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Micro-Level Advocacy Toward Socially Just Multi-Tiered Systems of Support: Knowledge and Values
School Psychology Review
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This article introduces the second part of the special topic issue Training School Psychologists as Social Justice Change Agents: Current Practices and Future Directions, which consists of five conceptual articles and empirical studies related to social justice training issues in school psychology. First, we highlight several current events that have brought racial injustice and the acknowledgment of structural racism into the mainstream culture in the US over the course of the last several months. Next, we highlight how the field of school psychology has responded to these events, including increasing calls to action to embed social justice and anti-racism approaches within our training efforts, and the evolution necessary to embrace an anti-racist identity as a field. Third, we discuss salient aspects of each of the articles in order to emphasize the unique contributions made to the social justice and school psychology training literature. Finally, we discuss implications and future directions for training, practice and research with the goal of advancing empirically validated social justice and anti-racist practices within school psychology and education.
We assessed the effects of a whole-school equity intervention implemented within a school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) framework on racial inequities in school discipline in eight elementary schools with inequitable referrals for Black students. The intervention involved assessing patterns of racial disparities in school discipline decisions and providing professional development on adapting school-wide behavior systems to improve cultural responsiveness through concrete strategies targeting the patterns. After consent and matching on existing levels of racial inequities, half of the schools were randomly assigned to receive the intervention. Analyses showed that schools receiving the intervention had significant decreases in racial disparities in school discipline and rates of office discipline referrals (ODRs) for Black students, while control schools had minimal change. Results are discussed in terms of improving equity in school discipline within multitiered systems of support.
Activists use civil disobedience as a means of putting social justice into practice. Psychologists can engage in civil disobedience to enact psychology’s ethical principles, support marginalized communities, promote social welfare, and contest injustice. Drawing from the work of minoritized scholars within and outside of psychology, the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Code, social constructionism, intersectionality, and social justice movements, our article aims to empower psychologists to understand and use civil disobedience and advocates for expanding civil disobedience in the profession. Because psychologists’ identities and contexts will inform their own civil disobedience, we utilize a social justice issue germane to our own work supporting transgender people as an exemplar where our ethical principles would conflict with law; thus, warranting civil disobedience. This example concerns Ohio House Bill 658, which, if enacted, would have man- dated that psychologists “immediately notify, in writing, each of [a] child’s parents if the child shows symptoms of gender dysphoria or otherwise demonstrates a desire to be treated in a manner opposite of the child’s biological sex.” We return to Ohio HB 658 and explore other contemporary social justice issues throughout to reveal how psychologists can conceptualize and enact civil disobedience in pursuit of transformative change.
Despite widespread implementation of multitiered systems of support for behavior (MTSS-B), evidence of racial discipline disproportionality persists. We argue MTSS-B must prioritize racial equity and healing in schools. We first discuss how discipline has centered Whiteness, providing a brief history of relevant events and sociopolitical forces that have maintained a reliance on exclusionary discipline practices with a primary focus on out-of-school suspension to oppress youth of color, specifically Black students. Then, we describe the harm exclusionary discipline has caused the Black community by synthesizing counter-storytelling. Finally, we propose ways to strengthen MTSS-B to promote racial equity with a primary focus on supports to adults in the systems in which oppression is maintained. We propose school psychologists can (a) empower students, families, and communities to engage in authentic partnerships, (b) advocate to educational leaders, (c) coordinate transformative staff professional development, and (d) support teachers to create inclusive and healing classroom communities. We frame these suggestions within an ecological–behavioral paradigm that considers root conditions of harm.
Impact Statement
Discipline in U.S. public schools has long been rooted in White centrality, and exclusionary practices (e.g., out-of-school suspension) have caused harm to individuals, particularly in the Black community. School psychologists are poised to strengthen the design and delivery of behavior supports provided in schools to center racial equity and address this sustained harm. School psychologists must focus on providing supports to adults (e.g., educators) in the systems in which oppression is maintained to propel change.
The health, economic, and social challenges associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) present a range of threats to students’ well-being, psychoeducational experiences, and outcomes, spurring fears for a “lost generation.” In this article, we present COVID-19 as a large-scale multisystemic disaster causing massive disruptions and losses, with adversities moderated by the intersectional nature of systemic inequity. We first synthesize the broad effects of COVID-19 as they relate to equity and social justice, followed by the major implications for students and schools, with a focus on intersectional systemic issues. We then propose foundational considerations and resources intended to usher a paradigm shift in how school psychologists’ roles and activities are conceptualized in the years to come, ending with key imperatives for practice and graduate education in school psychology.
School psychologists enter the third decade of the 21st century marked by mass protests against state-sanctioned violence against Black people, worsening economic and environmental crises, and a deadly pandemic that makes preexisting disparities worse. We argue that the profession can respond to the challenges children, families, and schools face ahead by taking a ‘critical’ turn. We delineate at least five lessons that can be learned from various critical theories and movements that—if intentionally, thoughtfully, and authentically engaged—have the potential to reshape our traditional ‘ways of being,’ and transform who we are as a field and subsequently our ability to advance social justice. We conclude by proposing a conceptual framework for a creative and dialogic site within school psychology that we call critical school psychology (CSP). CSP enables school psychologists to combat social injustice both within and outside school psychology, and work toward/for social justice by creating different kinds of knowledge and different kinds of spaces.
Impact Statement
Drawing upon various critical theories, we propose critical school psychology (CSP)—a conceptual framework to transform school psychology into a profession dedicated to combating social injustices and oppressive processes both within and outside of itself. We discuss how researchers, practitioners, graduate educators, and graduate students can play a role in this transformational work-in-progress by creating different kinds of knowledge and spaces.
Exclusionary school discipline practices and policies have contributed to the racial disparities in discipline for certain demographic of students, particularly Black students. As a result, many schools have adopted the school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) framework to identify and address disproportionality, despite the inconsistent findings regarding the effectiveness of SWPBIS implementation in reducing discipline disproportionality. This study further examined the extent of the relationship between SWPBIS implementation fidelity and office discipline referrals received by Black students in urban elementary and middle schools. Findings are discussed and specific recommendations for enhancing cultural responsiveness within a SWPBIS framework are provided.
School-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) frameworks have been suggested as a promising approach to reducing disproportionality in school discipline practices; however, few studies have tested this potential, and findings have been mixed. In our sample of 27 urban schools and approximately 15,000 students, risk difference and ratio trajectories for office discipline referrals (ODRs) across 3 years of Tier I implementation evidenced sustained or, in some cases, heightened disproportionality for students identified as Black/African American or Latinx/Hispanic (relative to White; in a study subsample), identified as male (relative to a female), enrolled in each school’s upper three grades (relative to lowest three grades), and not participating in special education (relative to participating in special education). Tier I implementation fidelity minimally contributed to expounding trajectories and outcomes across schools. These findings highlight the importance of equity-focused implementation and advanced-tier supports in the service of social justice within schools.
Little is known about how immigrant Latinx transgender people experience support from their communities in the United States and back in their country of origin. The present study aimed to understand how immigrant Latinx transgender people reported support within their communities. A community sample of 18 immigrant transgender Latinx people at a large metropolitan city in Florida participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis revealed seven themes depicting the varying levels of support that participants received within their communities in the United States, including: 1) neighborhood belonging, 2) organizations as a source of well-being, 3) friends as a source of protection and safety, and 4) supporting undocumented individuals. In addition, three themes emerged about participants’ experiences of discrimination and oppression within their communities, including: 1) discrimination and violence, 2) police profiling and restriction of public space, and 3) lack of safety for undocumented individuals. Participants also shared narratives about the perceived level of community support they received in the United States vs. in their countries of origin. Drawing on gender minority stress and intersectionality, the community experiences of immigrant Latinx transgender people are examined and interpreted to provide important research, advocacy, and practice implications.
As school psychologists, we have an ethical responsibility to engage in social justice and anti-racist action. School psychology organizations and graduate education programs play an important role in shaping future generations of school psychologists to lead the mental health, educational and research, and advocacy initiatives that promote equity for school personnel, students, families and communities they serve. This is only possible if our field acknowledges, evaluates, and works to reconstruct existing systems, structures, and policies that lead to inequitable outcomes for some groups and not others. “How can the school psychology community serve the diverse society in which we live without explicit and intentional education and growth in this area?” To help answer this question, APA Division 16, Trainers of School Psychologists, Council of Directors of School Psychology Programs, Society for the Study of School Psychology, the American Board of School Psychology, and the National Association of School Psychologists have come together to reaffirm our commitment to ensure current and future school psychologists are empowered to be anti-racist agents of change.
Impact Statement
School Psychology’s commitment and mission to advance research, practice, policy and advocacy for education continues. In light of this tragedy, we have a sharpened focus to reduce systemic racism and inequities in schools and communities across our nation. We must take affirmative action through active anti-racist work.
Research suggests that individuals are racially biased when judging the emotions of others (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002) and particularly regarding attributions about the emotion of anger (Halberstadt, Castro, Chu, Lozada, & Sims, 2018; Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003). Systematic, balanced designs are rare, and are comprised of adults viewing adults. The present study expands the questions of racialized emotion recognition accuracy and anger bias to the world of children. Findings that adults demonstrate either less emotion accuracy and/or greater anger bias for Black versus White children could potentially explain some of the large racialized disciplinary discrepancies in schools. To test whether racialized emotion recognition accuracy and anger bias toward children exists, we asked 178 prospective teachers to complete an emotion recognition task comprised of 72 children’s facial expressions depicting six emotions and divided equally by race (Black, White) and gender (female, male). We also assessed implicit bias via the child race Implicit Association Test and explicit bias via questionnaire. Multilevel modeling revealed nuanced racialized emotion recognition accuracy with a race by gender interaction, but clear racialized anger bias toward both Black boys and girls. Both Black boys and Black girls were falsely seen as angry more often than White boys and White girls. Higher levels of either implicit or explicit bias did not increase odds of Black children being victim to anger bias, but instead decreased odds that White children would be misperceived as angry. Implications for addressing preexisting biases in teacher preparation programs and by children and parents are discussed.
Although positive education has made significant progress towards fostering student wellbeing at the individual level through the application of positive psychology interventions, adopting a systems-informed perspective will support the field to also approach wellbeing at the classroom and collective levels. Arguably, this approach will promote a more widespread and sustained level of wellbeing in schools. The current conceptual paper focuses on how the classroom as a system can be used as a powerful context to create collective wellbeing. We define group-level flourishing, explain how a systems-informed perspective allows classrooms to create collective wellbeing, introduce the Flourishing Classroom Systems Model, and consider implications and applications of this model.
With the rapidly increasing racial and ethnic diversity of the school‐aged population, school psychologists must be properly trained to engage in culturally competent practice; however, little is known about how school psychology programs prepare their trainees to serve diverse populations. The purpose of this study was to update Rogers et al.'s study on multicultural training by examining the extent to which school psychology programs use multicultural training recommendations noted in the literature. Thirty‐eight school psychology program coordinators completed the Multicultural Environmental Inventory‐Revised (MEI) to assess their perceptions of their program's multicultural environment. Participants were also asked about their training in multicultural and diversity issues and how their program conducts multicultural training. Findings suggest that programs most frequently used the integration and separate course models for multicultural training along with clinical experiences serving diverse students. In addition, multicultural coursework was associated with higher scores on the MEI Curriculum and MEI Research subscales. With regard to program environment, the percentage of racial and ethnic minoritized (REM) students was positively correlated to the percentage of REM faculty and the number of required multicultural courses. However, programs lacked specific strategies to recruit and retain diverse students. Findings and implications for training programs are discussed.
School‐wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) is a multitiered support framework for preventing problem behaviors and increasing prosocial behaviors. There has been an increasing number of experimental group design research studies focused on the impacts of SWPBIS. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review to update and extend prior reviews by including both published and unpublished studies and conducting a robust variance estimation meta‐analysis to examine the magnitude of the effect of SWPBIS on all available school‐level outcomes. A total of 29 studies were identified across the United States and Europe, including seven randomized controlled trials and 22 quasi‐experimental group design studies. Overall, statistically significant reductions in school discipline and increased academic achievement were found. Effect sizes were small to medium. Limitations and implications are discussed.
The student population in American public schools has become increasingly diverse; however, the teacher workforce remains primarily White (80%). The purpose of the current paper was to examine the relationship between student-teacher racial composition and perceptions of school climate and the impact of Whiteness on the educational outcomes of minoritized students and their counterparts. Findings from the study indicate that more than 90 percent of the minoritized students in the sample are being educated by a majority White teaching staff. White students’ perceptions of cultural acceptance and connectedness increased as the number of White teachers increased. However, there was no effect for minoritized students. For minoritized students, perceptions of school climate did increase as the number of minoritized students increased. Recommendations for addressing ways to create more equitable learning environments for minoritized students and address and reduce teacher bias are discussed.
The updated American Psychological Association (APA) Multicultural Guidelines bring to the forefront many contemporary issues in clinical practice and supervision (APA, 2017). However, knowledge of recommended practices alone may not always create change in typical clinical practice. The application and implications of the multicultural guidelines are explored from a supervisee perspective. In particular, the concept of cultural humility is examined in relation to specific supervisory interactions and training standards dealing with race, culture, and identity. The role of power, privilege, and prejudice is discussed as is relevant to clinical and supervision processes. A supervisee perspective of how the above topics may be relevant to clinical training more generally are presented. Finally, specific suggestions implementing a cultural humility perspective into clinical supervision and practice is discussed. The author’s hope is that by examining common, current practices from an underutilized lens, further exploration and discussion of related practices will be stimulated.
Although school psychologists are called on a daily basis to advocate for the needs of our nations' schoolchildren, little is known about the factors that contribute to effective school-based advocacy. This study involved face-to-face interviews with 21 award-winning school psychology advocates. They described what led them into advocacy, obstacles faced, successes experienced, mistakes made, strategies used, resources employed, skills needed, and changes observed. The advocates discussed their definitions of advocacy, how they find balance, their advice for newcomers, and how they empower others. Following a qualitative content analysis, their collective input yielded important findings, including indispensable advice for future advocates. Most suggested that beginners' build relationships with like-minded collaborators and the targets of their advocacy, devote time to building expertise, and be patient and persistent. Common obstacles included intransigence among school psychology colleagues who were reluctant to change their roles to reflect new developments in the field or who feared participating in advocacy would destabilize their positions. To fully embrace an advocacy role, most advised advocacy education and training for both existing school psychologists and newcomers to the field. Limitations and implications that inform a foundation for advancing advocacy within school psychology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
Six school psychologist practitioners who self-identified as social justice change agents were interviewed for this study. Interview questions were informed by two central themes that were important to the understanding of school psychologists as change agents: defining social justice and potential application to school psychology practice. The interviews were coded via consensual qualitative research. Thirteen different themes emerged. Some of the most noteworthy findings related to being a social justice agent include taking personal responsibility to bring about change, using political savvy to navigate power structures, modeling the changes one is seeking to bring about, and working in a culturally responsive manner across differing perspectives.
Throughout the history of the United States, there have been many social movements that have resulted in an array of historic societal outcomes—ranging from the end of racial segregation to women’s voting rights to the legalization of same-sex marriages. Despite the positive outcomes derived from political activism, many psychologists have struggled with how to advocate for social justice while maintaining their professional responsibilities and ethical boundaries. The current article reviews the historical ways that psychologists have participated in political movements—from the use of psychological research in landmark U.S. Supreme Court cases to psychologist-led pushes for policy changes in psychology, medicine, and other mental health related fields. Next, a critical review provides some of the major controversies or dilemmas regarding psychology, social justice, and political participation—including (a) ethical concerns and professional boundaries, (b) the utility of political neutrality in psychology, (c) psychologists’ balance and self-care, (d) psychologists’ lack of advocacy training, and (e) beliefs concerning the role of social justice advocacy in psychology. Finally, the article concludes with a discussion of the concept “psychologist–activist”—highlighting the many ways that psychologists across various subfields and institutions can combat oppression on individual, interpersonal, group, and institutional levels.
Race and gender disparities in school discipline and associated harms have been well documented for decades. Suspension from school can reduce instructional time and impede academic progress for students who may already be lagging in their achievement. This chapter offers a research-based framework for increasing equity in school discipline. The framework is composed of ten principles that hold promise for helping educators to address student behavior in a developmentally appropriate manner and reduce race and gender disparities in school discipline. The framework also informs directions for future research in school discipline.
Shortages of school psychologists and the underrepresentation of minorities in school psychology represent longstanding concerns. Scholars recommend that one way to address both issues is to recruit individuals from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds into school psychology. The purpose of this study was to explore the characteristics and minority focused findings of school psychology recruitment studies conducted from 1994 to 2014. Using an electronic search that included specified databases, subject terms and study inclusion criteria along with a manual search of 10 school psychology focused journals, the review yielded 10 published, peer-reviewed recruitment studies focused primarily on school psychology over the 20-year span. Two researchers coded these 10 studies using a rigorous coding process that included a high level of inter rater reliability. Results suggest that the studies utilized varied methodologies, primarily sampled undergraduate populations, and mostly included White participants. Five studies focused on minority populations specifically. These studies indicate that programs should actively recruit minority undergraduates and offer financial support to attract minority candidates. Implications suggest a need for more recruitment research focused on minority populations and the implementation and evaluation of minority recruitment models.
Over the past several years, social justice has transformed from a somewhat fringe school psychology topic to an approach that is increasingly viewed as central to school psychology practice, particularly in the United States (Jenkins et al., Contemp Sch Psychol, in press). Like leadership, social justice is something that is widely sought but is very challenging to define and takes on different meanings in different contexts. This chapter seeks to illuminate the role of the school psychologists as leaders for social justice.
The future of school psychology requires us to examine present challenges, our capacity to address them, and how we might better prepare ourselves for what lies ahead. This piece raises the question of whether school psychology is not only demographically but structurally oriented to the norms of middle-class White women, especially those who demonstrate gender normative identities. Our dependence on the social norms of White women, although having conferred benefits to date, may be limiting the impact of school psychology, especially in the effort to achieve and sustain systemic changes in education. Evidence cited in support of the points made here ranges from literature in social psychology and organizational psychology, to education and Black feminism, to school psychology scholarship and professional standards. The crux of this thesis is not that the feminization of our profession is to blame for the yet unrealized potential of our leadership within education. Rather, as a product of structural, patriarchal racism, the race by gender socialization process creates particular vulnerabilities in White women’s social identities that affect the values and behaviors of the profession in ways that may be hindering school psychology from achieving its stated goals.
Impact Statement
School psychology is a profession dominated by White women, who are generally taught to see themselves as powerless, in the service of both racism and misogyny. For the past twenty years, school psychology has diligently championed evidence-based school reform, but little sustained, widespread impact is yet evident. This paper examines how much of school psychology has been shaped by White women’s social norms, and how those norms may undermine school reform efforts. The overall goal is that discussing the issue openly will help us to begin to change and become more effective advocates for children, schools, and communities.
Implicit bias refers to automatically evoked mental associations about social groups. The idea has been influential across the social sciences as a way to explain persistent racial disparities amid changing self-report attitudes. Most research has treated implicit bias as an individual attitude. However, evidence suggests that it is neither a stable individual difference nor a strong correlate of individual behavior. Moreover, the individual-focused approach can lead researchers to neglect systemic racism as a cause of persistent disparities. We argue that implicit bias can be considered a cognitive reflection of systemic racism in the environment. In this view, implicit bias is an ongoing set of associations based on inequalities and stereotypes in the environment. As such, implicit bias changes when contexts change.
Racist rhetoric blaming the Asian, Asian American, and Pacific Islander (AAAPI) community for the COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated a surge of violence against the AAAPI community in the United States, including the Atlanta mass shooting on March 16, 2021. These incidents resurfaced the ongoing racism against AAAPIs that has largely been unaddressed despite lasting almost 2 centuries. The erasure of AAAPIs’ historical oppression, unique cultures, languages, immigration experiences, and contributions to scientific and social justice advancement in the United States has hindered AAAPI voices from being heard. School psychologists are ethically bound to promote equity and dismantle racism; it is imperative to increase visibility of AAAPIs’ experiences across training levels (P–12 and graduate programs), settings, and systems. In this unified statement, school psychology organizations have come together to reaffirm the field’s commitment to anti-racism by offering proactive strategies to effectively promote visibility and equity for AAAPI students, families, and communities.
Impact Statement
Although there has been a complete absence of discussion of anti-AAAPI racism and anti-racism in school psychology, the field is actively committed to dismantling systemic racism and inequalities in P–12 schools, institutions of higher education, and communities across our nation. This statements seeks to address this absence by providing (a) a much-needed starting point for school psychologists to learn about the history of discrimination, racism, and violence targeting AAAPIs in the United States that has been virtually unaddressed; (b) a critical context for the recent rise in COVID-19-related anti-AAAPI violence while shedding critical light on the deep-seated racism that has oppressed AAAPIs for centuries in America; and (c) beginning strategies that school psychology faculty members, practitioners, and students can engage in to dismantle anti-AAAPI racism across individual and systems levels.
Previous literature has described how people of historically marginalized groups (namely people of color, women, queer and transgender people, people living with disabilities, immigrants, and people of religious minority groups) are likely to internalize negative, oppressive feelings about their identities (David, 2014; David, Schroeder, & Femandez, 2019). For example, studies have found that many women and people of color (and women of color, in particular) experience what has been labeled as imposter phenomenon, or the notion that they are not intelligent or adequate enough, despite evidence that confirms their success or worth. Similarly, people of color and people from other historically marginalized groups are known to experience stereotype threat, or anxiety about performance or behaviors that could confirm biases about a social group they belong to. Finally, previous literature shows that people of historically marginalized groups navigate various types of microaggressions, or subtle or covert biased statements and behaviors that negatively impact their self-esteem, academic performance, mental health, and physical health. While the terms microaggressions, stereotype threat, and imposter phenomenon have been discussed thoroughly in academic literature, less is written about the connections between these concepts. Utilizing intersectionality theory, the current paper will propose an interactional model between these constructs and aims to describe how cumulative effects of microaggressions exacerbate and contribute to internalized oppression. Based on this model, this paper will also provide recommendations for future directions in psychological research and practice.
Schools continue to rely on disciplinary exclusions as a consequence for behavioral rule violations, despite evidence that removing students from instruction for discipline purposes is associated with poor behavioral, academic, and social outcomes. School-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) is one multitiered support framework used to prevent behavior problems while developing effective and efficient systems for intervening with students who require more support. Prior research suggests implementing Tier 1 of SWPBIS with fidelity is associated with reductions in disciplinary exclusions. In this study, we evaluated the additive effects of implementing Tier 1 and advanced tiers (i.e., Tiers 2 and 3) with fidelity compared with Tier 1 alone for 558 schools in California. Results indicate schools implementing all three tiers with fidelity had significantly lower rates of students receiving one out-of-school suspension, out-of-school suspension incidents, and students referred to law enforcement. We also discuss implications and recommendations for future research.
Individually and collectively, it is now more important than ever that we engage in intentional and sustained action to advocate for and advance diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) in the field of school psychology. To create positive change and the momentum to sustain it, it is essential that school psychology colleagues, organizations, and entities—including journals—identify how each can contribute to advancing DEI efforts. Herein, the School Psychology Review leadership team offers a brief summary of several of our intentional efforts, to date, to advocate for and advance DEI in school psychology scholarship. These actions toward accountability include (a) establishing individual and collective commitments to advocating for and advancing DEI as the foundation of our scholarship; (b) diversifying the journal leadership; (c) diversifying the editorial advisory board; (d) preparing future diverse journal leadership through mentored editorial fellowship programs, especially focused on early research career individuals; (e) mentoring future colleagues by establishing a student editorial board with members from diverse backgrounds; (f) focusing on special topics relevant to diverse and minoritized children, youth, families, and school communities; (g) making available professional-development opportunities and resources; and (h) establishing a journal action plan focused on advancing DEI. All colleagues, organizations, and entities are invited to individually and collectively join us to Be the Change in advancing and sustaining DEI efforts in school psychology scholarship.
IMPACT STATEMENT
The School Psychology Review leadership team outlines actions to advocate for and advance diversity, equity, and inclusivity in school psychology scholarship. Actions and accountability discussed include: establishing individual and collective commitments; diversifying the journal leadership, as well as the editorial advisory board; establishing journal infrastructures to support further development and contributions of diverse students and early career colleagues; and establishing a journal action plan focused on advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion.
Positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) was first introduced with the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1997. In this article, we describe the 25-year history of the PBIS implementation experience, including the core features of PBIS as a multitiered framework and the process and outcomes for implementing PBIS across over 26,000 schools. We also summarize the national outcome data of PBIS implementation and conclude with a discussion of future directions and considerations, focusing on sustainability and scaling.
Given the authority of state government over public education, one means of narrowing the best-practice to actual-practice gap in education is by putting forth clear state guidance and recommendations to schools. To date, however, little is known about the national landscape of procedural guidance that is readily available to practitioners looking to implement multitiered systems of support for behavior (MTSS-B). The purpose of the current study was to conduct a systematic review of state department of education websites to understand what guidance is afforded to local education agencies regarding MTSS-B. Results supported that roughly half of the states provided some form of procedural guidance for MTSS-B; however, both the type (e.g., what interventions to use, how often to progress monitor) and level of guidance varied widely. When states did provide behavior-specific guidance, documents were most likely to include specification of what types of interventions and measures to utilize; information less typically focused on assessment such as indications as to how often data should be collected and reviewed or what decision rule(s) should be used to determine student responsiveness. Implications for local implementation and strengthening future state-level guidance for MTSS-B are discussed.
A tension often exists between what university trainers teach and what practitioners do in work settings. Two issues are salient: One is to educate school psychologists to provide state-of-the-art psychological services and the other is to teach them to change their work environments to support comprehensive psychological services. Both tasks are difficult, but both are necessary for successful practice in the real world of the school psychologist. Domains of knowledge, programmatic considerations, and practical guidelines are suggested to trainers and practitioners.
There is an array of youth participatory approaches relevant to health equity efforts in community psychology, adolescent health, youth development, and education. While they share some commonalities, they also reflect important distinctions regarding key processes and intended level of impact. Here, we consider the following: (a) youth‐led participatory action research (YPAR), (b) youth organizing (YO), (c) youth‐led planning, (d) human‐centered design, (e) participatory arts, and (f) youth advisory boards. Informed by community psychology theories on empowerment and levels of change and social epidemiology frameworks that focus on the social determinants of health inequities, we aim to promote greater clarity in the conceptualization, implementation, and evaluation of youth participatory approaches; frame the “landscape” of youth participatory approaches and their similarities and differences; present an integrative review of the evidence regarding the impact of youth participatory approaches; and describe several illustrative cases so as to consider more deeply how some youth participatory approaches aim to influence the social determinants of health that lead to the physical embodiment of health inequities. We conclude by identifying areas of future policy‐ and practice‐relevant research for advancing youth participation and health equity.
Highlights
• We review multiple youth participatory approaches relevant for the promotion of health equity.
• We identify commonalities and distinctions on processes including power and level of impact.
• We review evidence for impact and consider illustrative cases for addressing health inequities.
• We identify research directions for advancing youth participation and health equity.
The extrajudicial killing of Black people, particularly unarmed Black boys and men, at the hands of police is one of the most pressing social and racial justice issues in the USA. The awareness of, and indirect exposure to, police killings of Black people has a detrimental impact on the academic achievement, school attendance, mental health, and social development of Black children and youth. Despite this, there has been silence from the school psychology profession regarding police violence against Black people and ways to provide school-based support to Black children and youth who are exposed to such violence. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore school psychology students’ and school psychologists’ knowledge about police violence against Black people, their experiences with graduate education preparation for providing professional support to Black students who are exposed to police violence against Black people, and their perceptions of training areas in which school psychology programs could improve. Findings indicated that participants gained knowledge about police violence against Black people from multiple sources, including personal and professional experiences; few discussed police violence or Black Lives Matter specifically in their programs; none had specific training to support Black students exposed to police violence against Black people; and most recommended programs improve multicultural training.
Race plays an important role in how people think, develop, and behave. In the current article, we queried more than 26,000 empirical articles published between 1974 and 2018 in top-tier cognitive, developmental, and social psychology journals to document how often psychological research acknowledges this reality and to examine whether people who edit, write, and participate in the research are systematically connected. We note several findings. First, across the past five decades, psychological publications that highlight race have been rare, and although they have increased in developmental and social psychology, they have remained virtually nonexistent in cognitive psychology. Second, most publications have been edited by White editors, under which there have been significantly fewer publications that highlight race. Third, many of the publications that highlight race have been written by White authors who employed significantly fewer participants of color. In many cases, we document variation as a function of area and decade. We argue that systemic inequality exists within psychological research and that systemic changes are needed to ensure that psychological research benefits from diversity in editing, writing, and participation. To this end, and in the spirit of the field’s recent emphasis on metascience, we offer recommendations for journals and authors.
A positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) framework has been associated with a variety of positive student and school outcomes. However, additional research would be useful to further understand the relationship between school-wide (i.e., Tier 1) PBIS implementation level and student outcomes. This study examined whether there were differences in discipline and academic outcomes based on Tier 1 PBIS implementation fidelity level in 153 Ohio schools when accounting for key covariates. Schools with higher implementation fidelity were found to evidence a significantly lower number of out-of-school suspensions per 100 students than schools with lower implementation fidelity when accounting for demographic covariates. However, a significant trend was not evidenced for the academic achievement outcome variable. Limitations and implications of this study are discussed.
A qualitative study used a grounded theory methodology to explore the strategies that 16 school counselors who self-identified as social justice agents used to advocate for systemic change within their school communities. Findings included seven overarching themes: (a) using political savvy to navigate power structures, (b) consciousness raising, (c) initiating difficult dialogues, (d) building intentional relationships, (e) teaching students self-advocacy skills, (f) using data for marketing, and (g) educating others about the school counselor role of advocate.
The purpose of this study was to examine associations between implementation fidelity of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) and student outcomes over time. The sample included 477 K–12 schools across 10 states implementing SWPBIS for varying numbers of years and at varying levels of fidelity (but with 78% of schools at or above established fidelity criteria). Results indicate that, in general, schools showed a decline in office discipline referrals (ODRs) and out-of-school suspensions (OSSs) over 3 years. SWPBIS fidelity of implementation was positively associated with initial levels of ODRs and OSSs, and the relations between fidelity and OSSs varied based on years of SWPBIS implementation. Levels of fidelity did not predict change in ODRs or OSSs. Despite no statistically significant associations between fidelity and student academic outcomes, schools that had implemented SWPBIS for 3 years or more had higher achievement in mathematics after controlling for prior achievement.
Zero tolerance policies have contributed to suspension and expulsion becoming common methods of addressing problem behaviors in schools. If suspension and expulsion are being used as forms of punishment, they should theoretically result in a reduction of problem behavior after their administration. In reality, exclusionary disciplinary practices have not been associated with reductions in problem behaviors among students. It has also been consistently established that disproportionate discipline practices and outcomes take place in schools. African-American students, in particular, are overrepresented in their respective rates of suspension and expulsion. School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) provide strategies that facilitate behavioral support for all students, including those with and without disabilities. Discourse on SWPBIS has suggested that implementation strategies are culturally neutral, and subsequently should be appropriate in all schools. However, African-American students continue to be over-disciplined when compared to their White peers, even when SWPBIS is implemented with sufficient fidelity. This information suggests that a culturally responsive adaptation of SWPBIS is needed. This article provides a framework for implementing culturally responsive School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports.
Latinx students are the largest ethnic minority school-age population, yet they have some of the lowest reading proficiency levels and highest rates of school dropout and experience significant unmet behavioral health needs. School-based interventions addressing behavioral challenges and parent engagement are recommended to support Latinx students. Conjoint behavioral consultation is an evidence-based intervention that supports behavioral improvements and home–school partnerships for students. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of CBC for a subsample of Latinx students enrolled in two large-scale randomized efficacy trials. ANCOVA and t-test analyses revealed generally positive effects for CBC on Latinx student and parent outcomes and parent-teacher relationships. These findings suggest CBC may be a promising school-based intervention addressing gaps in educational and behavioral health services for Latinx students. Given the small sample size, further research is needed to evaluate the efficacy of CBC for Latinx students and their families.
This study examined facilitators of and barriers to comprehensive and integrated services. A national sample of 267 full-time practicing school psychologists who were Regular Members or Early Career Members of the National Association of School Psychologists participated. We administered a survey to participants that measured the extent to which they engaged in comprehensive and integrated services and the top facilitators of and barriers to those services using web-based survey procedures. Results indicated that the majority of facilitators identified (Personal Attributes, Stakeholder Involvement, Resources and Support, School-Specific Variables, Contextual Variables) predicted greater levels of comprehensive and integrated service delivery. Identified barriers—which often reflected the opposite condition of the facilitators—predicted lower levels of service delivery in some instances; however, they predicted services less often than did facilitators. Implications for research focused on better understanding factors that impact service delivery and on processes for facilitating increased comprehensive and integrated service delivery are discussed. Additionally, implications for practice include the assessment of facilitators and barriers, the use of data to plan for the delivery of comprehensive and integrated services, and advocacy for systems change.
Racial disparities in rates of exclusionary school discipline are well documented and seemingly intractable. However, emerging theories on implicit bias show promise in identifying effective interventions. In this study, we used school discipline data from 1,666 elementary schools and 483,686 office discipline referrals to identify specific situations in which disproportionality was more likely. Results were largely consistent with our theoretical model, indicating increased racial and gender disproportionality for subjectively defined behaviors, in classrooms, and for incidents classified as more severe. The time of day also substantially affected disproportionality. These findings can be used to pinpoint specific student–teacher interactions for intervention.
Scholars and professional organizations have called for an increased emphasis on social justice training in applied psychology graduate programs, including school psychology programs (SPPs). During the past decade, emerging research has identified some features of high-quality social justice education, including a clear program mission statement and relevant field-based experiences. However, relatively little literature has described how faculty can pursue comprehensive change in their graduate programs to move training toward a social justice orientation. The purpose of this article is to describe how principles of organizational consultation can be applied to cultivate a program-wide emphasis on social justice issues in school psychology training. In particular, this article reviews relevant literature on social justice education and describes an adapted 5-stage model of organizational consultation for coordinating cohesive program change. Specific recommendations for implementing high-quality social justice training are provided, and directions for future research are discussed.
The authors put forward a theorization of a Black Critical Theory, or what might be called BlackCrit, within, and in response to, Critical Race Theory, and then outline ways that BlackCrit in education helps us to more incisively analyze how the specificity of (anti)blackness matters in explaining how Black bodies become marginalized, disregarded, and disdained in schools and other spaces of education.
