescens,
Mus musculus, Crocidura gmelini, Apodemus
spp.
Rabiee et al. (2018)
37 Gongylonemiasis Gongylonema spp. Rattus nor vegicus, Rattus rattus Rabiee et al. (2018)
38 Trichuriasis Trichuris spp. Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus,
Tatera indica
Rabiee et al. (2018)
39 Argentine Haemorrhagic Fever Junin Virus Rodents’: Calomysmusculinus, C.Laucha,
Akodonazarae
Sharma et al. (2019)
40 Angiostrogyliasis A nematode disease of the
CNS Arastrongy luscantonensis Rattus and Bandicota Spp Sharma et al. (2019)
41 Machupo-Haemorrhagic fever Machupovirus Calomyscallosus Sharma et al. (2019)
42 Encephalo-myocarditis EMC Virus Rats and Mice Sharma et al. (2019)

Page 8 of 13
Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
phosphide reacts with moisture and acid. It is believed
that phosphine gas serves as a “universal protoplasmic
poison” (Yogendranathan et al. 2017). Rodents are
controlled with alpha-chlorohydrin (–CH) (0.5%), which
has long-term negative effects on reproduction (Atta
etal. 2021). It is suggested as part of the Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) package for controlling rodents in
crops with moderate rodent infestation levels (Elmeros
etal. 2019). Aluminium phosphide pellets are effective for
controlling field rats. Nevertheless, due to the increased
toxicity of the chemical to non-target species and the
absence of an antidote, the Indian government has
banned its usage (Nada et al. 2016). Moreover, vitamin
D compounds are less toxic to non-target species, and
cortisol and sodium sulphate are indications of accidental
poisoning in these animals (Nakayama etal. 2019).
An appropriate dose of anticoagulant rodenticide must
be taken to properly extend the impact of interrupting
Table 3 Toxicity caused from different rodenticides in human and other species
Sl. No. Rodenticides Toxicity/symptoms References
1 Difenacoum, Warfarin, brodifacoum, chloro-
phacinone, and bromadiolone Haematuria, Haemoptysis, Epistaxis, Flank pain,
Easy bruising, Intracranial haemorrhage
Park (2014)
2 Coumatetralyl High or frequent exposure might impair the
blood’s capacity to clot, resulting in haemor-
rhage. Easy bruising, nosebleeds, bleeding
gums, and/or blood in the urine or stool are
all symptoms. Coumatetralyl may cause a skin
allergy
Hindmarch et al. (2018)
3 Chlorophacinone Polyuria, Polydipsia, Vomiting, Renal failure,
Encephalopathy
D’Silva et al. (2019)
4 Bromethalin It operates as a neurotoxic, affecting both the
central and peripheral nervous systems, since
a shortage of ATP produces an increase in fluid
surrounding neuron sheaths
Pasquale-Styles et al. (2006), Coppock (2013)
5 Norbormide Causes Ischaemia resulting in organ failure
followed by animal expiration D’Silva et al. (2019)
6 Thallium Tremor, Ataxia, Distal motor weakness, Diplo-
pia, Nystagmus, Hyperpigmentation, Cranial
nerve dysfunction, peripheral neuropathy,
seizure
Yu et al. (2018)
7 Fluoroacetamide Seizures, Hypocalcemia, Cerebellar atrophy or
cerebral, Shock, Worsening metabolic acidosis,
refractory to resuscitation,, Hepatic dysfunc-
tion, Dysrhythmias, Kidney injury
Wang et al. (2016)
8 Strychnine Uncontrollable muscle spasms, Trismus, Risus
sardonicus, Opisthotonos, Rhabdomyolysis,
Lactic acidosis, Hyperthermia
Singhapricha et al. (2017)
9 Zinc and Aluminium Phosphide Acute gastritis, Cardiac arrhythmias, Haemor-
rhagic pulmonary oedema, Respiratory failure,
Intravascular haemolysis with methemo-
globinemia, Hepatotoxicity, Metabolic acidosis,
Respiratory alkalosis, Renal failure
Sangle et al. (1987), Yogendranathan et al.
(2017)
10 Elemental Phosphorus Acute gastroenteritis, Skin or mucosal burns,
Phosphorescent faeces or emesis (smoking
stool), Dysrhythmias, Hepatotoxicity, Renal
failure
Ravikanth et al. (2017)
11 Arsenic Vomiting, Bloody diarrhoea, Taste of garlic in
the tongue, Hypotension, Prolonged QT seg-
ment, Delirium, seizures, coma, Renal injury
Zubair et al. (2017)
12 Barium Carbonate Gastroenteritis, Hypertension, Cardiac arrhyth-
mias, Shortness of breath, Muscle paralysis Ghose et al. (2009)
13 Tetramethylene Disulfotetramine (TETS,
Tetramine) Convulsions, Coma, Respiratory failure,
Arrhythmias
Rice et al. (2017)
14 Pyriminil, N-3-pyridylmethyl-N-p-nitrophenyl
Urea (PNU) Kussmaul breathing, Hypotension, Encepha-
lopathy, Lethargy D’Silva et al. (2019)
15 Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) Polyuria, Polydipsia, Vomiting, Renal failure,
Encephalopathy, hypercalcemia
Koul et al. (2011)

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
the vitamin K cycle and affecting the blood clotting
mechanism. Poisoned animals die as a result of internal
bleeding. Two newly published edited books aim to
consolidate information on environmental issues
connected to the use of anticoagulant rodenticides for
rodent control. ese provide information about their
chemistry, toxicity, and environmental consequences.
Since anticoagulant rodenticides affect all vertebrates,
there is a significant risk of unintentional poisoning
of wild and domestic animals (Rattner et al. 2021;
Berny et al. 2010). SGARs can enter the food chain
through many different pathways. e bromadiolone
that earthworms absorb from the soil, for example, can
bioaccumulate and cause secondary poisoning in a
variety of species that consume earthworms (Berny etal.
2010; Lemus et al. 2011). According to research done
between 1998 and 2015, 2694 out of 4891 (55%) non-
target animals had chronic AR accumulation in their
livers (Nakayama et al. 2019). In 2013, the Canadian
Federal Pest Management and Regulation Agency
(PMRA) amended its standards for the use of ARs to
reduce non-target species exposure and poisoning, as
well as harm to people and their pets (Elmeros et al.
2019).
It is noted that despite the enormous risks and
hazards, they represent to the environment and human
health, as well as the negative impact they have on the
target species’ capacity to reproduce and resistance
development (Rattner et al. 2021). Numerous studies
have shown that rodenticides used in the field to protect
plants and native species expose both target and non-
target species to the same levels of toxicity (Schlötelburg
et al. 2020). Anticoagulant poisoning, severe
thrombocytopenia, haemophilia, or liver failure can all
be lethal. Rodenticide usage has frequently resulted in
unanticipated secondary poisoning of human health
and non-target animals worldwide (Topping etal. 2016;
Elmeros etal. 2019). e American Association of Poison
Control Centres’ documented 12,886 cases of rodenticide
exposure National Poison Data System (iagesan
et al. 2022). In the USA, there were around 10,000
unanticipated human rodenticide intake cases in 2017.
ere were 5186 reported occurrences of anticoagulants,
182 of which were caused by rodenticides with a
warfarin-like action (iagesan etal. 2022; Hohenberger
et al. 2022). Bromethalin was the second-most-often
used rodenticide, with 1196 incidences. ey noticed
that rodenticide residues were often found in non-target
animals throughout the world. Between 1998 and 2015,
there was a residual deposit of rodenticides in the livers
of 2694 out of 4891 (or 55%) of the non-target animals
studied. Of them, raptors posed the greatest danger of
poisoning (Okoniewski et al. 2021). Metal phosphides,
particularly aluminium phosphide, are northern India’s
most popular rodenticide poison used for self-harm.
According to Sharma’s research, which examined trends
in poisoning in the regions of the north of Jammu and
Kashmir and Chandigarh between 1994 and 2000, 181
cases (54.35%) of metal phosphide consumption were
identified, with aluminium phosphide being the most
prevalent kind. e fatality rate was likewise quite high
in these conditions. Rat poisons are a crucial factor
in a significant number of poisonings in South India.
In a study done in a tertiary care centre in south India,
rodenticides were shown to be responsible for 11.33%
of all poisoning cases. e death rate for those people
was 33.3% (iagesan et al. 2022). Different synthetic
rodenticide-related toxicity is highlighted in Table3.
Various herbal used forrodent repellent activity
Plant-based repellents are the most effective in control-
ling rodents. Several secondary metabolites from plants
have also shown potential as rodent deterrents. Plant
secondary metabolites (PSM) are widely used as a non-
lethal control technique for rodent pest species. It has to
initially be a very efficient approach, followed by one that
is practical, efficient, and economical. Despite the fact
that there are over 100,000 individual terpene plant com-
ponents, only a limited number of these chemicals have
been thoroughly tested for rodent repellence (Fischer
etal. 2013). Several plant species’ essential oils have been
examined to determine their efficacy as a useful natural
resource for bugs repellent. Rodent repellents are com-
pounds that, by taste, odour, or both, prevent animals
from eating or biting. ey are simple to remove, biode-
gradable, and do not remain in the soil or water (Asadol-
lahi etal. 2019).
Plants with potential essential oils used as repellents
include Cymbopogon spp., Ocimum spp., ymus
spp., Eucalyptus spp., and others. ey can aid in
the prevention of rodent damage to grains held in
warehouses, seeds sown in agriculture fields, and
seedlings in nurseries (Mendoza etal. 2020; Nerio etal.
2010). Chilli, peppermint oil, camphor oil, wintergreen
oil, geranium oil, and bergamot oil were tested as
repellents against adult male Wistar rats (Nada et al.
2016; Singla et al. 2014). Rodent-repellent activity has
also been demonstrated for tuba (Croton tiglium),
neem leaves, Gliricidia bark and leaves, vitex leaves,
and chilli powder. Eucalyptus is especially beneficial
since it is considered non-toxic to humans and has
many other beneficial pest control properties (Ganjeer
et al. 2021; Degu et al. 2020). Eucalyptus essential oils
have several medicinal and industrial uses. Antiviral,
fungicidal, insecticidal, and herbicidal capabilities are
among the many bioactivities of the oils (Batish et al.

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
2008). Pesticidal action is attributed to the presence of
1,8-cineole, eucamalol, p-cymene, -pinene, -terpinene,
-terpineol, limonene, linalool, alloocimene, and
aromadendrene chemicals in eucalyptus oil (Singla etal.
2014). Capsaicin, the major component of chilli peppers,
is one of these products on the market; however, it is
fairly expensive and must be accessible in relatively high
quantities (2%). Sulphurous odours from predator pee or
excretions are also beneficial (Singla etal. 2013).
Several kinds of chemicals have been considered in a
rodent study, aside from studies that utilized entire plants
or plant compounds. ey consist of terpenoids, glucosi-
nolates, phenolics, alkaloids, alkyl amides, (di)carboxylic
acids, terpenoids, and essential oils (Hansen etal. 2016).
ese compounds are described in Table4.
Integrated pest management (IPM)
IPM has long been employed in treating plant and
invertebrate pests (Witmer etal. 2022). It has not been
used as frequently in pest control. e most effective,
beneficial, and efficient strategy is often utilised to
minimize rodent damage. Shooting and capturing
bigger animals, such as ungulates and carnivores, are
required. It involves the use of rodenticides or traps
for rodents. While rodents can adapt and evolve in a
variety of ways in response to a single management
technique, this remains true. ey may eventually
cease to be startled by repellents and scary devices.
ese treatments may render toxicants physically or
genetically unaffected. Rodents developed resistance
to first-generation anticoagulants when they were used
often. is encouraged creating and demanding second-
generation anticoagulants (Gorbunova et al. 2008).
e IPM of rodent populations comprises considering
the pest rodent’s biology, population dynamics, and
ecology; habitat management, which considers the biotic
and physical environment; and people management,
which considers both human activities and land uses.
Fortunately, techniques for assisting rodent judgements
have been created to aid in integrating all of these
elements (Piacenza etal. 2011).
Implementation of preventative measures, non-lethal
methods, and combinations of ways to manage rodent
populations and damage has been less common, despite
the fact that combinations of techniques may prove to be
more efficient and popular with the general public. Crop
losses can be reduced by managing sanitization in the
context of general agriculture (Baldwin etal. 2013). ere
should be no adjacent protective cover places, such as
brush heaps or rock piles, and rodents should not be able
to obtain pet food, human food waste, or animal feed.
Combining few rodent barriers with enhanced hygiene
Table 4 Repellent effect of various herbal extracts
PSMs Plant(s)/compound(s) Eective rodent species Outcome References
Essential oils and Terpenoids Black pepper oil [Piper nigrum
(L.)], Bergamot oil, Buchu
oil, Fennel oil [Foeniculum
vulgare, (L.) Mill.], Grass-tree oil,
(R)-(+) Limonene, Neem oil
(Azadirachta indica, A. Juss.),
Chinese geranium oil [Pelargo-
nium graveolens (L’Her)], onion oil
[Allium cepa (L.)], Garlic oil [Allium
sativum (L.)], Bisabolol [Matricaria
chamomilla, (L.)], Carvacrol
[Origanum vulgare, (L.)], Eugenol
[Syzygium aromaticum, (L.)]
Microtus arvalis, Mus musculus,
squirrels, Arvicola amphibius,
Woodchucks (Marmota monax
L.), Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus),
Arvicola amphibius, Water vole
(Arvicola amphibius)
Repellent effect Hansen et al. (2016), Fischer et al.
(2013)
Alkaloids and Alkylamides Szechuan pepper oil (Zanth-
oxylum piperitum), capsaicin
(Capsicum species), Quinolizidine
alkaloids (QA) e.g., sparteine,
angustifoline, lupanine, ormosa-
nine, panamine
Rattus norvegicus, Dasyprocta
leporina
Repellent effect Hansen et al. (2016), Stefanini
et al. (2020)
Phenolics Anthraquinone, Cinnamic acid,
Cinnamamide, Ferulic acid,
Creosote resin, stilbenes
Microtus arvalis, Mus muscu-
lus, Neotoma albigula, Castor
canadensis, Rattus norvegicus,
Neotoma lepida, Neotoma
stephensi, Microtus agrestis
Repellent effect Hansen et al. (2016), Epple et al.
(2001)
Tannins Quercus crispula, Tannic acid Sciurus niger, Sciurus carolinensis,
Sciurus carolinensis, Octogon
degus, Phyllotis darwini, Apode-
mus speciosus
Repellent effect Hansen et al. (2016)

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Quasimetal. Bulletin of the National Research Centre (2023) 47:82
may result in additional damage reduction. Further
recommendations, such as “ecologically based” rodent
control, may be found in the study (Damalas etal. 2011).
Conclusion
As it is known that rodent pests on livestock farms can
cause large financial losses owing to food spoilage and
damage. Consequently, they can have major deleterious
impacts on both human and animal health. And even
short-term rodenticide usage affects a diverse variety of
small non-targeted mammal species. erefore, PSMs
might be used to keep rodents out of crops and stor-
age places by repelling them or employing appealing
aromas that draw them to alternative habitats. Attract-
ants can also help with bait acceptance and trap effi-
cacy. However, some of the obstacles in developing
herbal rodent repellents include ensuring long-term
efficacy, avoiding harmful environmental effects, and
addressing fundamental economic challenges. us,
further research on the identification of active com-
ponents, field testing and toxicity studies are required
before endorsing the active fraction of herbal extracts
to develop eco-friendly insect vector control agents.
ese developments may bring benefits such as the
most recent effective repellents, long-lasting barriers,
biological control, fertility management, and habitat
change, to mention a few. Hence, this review will aid
the researchers in comprehending the value, potential
position, and function of repellents derived from plants
to prevent diseases.
Abbreviations
IGMRI Indian Grain Storage Management and Research Institute
LBC Live burrow count
HFRS Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
HCPS Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome
SAHF South American Haemorrhagic Fevers
WHO World Health Organization
LASV Lassa viruses
NCDC National Institute of Communicable Diseases
SEOV Seoul hantavirus
HPS Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
AFRIMS Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences
LCMV Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
CCHF Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever
CCHFV Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus
KFD Kyasanur forest disease
VEE Venezuelan equine encephalitis
TBE Tick-borne encephalitis
HEV Hepatitis E virus
CNS Central nervous system
EMC Encephalo-myocarditis
ANTU Alpha naphthyl thiourea
AR Anticoagulant rodenticide
FGAR First-generation anticoagulant rodenticide
SGAR Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide
VKOR Vitamin K epoxide reductase
ATP Adenosine triphosphate
IPM Integrated pest management
PMRA Pest Management and Regulation Agency
PNU N-3-pyridylmethyl-N-p-nitrophenyl urea
PSM Plant secondary metabolite
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Author contributions
HKS conceptualized, synthesized the review strategy, supervision, and
reviewed the manuscript. MAQ and AKK contributed to the content signifi-
cantly in the preparation, drafting and edited the manuscript. SP and ELH
reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Funding
No funding organization in the public, private, or non-profit sectors provided a
particular grant for this work.
Availability of data and materials
The data and materials for writing this manuscript are retrieved from PubMed,
Google Scholar, Research Gate, PLOS One, and others journal search engine.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors do not have any competing interests.
Author details
1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering,
Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam 786004, India.
Received: 2 May 2023 Accepted: 29 May 2023
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