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Couns Psychother Res. 2023;00:1–11.
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1wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/capr
1 | BACKG ROUND
This article focusses on a grounded theory (GT) subproject, which is
embedded in a mixed methods research (MMR) project. The entire
project—working on the principles ofcounselling—started 15 years
ago and is outlined in Figure 1. The need to work on common prin-
ciples, competences and training standards was also pointed out
in another research project at the University of Cologne, which
was funded by the International Association for Counselling (IAC)
and the World Health Organization (WHO): “The World Mapping
of the Counselling Profession – Europe” which was published in:
“Counselling in Europe. Training, Standards, Research, ‘Culture’ &
Information about 39 Countries” (Rohr, 2021). Counselling differs
greatly between countries. More information can be found here:
http://iac- irtac - resea rch.org. Nowadays, the work at the Counselling
Research Group at the University of Cologne focusses on counsel-
ling competences in the context of the European Qualifications
Framework (EQF) for Lifelong Learning. This is an ongoing research
project granted by the DGfB, the German National Association for
Counselling. The training of counsellors in Germany has always
been part of the private, continuing professional educational sector.
However, in recent years, counselling has emerged as an independent
academic programme that increasingly finds its way into the univer-
sity context (Rohr & Baum, 2021). In Germany, the counselling pro-
fession is divided into systemic counselling, cognitive- behavioural,
psychodynamic- and humanistic- oriented approaches (i.e., person-
centred, Gestalt, transactional- analytic, and psychodrama).
There is a demand for theories and models that understand, cap-
ture and illustrate counselling as a theoretical and practical complex
field. These interschool theories in particular can provide orientation
Received:31January2023
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Revised:27A pril202 3
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Accepted :4May2023
DOI: 10.1002/capr.12660
SPECIAL SECTION PAPER
Ten principles of counselling: Grounded theory in a mixed
methods research project
Dirk Rohr1 | Josephine Becker- Neu2
This is an open access ar ticle under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modific ations or adaptations are made.
© 2023 The Authors. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Association for Counselling and
Psychotherapy.
1University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
2University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
Correspondence
Dirk Rohr, Arbeitsbereich
Beratungsforschung, Gronewaldstr. 2,
50931 Köln, Germany.
Email: dirk.rohr@uni-koeln.de
Josephine Becker- Neu, Arbeitsbereich
Beratungsforschung, Gronewaldstr. 2,
50931 Köln, Germany.
Email: josephine.becker.neu@gmail.com
Abstract
This grounded theory (GT) study is part of an extensive mixed methods research pro-
ject to develop general principles for counselling. Nine hundred counselling protocols
were examined. The material is characterised by a quantitative amount of data with
a qualitative character. The research is based on the systemic- constructivist research
paradigm. The variety of perspectives is an important aspect of the work. Therefore,
it is important that the entire research process with GT takes place in exchange with
other research settings in order to minimise the limitations caused by the perspective
of the researchers. During the research process, there was an intensive examination
of GT in order to adapt it to the research project. By using the GT to analyse the
extensive qualitative material, the actions of the counsellors were observed and 10
counselling principles were developed. This article presents the research process and
the findings.
KEY WORDS
competences, counselling, grounded theory, interventions, mixed methods, principles
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
for clients and professionals, improve communication internally and
externally and thus enable the explanation, reflection and devel-
opment of counselling. In addition, interschool theories can form
a basis for defining the actions, and thus also the competence, of
counsellors. This creates a basis for developing counselling training
programmes. Following these ideas, the aim of the research project
was to develop a theory of counselling.
In contrast to Luca et al. who formulate “counselling skills, with
the objective of developing such a framework for individuals in a
range of care settings who are tasked with providing counselling de-
spite not being occupationally qualified counsellor s” (2022), we want
to formulate principles for qualified counsellors. From a methodol-
ogy point of view, it is interesting that Luca et al. (2022) added GT to
their systematic literature review, too.
Before the planning of an empirical study began, a theoretical
examination of already established interventions and attitudes in
counselling took place (heuristic phase). The examination focussed
on acomprehensivelistof 40 actions, such as methods,interven-
tions and attitudes, which counsellors use in sessions (Rohr, 2022a,
2022b). The interventions are derived from different approaches of
counselling. It is important to emphasise at this point that the phe-
nomena or conceptualisations are not clearly distinguishable. The
research process has shown that the interventions and attitudes are
interdependent. In this respect, as a first step, we have “equated”
the “40 basic attitudes and interventions”—somewhat simplified
andintheconscioussenseofa“reductionofcomplexity”:all40ac-
tions of the counsellors are thus both attitudes and interventions.
Furthermore, it will become clear that something similar applies to
the 10 principles.
At the beginning of our research, we had to define the term
“principle.” Thus, we defined “principle” as the foundation of a field
from which further knowledge can be derived (Ulfig, 1993). In the lit-
erature are so far mainly deductively oriented concepts about prin-
ciples in counselling. The procedure in this project complements this
perspective. We observed inductively in each individual case how
the counsellors act when they are counselling. The project there-
fore provides an empirical analysis of the basic processes of action
within counselling sessions, based on existing knowledge. The inter-
ventions are observed from a metalevel and thus their foundations
become comprehensible.
In 45 different expert groups (group discussions), a total of
about 500 live counselling sessions and about 200 video recordings
of counselling sessions were theoretically discussed and “coded”
according t o these 40 basic a ttitudes an d interventio ns (Phase 2;
Figure 1).
Synchronously to GT, a systematic literature review (SLR) was
carried out in Phase 3. In the SLR subproject, we focussed on com-
petences in counselling and aimed to map the state of research.
Through an SLR according to Cooper (2017), 2370 articles were
found after excluding duplicates and were examined for suitabil-
ity according to their title. This criterion eliminated 1741 arti-
cles. Afterwards, the abstracts of the remaining 629 articles were
Implications for practice and policy
• There is a demand for theories and models that under-
stand, capture and illustrate counselling as a theoretical
and practical complex field. These interschool theories
in particular can provide orientation for clients and pro-
fessionals, improve communication internally and ex-
ternally and thus enable the explanation, reflection and
development of counselling.
• In addition, interschool theories can form a basis for
defining the actions, and thus also the competence, of
counsellors. This creates a basis for developing counsel-
ling training programmes.
FIGURE 1 Mixedmethodsdesignoftheentireproject .
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
examined, whereby all exclusion criteria were checked in each case
and studies with an applicable criterion were sorted. The literature
management programme Citavi 6 was used to code the articles.
Inter- rater reliability was checked by having 300 articles coded by
another project staff member according to the inclusion and exclu-
sion criteria already mentioned.Thisresulted in amatchof98.7%
and a Cohen's Kappa of 0.811, indicating an almost perfect match.
A total of 105 articles were then examined in full text, whereby the
exclusion criteria were checked again in detail in order to weed out
unsuitable articles.
In the end, 39 studies were integrated into the evaluation.
Thesewere22empiricaland17theoreticalstudies.Twentystud-
ies discuss competence scales, 11 studies discuss competence
models and eight studies address competence frameworks. In
order to classify the quality of the studies and thus the lists of
competences they contain, the studies were compared with re-
gard to psychometric quality criteria. The empirical studies with
competence scales fulfil the quality criteria to the highest degree.
This is especially true of the research cluster on the Counselling
Competencies Scale. The cluster on the Counselling Skills Scale is
also worth mentioning. In the international field, the profession-
alisation of counselling has been observed since the mid- nineties,
whereby standards for necessary competences are now emerging
(McLeod, 2004). An example of this is the standards of the Council
for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP), which are used in the United States for the certification
of a large number of training and further education programmes
in counselling. In Germany, counselling has only been profession-
alised since the 2000s. As part of this process, the founding of
the German SocietyforCounselling (DGfB) in2004 needs to be
mentioned (Schubert et al., 2019).
2 | CONCERN OF THE GROUNDED
THEORY SUBPROJECT
Within the described research interest, and in addition to the other
settings, the concern of this subproject is an empirical observation
and analysis of counselling actions. The aim was to observe what
counsellors do during their sessions to define the basic principles
of their actions. It is assumed that counsellors' actions consist of a
clear number of basic ideas that guide their actions. In addition, it is
assumed that the observed behaviour is shown because the counsel-
lors expect it to be helpful for the clients in the counselling sessions.
This observation of counsellors is intended to bring a supplementary
perspective to the process of developing principles. It is aimed at
initiating a dialogue between the different research settings to col-
lectively develop a theory of principle. As is always the case with
theories, a reduction in complexity will take place at this point. The
theory does not intend to reflect reality, but to reduce the reality
to reach a perspective from which theoretical knowledge can be
derived. This can be used meaningfully in theoretical and practical
contexts. Consequently, the aim of this subproject was to generate
a theory about the principles that evolve from empirical obser va-
tion of counsellors' actions by analysing a large amount of nonreac-
tive data that summarises counsellors' actions during their sessions.
These considerations form an important basis for further theoretical
and practical reflection and research, such as developing suitable
curricula.
3 | CRITICAL CONTE XTU ALI SAT ION OF
THE RESEARCH
In addition to contextualising the subproject within the existing sci-
entific landscape and within the background of the overall project,
it is important to clarify the social and cultural context in which the
research is embedded. In doing so, we explicitly refer to the social
justice relations in the cultural context in which the project was de-
veloped. This contextualisation of the project must be carried out
critically and with clear reference to the social justice structure in
which the study is being conducted. Thus, this section sees itself
as an approximation regarding the merging of counselling with per-
spectives that are decidedly critical of power and racism. The (psy-
chological and physical) effects of racism must be made visible in
scientific theory and practice. All human beings are part of a social
balance of power. White 1 people benefit— usually subconsciously—
while BIPoC2 accordingly are confronted with the adverse effects.
In all countries, the social system is characterised by a multidimen-
sional power structure and social hierarchy that act in a discrimi-
natory manner as structural violence (Galtung, 1975). In addition
to other relevant power structures, such as the classical or (hetero/
cis) sexist one, the racist power structure represents a significant
dimension.
When working with GT, the reflection of existing power struc-
tures and a critical attitude towards racism is an important prereq-
uisite. The perspective of the researchers plays a significant role as
it is a permanent point of reference in the process. In this process,
new foundations for the genesis of theories emerge from the re-
searchers' thoughts and ideas about the researched material. Since
the research was conducted in a social space shaped by whiteness,
in which the researchers were also mainly raised, educated and so-
cialised, it will certainly reproduce the existing power positions in
parts. Therefore, it is very important to generate awareness about
this perspectivity of the researchers and perceive it in a critical way.
4 | METHODS
Grounded theory allows the development of a medium- range
theory; therefore, it was used to approach the research question.
Because it is a methodology, the choice influences both the collec-
tion and the analysis of data. In order to work with GT, a large cor-
pus of data was needed that had a qualitative nature. Therefore,
the following data were chosen for the observation and analysis
procedure.
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
4.1 | Observation and material
To observe the counsellors' ways of acting in their sessions, proto-
cols were analysed over the course of the research. These protocols
are documents in which the counsellors summarise their sessions
afterwards. The content of the protocols used is always based on
the same template, so the documents all include information on the
following elements:
• place and time;
• counsellor;
• client;
• context (e.g., number of sessions, in person or online);
• clarification of the goals (of the session);
• topics of the session and used interventions; and
• homework/agreements/further procedure/reflection.
All the material camefrom74counsellors,eachofwhomsub-
mitted between five and 60 protocols. In this way, a total of approx-
imately 900 protocols were produced, and were available for the
analysis process.
4.2 | Deciding on grounded theory
After comprehensive research into suitable evaluation meth-
ods, GT was chosen to analyse and evaluate the data collected.
Constructivist GT, according to Charmaz, is particularly well- suited
as a methodological framework within a systemic- constructivist re-
search paradigm. The fit of the procedure in relation to the concern
of this subproject resulted from the possibility of theory building
and the targeted obser vation of patterns in the material, which GT
facilitates. By using GT, it was possible to follow up on the aim to
conceptualise patterns in counselling interventions.
In addition, GT was particularly suitable for the analysis of the
selected data because these data, with their textual form, have a
qualitative character. For the analysis of these data, an analysis
method is needed that enables interpretative text work. Therefore,
it is important to choose a qualitative method of analysis that offers
openness and flexibility in the procedure to adapt it to the research
object. The GT procedure was possible because, due to the short
phase of data collection, there was enough time to conduct an ex-
tensive iterative evaluation process with deductive and inductive
loops. However, theoretical sampling was only possible because a
sufficiently large amount of material was available so that the selec-
tion of the analysis sequence could still be theory- based. Theoretical
sampling in the form of a continuously adapted survey procedure
was not possible.
An important aspect in the justification of the selected method
is the fit of GT to the systemic- constructivist research paradigm.
The constructive GT of K. Charmaz recognises the perspective and
embeddedness of the researcher and does not aim to produce ob-
jective truths. She rather understands the production of knowledge
as socially constructed and always embedded in the perspective of a
person in a particular situation (e.g., Charmaz, 2011a).
4.3 | Comprehension of grounded theory in the
study and theoretical implications
Theory building goes beyond a descriptive analysis of the data
and offers a “conceptualization of the field of enquiry” (Mey &
Mruck, 2020) based on empirical data. The resulting theories usu-
ally have a close connection to the data and are thus practical
theories of medium scope. They refer to a narrowly defined area
of social reality and social action practices (Mey & Mruck, 2011).
Fundamentally, this practice- oriented research attempts to contrib-
ute to the solution of problems. In the process, different phases of
theory development and application alternate, so that the theory
is consolidated in a circular process. “This results in an iterative-
cyclical course of problem solving in which inductive, abductive
and deductive forms of reasoning intertwine” (Stübing, 2014). The
conceptualisation of data into a theory is a process that requires an
intensive and creative engagement with the theoretically and em-
pirically developed field of research. Creativity is characterised by
looking at the data from a new perspective and recognising patterns
in the material. The reproach of arbitrariness of this procedure is
countered with the assumption that reality lies in the eye of the ob-
server, as it is understood in constructive GT according to Charmaz.
Accordingly, the theory does not derive its value from universal-
ity, but from the extent to which it is useful and applicable to the
practical actions of those to whom it is directed. However, this does
not mean that every researcher can arbitrarily assert everything
without bearing responsibility for the conclusions. Transparency
in the research process, with detailed descriptions and justifica-
tions of the procedure, that is, intersubjective comprehensibility,
is attributed as having great importance for the quality of the work
(Charmaz, 2011b). Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss developed
GTin1967.Charmaz(2011b) sees GT as a “roof” under which dif-
ferent directions and variants find space to think about data. “The
constructivist grounded theory methodology adopts the inductive,
comparative, emergent, and open- ended approach of the classical
version of Glaser and Strauss. It also incorporates abductive logic,
which Strauss emphasized early in his teaching” (Charmaz, 2011b).
Strauss (2011) designates essentials that must be fulfilled for re-
search to bear the title GT: theoretical sampling, the heuristic of
comparison and coding.
Strauss emphasises the diversity within research and points
out that the process should be characterised by its usefulness.
Therefore, it must be flexibly adapted to research practice depend-
ing on the subject matter (Strauss, 1991). Taking into account this
idea of Strauss, a procedure that fits the concern, the data and the
researchers has been developed. In particular, Strauss’s phased ap-
proach of coding, categorising and writing memories was found to
be useful. However, the attitude in the research process and the
point of view towards the data are clearly aligned with constructivist
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
GT according to Charmaz. Following this, there will be some expla-
nations of how GT was used in the research and especially how the
essentials of GT according to Strauss are understood.
4.3.1 | Theoreticalsamplingandtheoreticalsaturation
Within GT, research is understood as an iterative process. This
means that increasingly precise knowledge structures are built up
from a circular or spiral process. This involves alternating processes
of analysing, reflection and data selection. Analysis and theory
building were part of the research project from the beginning and
were carried out continuously to make the ideas more precise. Thus,
there is an interweaving of data collection and analysis, in which
the cases included were selected along the lines of the develop-
ing theory. Guided by the previous theoretical considerations and
findings, further data sources were selected, collected and analysed
in the process. This process of successively constructing the selec-
tion population is called theoretical sampling. It may be that mate-
rial extraction and analysis do not take place in parallel. In this case,
however, enough data should be available so that the analysis and
the selection of material can nevertheless take place alternately in
a theory- driven manner. However, it is important to reflect on the
consequences of this (Stübing, 2014).
The process of theoretically selecting cases and analysing
them should continue until no further findings emerge (e.g., Mey &
Mruck, 2020). The researchers themselves decide when the gain in
knowledge diminishes to such an extent that they end the research.
This criterion is called theoretical saturation (Stübing, 2014).
4.3.2 | Comparativeheuristicsand“allisdata”
This subproject analyses one individual case at a time. As each
individual case comes from the field, it is also attributed the po-
tential of important insights. However, GT involves a process
of constant comparison. The material was examined in terms of
similarities and differences. It is important to note that the ma-
terial alone does not show any fundamental commonalities, but
that these only emerge through observation. Ideas of what can
be conceptualised as a significant theoretical difference emerged
based on the researcher's experiences and relevance structures
(Charmaz, 2011b). Overall, the evaluation is about identifying simi-
lar characteristics of certain cases, which thus constitute the core
of the theory (Stübing, 2014).
The constant comparison, as well as the inclusion of further
cases based on this, which is always reconsidered, is based on the
knowledge structure of the persons conducting the research. In ad-
dition, this process was often supplemented by further perspectives
from the literature and from other researchers. The use of GT fol-
lows the attitude “All is Data.” However, it is of great importance to
reflect closely upon the data and its content and context of origin
(Charmaz, 2011b). It follows that researchers continuously reflect on
their own situation, their own perspective and their own research
process. This is performed through a research diary and regular ex-
changes within a research group, as well as including perspectives
from existing literature.
4.3.3 | Coding
Coding is one of the essential processes when analysing data with
GT. In this process, parts of the data, such as words, sentences or
paragraphs, are assigned codes. The codes are not a description of
what they refer to, but a conceptualisation— and thus the smallest
unit of the theory (Mey & Mruck, 2020). This is already an interpre-
tative process. The process goes from a laborious line- by- line coding
to a faster coding process, with increasing practice and familiarity
with the material and the sharpening of the codes (Stübing, 2014,
p.4).However,inthiscase,therewasalwaysanothermoredetailed
and slower phase of coding when the researchers found new infor-
mation in the text or new individual cases were included through
theoretical sampling. After sufficient material had been coded, the
codes were condensed into categories, from which concepts have
been derived (Mey & Mruck). This was performed in a spiral process
that followed an abductive logic (Charmaz, 2011b).
This procedure is titled and described differently in the liter-
ature. The procedure in this subproject is based on the theory of
Strauss, who has described these processes as open, axial and selec-
tive coding (Strauss, 1991).
Open coding aims to gain thematic access to the material.
The text is checked sequentially and analysed with regard to pre-
viously determined and new codes that are seen in the material
(Stübing, 2014). In the process, concepts referred to in the material
were developed and named. Subsequently, the coding process be-
came increasingly focussed. During axial coding, codes are added
around the axis of a category. The aim is to establish explanatory
networks of meaning so that “theory miniatures” (Stübing, 2014)
emerge. Selective coding refers to the differences between the cat-
egories and thus to their relationships. These coding processes can
be arranged in a rough temporal structure, in which first the open
and then the selective and axial coding took place. However, these
procedures cannot always be clearly separated in terms of content
or time. In the dynamic research process, and especially due to the
loops that resulted from the repeated sampling, the researchers fre-
quently switched between the different types of coding during the
process (Mey & Mruck, 2020).
Throughout the research process, and especially during coding,
different types of memos were made. Memos are distinguished de-
pending on what they refer to. Writing memos can involve noting
reflections and experiences, as well as documenting import ant ideas,
findings, decisions or results in the process (Stübing, 2014). Corbin
and Strauss point out that the value of memos lies in capturing the
“subtle” (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
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4.3.4 | Qualitycriteria
Stübing (2014) emphasises two dimensions that are relevant when
considering the quality of GT research. First, the assessment of
quality is possible internally. This looks at the structure of the re-
search, the implementation and justification of the individual steps.
Regarding internal quality, the selection of data and the procedure
of analysis, such as the selection of codes in advance and the genesis
into categories, are meaningful. Here, the research subjects and the
assessment of the theoretical prior knowledge on the basis of which
the study is planned, and the theory generated, must also be consid-
ered as par t of the research. This is also referred to as the theoretical
sensitivity of the researchers (Mey & Mruck, 2011).
Second, the external quality of the work can be assessed. In this
assessment, concrete information on quality assurance measures
should be considered. This included, for example, concrete docu-
mentation of the research, and the inclusion of further perspectives
to make the research intersubjectively comprehensible. This gives
the research greater validity. Furthermore, the importance of re-
search within a group is emphasised, in order to constantly be ex-
posed to new perspectives outside one's own (Charmaz, 2011b; Mey
& Mruck, 2011).
4.4 | Procedure of analysis
As it follows from the design of this subproject, the observation
and the analysis of the data took place in processes that cannot be
clearly separated. The individual phases of the analysis process are
interlinked. During the evaluation, the material was analysed based
onthecodingprocedureofGT.The40interventions(Rohr,2022b)
that are introduced in the background were used to build a cod-
ing guide. Almostallofthe40interventionsarepart of the cod-
ing guide, which was adjusted during the course of the analysis.
The material was analysed in successive phases with open coding;
categories were formed and these were, in turn, coded axially and
selectively. For coding, as well as for visualisation and mind map-
ping of the concepts, the researchers worked with the software
MAXQDA in order to be able to process the extensive amount
of data. Through this process, drafts for principles of counselling
emerged and were discussed in different settings. Several times,
these categories had to be discussed and coded until they were de-
fined more precisely during the evaluation, so that they could finally
be conceptualised and merged into a theory. This process did not
turn out to be linear, as problems had to be solved during the work
and different intermediate results were brought together, reflected
on and discarded. Therefore, a lengthy, cyclical and iterative analy-
sis process took place. For better comprehensibility, the steps of
the evaluation process are shown in Figure 2. The items in the boxes
shown in Figure 2 are work stages or phases. The items written
in capital letters refer to important intermediate results that were
obtained in the course of the analysis. Furthermore, the numbers
indicate the individual versions of the principles in ascending order
so that the text can clearly refer to the respective statuses. The
curved arrows are illustrating that, due to theoretical decisions, the
researchers returned several times to different points in the pro-
cess. The letters on the arrows indicate the chronological sequence
of these steps. The evaluation steps are shown in their chronologi-
cal order from top to bottom; the arrows merely symbolise lines
of thoughts. The arrows are showing that some work steps were
discarded twice, and other steps were taken backwards in the pro-
cess. At these times, analysis continued with an earlier version of
the categories of the principles. The arrows show that Versions 3
and4ofth epri nciplesweren otus edfo rfur theranalysis.Thesteps
circled by the arrows in the figure were leanings that contributed
to the final result. However, this cyclical progression of the analy-
sis includes a substantial learning gain, despite the fact that some
steps had to be discarded. The left arrow (d) refers to the point in
timeaftertheseconddiscard,wherethecurrentversion(4)ofthe
principles was abandoned and, at this point, directly progressed to
the step of “coding both versions (18 categories)”. Via this cyclical
cognition process, it was possible to develop a content- related se-
lectivity between the categories. In addition, it became apparent
that individual categories from the respective versions were coded
almost congruently. Based on the definition of the content of the
principles and the overlaps that became apparent from this, the 18
principles were combined into 10 principles (Version 5). In order
to develop concepts from the categories, a mind map was created
for each of the 10 principles, in which they were conceptualised in
terms of content. All codes, memos and relevant text passages were
listed in the mind maps. In the further course of the analysis, the
concepts of the 10 principles were coded in the material in order to
define and delimit them more precisely in terms of content. In this
process, the mind maps served as an aid to coding and were, in turn,
continuously developed.
5 | FINDINGS
Through the elaborate analysis process, the fifth version succeeded
in developing 10 principles of counselling. The circular process led
to a condensation of the findings. As a result, clearly distinguish-
able concepts could be developed. These are each elaborated on
and supported with content- related concepts. The principles that
emerged during the research are as follows:
1st principle: clarifying context and goals - Here, the reason for the
counselling, the client's concerns, the assignment for the counsellor
and further agreements (i.e., scope/times) are discussed. Concerns
and goals can always change during the sessions, so sometimes the
context and the assignment are discussed again at a later point.
2nd principle: accepting suffering (feelings and needs) - This princi-
ple can help clients cope with high levels of suffering and help them
explore feelings and needs through the basic attitudes of empathy,
congruence and appreciation. Awareness of feelings (of fear, anger,
sadness, shame, etc.) and needs are a prerequisite for not devaluing
oneself.
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
3rd principle: entering into a unique relationship - A “real” rela-
tionship provides the foundation for a successful counselling pro-
cess. This means genuine, sincere sympathy and curiosity. The
counsellor is courageous bringing in their own resonances (feel-
ings) and giving honest feedback. In this way, clients also learn to
be genuine, transparent and honest— even to express, understand
and accept unloved parts of their personality (feelings and needs).
This creates mutual trust and security in the process, which is a
mirror of “real life.”
4th principle: understanding own point of view - By understand-
ing one's own family perspective, thinking and behaviour patterns,
beliefs, life scripts, transgenerational family patterns and taboos,
norms and drivers are to be recognised. The resulting problems or
challenges can thus be analysed. In order not to devalue oneself, it is
central to understand oneself.
5th principle: exploring the inner team (the simultaneity of needs
and feelings) - The Inner Team can be understood as a method, as a
human image and as a metamodel. Inner emotions are understood
as persons, as personality parts: thoughts, feelings and needs have
an individual history and meaning. We always have all feelings and
needs (such as for connectedness and autonomy, for security/relia-
bility and spontaneity/freedom) within us. Inner conflict is conscious
ambivalence and should be recognised as immanent, and peace
should be made between the different, contradictory, sometimes
unloved parts.
6th principle: practising mindfulness- Through mindfulness, feel-
ings and thoughts are noticed and attempted to be verbalised. The
Internal Awareness is directed inward (e.g., sensations) and the
External Awareness is directed outward (e.g., by “seeing”). Through
the here- and- now principle, feelings and thoughts of the current
moment can be perceived and expressed. Through this, an authentic
relationship can be developed.
7th principle: generating the ability to act (empowerment) - By gen-
erating the ability to act, clients can learn to represent their own
interests and actions on various levels in a self- responsible and self-
determined manner. For this, they have to become aware of their
FIGURE 2 Evaluationprocess. ವdata prepara on
ವtest coding
ವadjust thecodingguide
ವopen coding
ವfirst previsionresult: 8principles(1)
ವdiscussion of the8principles
ವdeveloping of 10 principles in othersengs(2)
ವmatching theprinciplesfromthe se ngstheorecally
ವ10 matchedprinciples(3)
ವaxialand selececoding
ವreject thelatest version
ವsecond me theore callymatching
ವdiscussthe matching
ವsecond previsionresult: 10 principles (4)
ವaxialand selececoding
ವreject thelatest version
ವcoding both versions (18categories)
ವnewmatchingofprinciplesbycoded segments
ವconceptof10principles(5)
ವmind-mapping
ವaxialand selececoding
ವTheory:10principlesofcounselling
a
b
c
d
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
own expectations within different roles and what they believe oth-
ers expect from them (i.e., to adhere to norms)— and c an decide anew
to act proactively, independently and responsibly— also in awareness
of social power relations.
8th principle: interfering the own point of view - In order to adopt
new perspectives, it can be helpful to “disturb” the previous view-
point. With appropriately unusual questions and a provocative ap-
proach, the counsellor can help the client to leave their comfort
zone.
9th principle: expanding possibilities - Through counselling, new
possibilities should emerge that can help the client in specific situa-
tions. Through the reframing of meanings, contexts or contents, and
different systemic questions, more free space for decisions, actions
and thoughts can be created.
10th principle: transferring into everyday life (consider the capabil-
ity to act) - At the end of the sessions or the counselling process,
clients learn to transfer or adopt the generated perspectives and
possibilities into everyday life. Working with resources and trying
out techniques through homework (also observing goals/ practic-
ing mindfulness/ Exploring Inner Saboteurs) can help clients step by
step in this process.
6 | DISCUSSION
The principles described above cannot be completely distinguished
from each other. It is quite possible that interventions by counsel-
lors cannot be clearly assigned to a single principle. In addition, an
expansion to include other principles would also be conceivable and
would require further research. An extension of the research out-
side Germany is relevant since there are differences in the training
of counsellors.
When looking at the content of the research, no fundamen-
tally new knowledge was found. It is primarily a matter of tak-
ing a closer look at the content that already exists. In this way,
an important contribution was made to the formulation of basic
knowledge.
The 10 principles provide the basis of an impor tant theory for
reflecting and developing the professional actions of counsellors. It
is a theory that shows usability because it has been developed close
to the praxis.
7 | LI MITATI ONS
Hill and Lent (2006) pointed out that much of the research on coun-
selling skills, competences and principles has methodological limi-
tations. Luca et al. (2022, p. 100) argue that “the nebulous nature
of counselling skills made it challenging.” In particular, the observed
materials limit the validity of the results in research. The analysed
documents are “non- reactive data” (Kukartz & Rädiker, 2014). The
counsellors have written down the protocols on the assumption that
they will be read. Therefore, they are not free of social desirability,
but are probably less influenced by it than in alternative qualitative
observation methods, such as inter view data (Rohr, 2023, chapter
“Systemic Evaluation”). In addition, the choice of the observation
material resulted in a very large amount of available data. Thus, it
is a qualitative data corpus of a great quantity, compared with usual
qualitative data sets. It appears to be a quantitative data set with
a qualitative character. The time spent observing and cleaning the
data was proportionally low, so more time was available for the
analysis. This initial situation led to the possibility of conducting an
elaborate evaluation method such as GT.
However, the inclusion of natural data, that is, data that have
not been generated by a survey procedure, also has critical aspects.
For example, the reconstruction of the context of origin and use of
these data is of great importance and must be reflected on. It was a
condition of participation that the counsellors were trained in both
systemic and humanistic methods. These influences have an impact
on the validity of the results.
Another critical aspect that arises from the use of process-
produced data is the selectivity of the materials, which results from
the contex t in which they were p roduced (Salhei ser, 2014). Moreove r,
no statement can be made about the reasons and motivations be-
hind the use of certain actions. The perspective that is available here
is a retrospective one that the counsellors considered relevant to
their activity, but, presumably, also sometimes a reflection of the
session. There is a large number of interventions and descriptions in
the material. However, many interventions can only be perceived in
the dynamics of the phenomenologically experienced situation and
cannot be deduced from the data— either because attention was not
focussed on them when writing, or because they were latent in the
situation and were not directly perceived or verbalised.
In addition, the researcher's perspectivity plays a limiting role
in any research project (Gnest et al., 2021). Qualitative analyses in
particular place more emphasis on the researcher's perspective, al-
though of course no research design is free of perspective. In this
project, it is important to keep in mind that the research was devel-
oped and undertaken by a team at the University of Cologne and
therefore represents a white middle- class perspective. The authors
of the data also belong to this perspective. With this perspectiv-
ity, the work will reproduce existing power and discrimination
structures.
8 | OUTLO OK
As mentioned previously, this GT subproject is embedded in an
MMR project (Figures 1 and 3). In the following, we outline the other
phases of the project.
In Phase 4, we w ill carr y out two subp rojects si multaneo usly:
in 10 expert groups (group discussions), a total of about 100 live
counselling sessions and about 50 video recordings of counselling
sessions will be theoretically discussed and “coded” according to
the 10 principles. At the same time, a new research method will
be tested: the synthesis of the “Hermeneutic Single Case Efficacy
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9
ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
Design” (HSCED; Elliott, 2002; Elliott et al., 2009) and “Contextual
Inquiry” (Wixon et al., 1990). In Phase 5, we will again undertake
two subprojects simultaneously. We will have a quantitative part,
an online survey, and a qualitative part, expert interviews. To ex-
amine our theoretical hypotheses, we are currently conducting a
research project with the working title, “Narratives of profession-
alization identity” (Rohr & Baum, 2021). In a qualitative interview
design, counsellors are asked about their self- narratives and their
professional narrative identity— and about their personal view on
the principles. Evaluation of the interviews will use GT to develop
the first theoretical conclusions for a narrative professional identity
model in counselling.
After that, we will conduct and interpret the theor y of principles
with the current projects on the competences, which was granted
by DGfB, the German National Association for Counselling, and
which we mentioned previously: counselling in the context of the
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) for Lifelong Learning.
In conclusion, this chapter presents an outlook on an elaborate
research project, which we have started on behalf of the DGfB.
Together with four universities, we work on the development of a
German Qualifications Framework for Counselling, in the context of
the EQF. The DQR project is a mixture of Mixed Methods Program
Evaluation Design and Mixed Methods Participatory Design. In the
first step, a multimethod approach triangulates a systematic liter-
ature review with a quantitative expert survey. Here, the compe-
tencies and competence facets defined in the academic discourse
and the competencies and competence facets depicted in counsel-
ling curricula are recorded to secure and further explore these in a
Delphi study with one hundred experts' participation. The experts
were selected in close consultation with the client to adequately
reflect the counselling landscape's diversity and to consider a cross-
school perspective. The Delphi study (100 exper ts will complete the
questionnaire) aims to check and supplement the literature review
results and weighting concerning the Qualifications Framework for
Counselling. Its aim is to ensure that a methodically supported and
intersubjectively comprehensible consensus is found. At the same
time, we will analyse procedures and instruments for competence
assessment, examinations and certification procedures of the DGfB
member associations with regard to their outcome and competence
orientation in order to systematise their adaptation possibilities for
the project context. Throughout the course of qualitative group
discussions with representatives of the DGfB member associations,
proposals for certification criteria and practices will be derived and,
over the course of the project, acceptance of the project results will
be created in the DGfB member associations. The entire applica-
tion's orientation follows a research concept oriented towards im-
pact factors. It is thus natively connectable to competence- oriented
discourses and aims at theoretical and empirical modelling of suc-
cessful counselling actions.
9 | CONCLUSION
In analogy to Luca et al. (2022)— who formulated counselling skills
for professionals who are not qualified counsellors— we have found
10 principles for qualified counsellors. These principles imply a new
theory of counselling. The 10 principles should form the basis for
teaching counselling— and for formulating 10 competencies that fit
to the principles. These 10 competencies can then form the basis for
competence- based teaching.
10 | IMPLICATIONS FOR THERAPISTS
When these changes take place— both in the theory of counselling
and in the teaching of counselling— this could have a huge impact
on future counsellors. They will think and work in terms of these 10
principles.
FIGURE 3 Exploratorysequentialdesignoftheentireproject.
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ROHR and B E C K E R - N E U
Already, the 10 principles can be used for one's own reflection
and for supervision, thus opening up new perspectives. Just as an
example, therapists can ask themselves during (or after) a difficult
session:
1. (first principle) Has the goal perhaps changed?
2. (second principle) Do I really understand and accept her/his suf-
fering? Fear? Shame?
3. IfIwere100%honest,whatwouldIsaytomyclient?
4. Doesmy clientknowtheirhiddendesire?Dotheyreallyunder-
stand their own point of view?
5. All feelings are involved. Which ones are hidden but powerful?
6. How can I help her/him to practise a greater awareness?
7. HowcanIsupportmyclienttoac tinaself-responsibleandself-
determined way?
8. How can I interfere their “old” point of view?
9. How can I support my client to find more (realistic) possibilities?
10. How can I support my client to transfer the “Learnings” into eve-
ryday life?
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
ORCID
Dirk Rohr https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4761-3456
ENDNOTES
1Whiteness is the designation of the dominant and privileged position
of people in the power relations of racism. Positionality of people re-
mains mostly unnamed and unquestioned as a norm. It is not a self-
designation, which is why we write white in lower case. In italics, it
refers to a social construct and not to white constr uct and not to white
as a real skin colour.
2Bi_PoC (Black, Indigenous People_and People of Colour) is a political
self- designation of people who are discriminated against by racism.
This is not about the naming of skin colours, but rather about shared
experiences of attributions and racialisations.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Dr Dirk Rohr received a call to the “Professorship for
Communication in Educational Fields of Action” at the University
of Oldenb urg in 200 4. Since 2009, he has bee n posted as ac-
ademic director and head of the counselling research depart-
ment and the center for university didactics at the University
of Cologne. He is the founder and director of the advanced and
further training institute “koelner institute for counseling & ped-
agogical professionalization.”
Josephine Becker- Neu has written her bachelor's thesis and her
master's thesis in the field of counselling at the University of
Cologne. After completing her master's studies, she co- created
‘WorkStadt’, a social network solution for cultural and organi-
zational facilitation for international employees in Germany. In
addition, she is suppor ts non- profit associations in the process of
change- management.
How to cite this article: Rohr, D., & Becker- Neu, J. (2023).
Ten principles of counselling: Grounded theory in a mixed
methods research project. Counselling and Psychotherapy
Research, 00, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12660
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