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Received: 9 December 2022
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Accepted: 22 May 2023
DOI: 10.1002/mar.21854
RESEARCH ARTICLE
NFT luxury brand marketing in the metaverse: Leveraging
blockchain‐certified NFTs to drive consumer behavior
Eunyoung (Christine) Sung
1
|Ohbyung Kwon
2
|Kwonsang Sohn
3
1
Department of Marketing, Jake Jabs College
of Business & Entrepreneurship, Montana
State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
2
Provost Office, School of Management,
Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
3
Management Information System, School of
Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
South Korea
Correspondence
Eunyoung (Christine) Sung, Jake Jabs College
of Business & Entrepreneurship, Montana
State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
Email: ChristineSung@montana.edu
Ohbyung Kwon, Provost Office, School of
Management, Kyung Hee University, Seoul,
South Korea.
Email: obkwon@khu.ac.kr
Funding information
Montana State University, Jake Jabs College
of Business & Entrepreneurship; National
Research Foundation of Korea,
Grant/Award Number: NRF‐2020S1A3A2A0
2093277
Abstract
Industry 4.0 technology enables luxury fashion brands in the virtual market to
quantify the value of digital items in the metaverse; thus, brands can maintain their
reputations, ensure consistent and integrated luxury brand marketing, and attract
new consumers in the virtual market. Understanding consumer behavior toward
buying digital assets (i.e., nonfungible tokens [NFTs]) is important. By using
blockchain‐based NFTs as a way to verify the authenticity of digital assets in the
virtual market, luxury brands can maintain their reputations and help consumers
protect their digital assets. Thus, developing global marketing strategies supported
by this technology is important for the success of luxury fashion brands in the
metaverse. We conducted analyses to explore consumer behavior in the metaverse
with regard to blockchain‐based luxury NFTs. The findings reveal the psychological
evaluation process as a mechanism that drives consumer behavior toward NFT
luxury brand fashion items in global virtual markets. The empirical findings also
extend the application of game theory and prospect theory by revealing the
psychological evaluation of risks associated with (not) buying luxury fashion NFTs as
another mechanism driving consumer behavior in the metaverse.
KEYWORDS
blockchain, game theory, industry 4.0 technologies, luxury fashion brand, metaverse, NFT,
nonfungible token, self‐image congruence
1|INTRODUCTION
Advanced technologies such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality
(VR), extended reality, and artificial intelligence are driving the fourth
industrial revolution. At the same time, many face‐to‐face activities in
the consumer market have shifted to the virtual environment in the
wake of the COVID‐19 pandemic. This shift to the virtual environ-
ment as a disease prevention behavior has driven a dramatic digital
transition of the global consumer market since 2020. As an extension
of reality‐enhancing technologies (e.g., AR, VR), the metaverse
provides an immersive virtual environment offering social, economic,
and cultural functions as well as other activities that help consumers
maintain virtual lives via representative avatars (i.e., digital entities
with anthropomorphic appearances). With the development of
computer technology, avatars in the form of virtual characters have
proliferated (Miao et al., 2022).
According to the Software Policy and Research Institute (Soft-
ware Policy and Research Institute, 2021), the metaverse platform
offers (a) a convenient virtual space for interaction, (b) a reality‐
enhancing world that reduces the gap between VR and actual reality
Psychol Mark. 2023;40:2306–2325.2306
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via advanced technologies, and (c) a new economic market. The
Software Policy and Research Institute (2021) predicts that, with the
proliferation of social communities in the new blended reality
accelerated by the fourth industrial revolution, the metaverse will
continue to encompass more economic activities and be driven by
the use of metaverse devices, digital human development, brand
alliances, and nonfungible tokens (NFTs) based on blockchain
technology. NFTs designate pieces of digital media as tradeable
assets with economic value that adheres to the principles of liquidity.
Specifically, an increasing number of activities are shifting to the
metaverse, a completely virtual environment with reality‐enhancing
technologies. Several metaverse platforms have become popular
globally, such as Fortnite, Roblox, Horizon, and ZEPETO. For
example, the ZEPETO platform currently has more than 300 million
users. Reality‐enhancing technologies that provide the foundation for
metaverse platforms have been used effectively in the consumer
market as part of digital technology marketing and consumer
engagement strategies (Chylinski et al., 2020; Flavián et al., 2021;
Hilken et al., 2018,2022; Ibáñez‐Sánchez et al., 2022;
Rauschnabel, 2021; Sung et al., 2022).
With the advent of metaverse platforms with social, cultural, and
economic functions, brands are finding it difficult to identify which
aspects have the most potential. To what extent do luxury brands
need to integrate marketing across channels (traditional offline,
online, and the emerging reality‐enhancing metaverse) to maintain
their reputations? Do they need to think outside the box and create
new marketing strategies to expose a new generation of consumers
to their brands in anticipation of their emergence as the next group to
target? To answer these questions, we investigate current metaverse
users' perceptions of the value of digital NFT items of luxury fashion
brands and their evaluations of the risk of (not) buying such items
(Frost & Gross, 1993; McKinnon et al., 1985), leading to final
behavioral outcomes.
With the advent of Industry 4.0 technology and the emerging
generation of new consumers, major brands, including luxury brands
(e.g., Gucci, Christian Dior, Louis Vuitton), have begun to partner with
metaverse social platforms. Gucci and Burberry have even launched
NFT luxury fashion items for game characters in the metaverse. As
fashion brands continue to enter the virtual market in the wake of the
global upheaval caused by the COVID‐19 pandemic, brand marketers
are trying to understand consumer behavior and implement market-
ing strategies on virtual platforms; these include quantifying the value
of digital fashion items, maintaining their reputations, ensuring
consistent and integrated luxury fashion brand marketing, and
attracting new consumers (e.g., Gen Z users, who will eventually
become their primary target group in the real world). Our research
contributes to the new NFT consumer behavior literature by
assessing blockchain‐based NFTs as a way to verify the authenticity
of digital assets in the virtual market to help luxury brands maintain
their reputations and to help consumers protect their digital assets.
Developing global NFT marketing strategies supported by Industry
4.0 technology is critical to luxury fashion brands' success in the
metaverse.
In this study, we investigate the psychological risk evaluation
process that shapes consumer behavior toward blockchain‐based
NFT luxury fashion items across individualist (United States) and
collectivist (South Korea) cultures. Drawing on game theory and
prospect theory, we investigate the antecedents and consequences
of consumers' assessments of the anticipated gains and losses
associated with (not) buying NFTs. Figure 1depicts our structural
FIGURE 1 Theoretical model. NFT, nonfungible tokens.
SUNG ET AL.
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model. In the psychological evaluation process, the two main
antecedents are the perceived economic value (i.e., potential to be
resold without depreciation) and social value of NFT luxury fashion
items. Importantly, economic and social value influence consumers'
consideration of the authenticity and scarcity status of NFT luxury
fashion items as digital assets. In the metaverse, NFT authenticity can
be verified by blockchain technology, and NFT scarcity can be
controlled by marketers. Taking all of these factors into account, we
test consumer purchase intentions in the metaverse and in the real
world. We also assess ideal self‐image congruence via appearance
and the social value of luxury brands in the virtual market. Finally,
because Hofstede's cultural dimensions (individualism vs. collectiv-
ism) might have different influences on the economic and social value
of NFT luxury fashion items as digital assets, we compare each path
of the consumer psychological process using samples of consumers
from the United States and South Korea.
Our findings make several theoretical contributions. Notably, our
findings confirm our proposed structural model of the psychological
consumer decision‐making process leading to the purchase of luxury
brand NFT items in the metaverse (see Figure 1). We identify two
antecedents of NFT purchasing decisions—i.e., perceived economic
(resale) value and social value—which drive consumers' attention
toward NFTs that are scarce and authentic. Drawing on game
(Shubik, 1981) and prospect (Byun & Sternquist, 2012; Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979) theories, we explain how consumers assess potential
gains and losses associated with (not) buying blockchain‐certified
NFT luxury brand fashion items relative to competitors (other
consumers). Importantly, the psychological process whereby meta-
verse users value digital assets in the virtual environment differs from
that for traditional offline assets in those preconceived notions of
potential economic value and social value shape consumers' attention
to scarcity and authenticity, rather than the other way around.
Furthermore, we draw on ideal self‐image congruence theory
(Chebat et al., 2006) to show that perceived social value drives
NFT item purchases in the virtual community. To our knowledge, this
study is the first to provide empirical evidence of how global
consumers evaluate the economic and social value of digital NFT
assets when making purchase decisions in the metaverse. Thus, our
contribution lies in the development and further application of prior
theoretical concepts within our proposed structural model. Impor-
tantly, our findings may help marketers leverage new opportunities in
the metaverse to engage with both current and potential consumers
(Dwivedi et al., 2023), particularly members of Gen Z. Our findings
have important practical implications, because marketing within the
metaverse is currently in a highly experimental phase (Hazan
et al., 2022), and Industry 4.0 technologies are enabling marketers
to reach consumers in new ways in the technology‐enhanced virtual
world (Belk, 2023).
Our empirical study also has important implications for practitioners.
Our findings show that luxury brands that are developing digital
technology marketing strategies for the virtual world may want to focus
on promoting authentic branded items that are verified by NFTs, as our
findings show that blockchain's capacity to verify authenticity is an
important driver of the desire to purchase and own NFT luxury fashion
items in the metaverse. Furthermore, the number of digital assets also
needs to be controlled, much like traditional luxury brand items, as
consumers pay attention to scarce NFTs. These findings are interesting,
as scarcity works differently for digital luxury fashion items than for fast
fashion items, which sell out quickly because consumers are concerned
that items will not be available if they do not purchase them immediately.
In case of digital assets, consumers might think that opportunities to buy
NFT items in the metaverse are rare, leading them to buy when they
encounter opportunities to do so. Moreover, our findings show that the
psychological process depicted in our model plays a key role in the global
luxury fashion industry across cultures, with important managerial
implications to help brands implement strategies, particularly in the
United States and South Korea.
2|LITERATURE REVIEW AND
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
NFTs are likely to become a driving force in the metaverse market
because they can be optimized as tools to certify the authenticity of
consumers' digital assets (Seong et al., 2021). The utilization of
functional NFTs has been investigated by researchers
(Dowling, 2022). In general, NFTs can provide assurances for
copyright and ownership of digital items, verify transaction transpar-
ency, and authenticate digital art using blockchain technology.
Consequently, NFTs have become distinctive, verifiable, and easily
tradable digital assets (Dowling, 2022). Furthermore, purchasers have
the ability to resell NFTs through trading contracts on the blockchain,
ensuring trustworthy trading and liquidity (Chohan & Paschen, 2023).
Digital luxury fashion brands in particular have considerable
potential to leverage NFTs. Having a way to verify the authenticity of
luxury items is a major concern for luxury brands, especially in the
virtual world, and blockchain‐based NFTs have flourished in virtual
markets for this purpose. Blockchain technology is a digital ledger of
transactions in the network of computer systems and a system of
recording information (data) that people cannot change or hack,
thereby inhibiting cheaters (Euromoney, 2022). Blockchain is a type
of digital database—that is, a secure peer‐to‐peer network that
ensures transaction safety (Kaushik, 2021)—and NFTs are digital
records on a blockchain associated with digital (intangible) or physical
(tangible) assets; ownership is recorded in the blockchain when a
digital asset is sold and traded (The, Economist, 2021). We contribute
to this recent stream of NFT studies, summarized in Table 1.
2.1 |Economic value of NFT luxury fashion items
Since the advent of the reality‐enhancing metaverse platform, the
economic value of NFT luxury fashion items has been unclear and difficult
to measure. Collecting digital assets has become a widespread practice in
virtual communities, spanning cultures and genders and appealing to
people of all ages (Mardon & Belk, 2018). The characteristics of digital
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TABLE 1 Summary of recent NFT studies.
Reference Research aim Context Sample and methods Findings and contributions
Nevi (2022) To understand behavioral intentions toward
NFTs based on items extracted from an
integrated TAM
U.S.‐based workers sampled via
Amazon's Mechanical Turk
(MTurk) platform
487 respondents; descriptive statistics,
SEM analysis
Significant positive effects of perceived ease
of use, and perceived usefulness, and
insignificant effect of risk on use
Kiliçaslan and Ekizler (2022) To examine the effects of perceived value
(including its antecedents, i.e., scarcity,
ownership, and uniqueness) and trust in
blockchain technology on NFT purchase
intentions
Individuals who use crypto wallets 306 respondents in NFT‐related online
communities and Discord community
channels; descriptive statistics, SEM
analysis
Significant positive effects of perceived value
and trust in blockchain technology;
perceived scarcity and perceived
ownership are positively associated with
perceived value, whereas perceived
uniqueness is not
Lee et al. (2023) To examine how brand NFT attributes can
generate positive brand outcomes
Participants on brands' digital
communication forums (blogs,
communities on NFT,
brand NFT)
Text mining from 257 sources Significant positive effects of scarcity, financial
value, prestige, uniqueness, originality, and
communication consistency on brand NFT
attitude
Khelladi et al. (2021) To investigate motivational factors driving
purchases of NFT virtual clothes
Digital clothes 173 respondents in the Prolific academic
participant pool; descriptive statistics,
SEM analysis
Autonomy, praise and communication act as
motivators influencing purchase intentions
for digital clothes, while attention‐seeking
and reputation act as inhibitors
Albayati et al. (2023) To perform a multifactor analysis that
includes the NFT/metaverse
engagement decision and user behavior
NFT/metaverse 459 respondents: NFT creators, traders,
and enthusiasts with experience
searching, buying, creating or dealing
with NFTs and crypto wallets
Social, technical, regulatory, market, and trust
factors have a strong impact on NFT/
metaverse engagement decisions
Wongkitrungrueng and
Suprawan (2023)
To investigate the influence of metaverse
experiential value on consumers' brand
perceptions and behavioral responses in
the virtual and real worlds
NFT/metaverse (branded virtual
environment)
702 respondents in Thailand who use
Asia's largest metaverse platform
Metaverse experiential (hedonic, utilitarian
and symbolic) value indirectly affects
consumer‐brand engagement (CBE)
through brand image and virtual purchase
intentions
Abbreviation: NFT, nonfungible tokens.
SUNG ET AL.
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consumption objects vary greatly in terms of consumer motivation
behavior (Mardon & Belk, 2018). We define the economic value of luxury
NFTs as their potential to be resold as digital assets in the metaverse
consumer market. Some NFTs have become valuable as potential
investments, such as digital artwork (e.g., Beeple's “POLITICS IS
BULLSHIT”) and digital NFT fashion items (e.g., Gucci's digital handbag,
Nike's digital sneaker), as shown in Figure 2. Perceived economic value
influences the willingness of consumers to pay for luxury fashion brands
(Li et al., 2012); the same concept can be applied to the economic value of
luxury NFTs. For example, in the fluctuating stock market, consumers
make psychological decisions to (not) purchase shares from other
consumers who perceive them as having a different economic value.
According to Mark Cuban, an American billionaire entrepreneur
who evaluates and invests in start‐ups on the American television
show Shark Tank, brand loyalty from the resale of NFTs is
revolutionary and can be leveraged for many purposes. This presents
an opportunity for luxury fashion brand marketers to create digital
fashion items with great potential to generate economic and social
value in the digital world. Traditional luxury brand consumers may
focus on the social value of luxury items, but with the advent of the
fourth industrial revolution, digital luxury brand consumers may focus
on both the social (e.g., status, prestige) and economic (e.g., NFT
investment, resale) value of digital assets. With blockchain and NFT
technology, customer‐to‐customer transactions can take place
outside the central transaction system via social tokens such as
NFTs (Seong et al., 2021).
Furthermore, NFT game items stored in the blockchain can be
controlled by users who own them and can be used across platforms
(Seong et al., 2021). For example, luxury fashion brand Louis Vuitton
launched Louis the Game with NFT game characters, and Burberry
also launched NFT game characters as novel luxury fashion marketing
strategies (see Figure 3).
Game items (e.g., equipment, tools/accessories, characters/avatars)
account for $50 million of the $150 million digital gaming industry (Seong
et al., 2021). By changing their characters' identities, users can increase
their status in the gaming community and progress to more difficult levels
in games. Luxury fashion brands such as Louis Vuitton and Burberry have
entered the game character business to leverage its economic market
potential in the metaverse. Consumers who own NFT game items are
able to use them across various platforms via Open Ecosystem and sell
them to other consumers (Seong et al., 2021).
2.2 |Social value of luxury brands
Although some consumers desire luxury brands because they
represent product superiority, exclusivity, uniqueness, elitism, glamor,
status, and exclusive channel distribution (Kapferer & Valette‐
Florence, 2016), they especially desire luxury brands for their
capacity to address social motives, such as self‐expression (value
expressive function) and self‐presentation (social adjustive function)
(Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox et al., 2009). Consuming luxury brands can be
FIGURE 2 Digital NFTs of art and fashion items. NFT, nonfungible tokens.
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a way to maintain self‐esteem as an ego‐defense function
(Shavitt, 1989) and to enable self‐expression as a social function
for consumers. Thus, the social value of luxury brands can derive
from their symbolic association with social status, exclusivity, and
unique identity (Kwon et al., 2016).
During an interview for Vogue, Lady Gaga, an American pop star
and fashion icon, highlighted the social value of fashion: “I like that
fashion can both be a form of expression and a form of hiding”
(https://www.vogue.com/video/watch/73-questions-with-lady-gaga?
c=series). In the metaverse, users' avatars may be interpreted the
same way, in that users can create ideal versions of themselves
through their avatars and NFT fashion items. Avatar fashion,
therefore, can be both a form of “expression”that enables users to
be seen in a specific way and a form of “hiding”(ideal self‐image
congruence) in the social community, leading to consumption
behavior toward NFT luxury brand items. When the COVID‐19
pandemic forced people to isolate themselves from others, many
found new virtual platforms that enabled them to express or hide
aspects of themselves through avatar fashion. Thus, one aspect that
we investigate in this empirical study is whether the social value
derived from expressing one's ideal self via virtual characters drives
consumer purchases of NFT luxury fashion items.
When interacting with avatars in the virtual environment, the social
value of luxury brands could be important in the metaverse community,
as it is on social media platforms. Dwivedi et al. (2022) classified
interactions within the metaverse into social networking, collaboration,
and personal dialog. Applying the social value of luxury brands to our
study context—digital luxury fashion brands—the social value of an NFT
luxury fashion item also can help maintain one's social status as an ego‐
defensive function by conveying exclusivity and a unique identity in the
metaverse community. As luxury brands are more salient to social (value‐
expressive and social‐adjustive) value than general brands, the social value
of NFT luxury fashion brands is higher than that of NFT general brands in
the metaverse community. As such, the social value of NFT luxury brand
items or game characters could be tied to their potential to enhance a
user's status in the metaverse.
2.3 |NFT authenticity and scarcity of luxury
fashion brands
2.3.1 |Authenticity
Luxury brand consumption is associated with perceptions of
escapism, exclusivity, and inaccessibility (Brioschi, 2006). Thus, the
conveyed symbolism of luxury brands associated with superiority,
exclusivity, uniqueness, elitism, glamour fashion, status, and
inaccessibility (Brioschi, 2006; Kapferer & Valette‐Florence, 2016)
leads to high social value of luxury brand items over non‐luxury brand
items. Applying this notion to our study context, NFTs convey the
meaningful characteristics of luxury brand items to the virtual space
when their authenticity and ownership are verified (Seong
et al., 2021). Verification of digital NFT luxury fashion items is
enabled by blockchain technology, which can record digital owner-
ship data; thus, NFT items become certified as authentic. Notably,
selling NFTs involves transferring ownership of an item, not the
copyright, unless a contract includes a specific “copyright transfer”
term. Therefore, purchasing NFT items is like collecting character
cards (Seong et al., 2021). With an NFT certificate of authenticity, the
relationship between a digital item's scarcity and abundance (e.g.,
launching additional NFTs for copies of a specific art/fashion item)
does not need to be mutually exclusive; for example, when many
copies of an item are circulating, the value of NFT certification
becomes greater (Seong et al., 2021).
2.3.2 |Scarcity
Byun and Sternquist (2012) found that the scarcity of affordable fast‐
fashion (nonluxury) items influences behavioral intentions in offline stores.
Fostering perceptions of scarcity is an important psychological marketing
tactic for inexpensive, fast‐fashion brands (e.g., Zara, H&M) that may lead
to hoarding behavior (Byun & Sternquist, 2012). This is in line with
commodity theory, which explains the psychological effects of scarcity in
FIGURE 3 Digital NFT art and fashionable game character items. NFT, nonfungible tokens.
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which consumers put high value on scarce goods or opportunities
(Brock, 1968; Vasantkumar, 2019).
Applying these insights to our study context, one characteristic of
luxury brand items compared with nonluxury items is inaccessibility
(Brioschi, 2006). Even if luxury fashion brand products are available for
purchase, not many consumers can afford them. In the metaverse market,
luxury brand marketers need to maintain their brand reputations by using
NFTs to differentiate their items from non‐luxury fashion items. For
example, in the metaverse, luxury brand marketers may promote the
scarcity of NFT luxury fashion items by issuing a small number of items at
affordable prices, emphasizing their future value (similar to stocks) based
on reputation or by charging exorbitant prices at the outset. Marketers
take different approaches to managing scarcity in the metaverse
depending on the purpose for releasing NFT luxury brand items. For its
NFT digital shoes (see Figure 2), Nike used the strategy of selling a few
rare NFTs, which are traded less frequently, at high prices. Depending on
their preferences for social value or economic value, consumers seek
luxury NFT items with authenticity or scarcity. Furthermore, recent
studies have shown that perceived scarcity and perceived value of NFTs
lead to positive brand attitudes (Lee et al., 2023)aswellaspurchase
intentions (Kiliçaslan & Ekizler, 2022).
In our structural path model reflecting consumer decision‐making
processes, we argue that higher perceived economic value of NFTs
based on potential resale without NFT depreciation leads to higher
perceived value of NFT authenticity and scarcity. Overall, in line with
commodity theory (Lynn, 1991), consumers who desire higher
economic and social value of luxury brand NFT items may collect
NFT luxury fashion items with high perceived value of authenticity
and scarcity based on copyright and NFT ownership in the metaverse
community. In other words, the perceived economic value of
collecting NFTs directs consumers' attention to NFTs of interest,
which are often scarce and authentic in the metaverse. We test the
perceived economic value of an NFT digital asset in terms of its
potential resale value, and its perceived scarcity and authenticity in
the technology‐enhanced context. These constructs reflect consum-
ers' psychological perceptions of NFTs that may be of interest to
them. Therefore, we predict:
H1: The higher the perceived economic value of NFT luxury brand
items, the higher the perceived value of NFT (a) authenticity
and (b) scarcity in the metaverse.
H2: The higher the perceived social value of NFT luxury brand
items, the higher the perceived value of NFT (a) authenticity
and (b) scarcity in the metaverse.
2.4 |Anticipated gains/losses associated with (not)
buying NFTs
Game theory (Aumann, 2008; Osborne, 2004; Shubik, 1981)
describes consumer behavior in conscious decision‐making when
the decisions of one player are based on the choices of other players.
This theory helps explain why consumers might (not) buy blockchain‐
based NFT luxury brand items in the metaverse. Combined with game
theory, prospect theory (Byun & Sternquist, 2012; Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979) argues that consumers tend to be risk‐averse and
evaluate likely gains and losses associated with (not) buying. That is,
consumers make an evaluation during the decision‐making process;
here, the perceived economic value of luxury NFT items influences the
anticipated losses of not buying these items through perceived NFT
scarcity value, which in turn affects purchase intentions. For example,
similar to purchases of stocks, cryptocurrency, and real estate (e.g.,
buying a house for potential investment), consumers decide to buy
(e.g., accept risk) or not buy luxury NFTs. In the digital asset decision‐
making process (to purchase an NFT or not), consumers make their
own evaluation about the NFT item, determining whether they can
resell the item in the future without depreciation in value based on
their preconceived notions regarding NFT value. That is, consumers
evaluate potential gains and losses based on their subjective
experiences. Prospect theory predicts that because people tend to
be loss‐averse, they associate losses with psychological discomfort
more than they associate gains with pleasure.
Under the condition of limited availability, consumers must
evaluate anticipated gains before opportunities are lost
(Spears, 2001). In other words, scarcity can increase consumers'
willingness to pursue gains associated with buying and avoid losses
associated with not buying. As noted previously, both game theory
and prospect theory explain this psychological evaluation process.
Consumers may weigh “emotional losses”or other negative emotions
resulting from an anticipated lost or delayed purchase opportunity
against any potential gains (Bechwati & Qualls, 2001; Cooke
et al., 2001).
Offering a limited number of items for a limited time creates a
“use‐or‐lose”option that drives consumer behaviors explained by
sensitivity to anticipated losses or gains (Aggarwal & Vaidyanathan,
2003). Thus, limited promotions increase sales by activating
consumers' psychological purchasing behavior (Byun & Sternquist,
2012). Similarly, when consumers observe that inventory is high, they
may not purchase items immediately (Kwon, 2001). Purchase
acceleration occurs when consumers purchase items and inventory
decreases (Aggarwal & Vaidyanathan, 2003).
To mitigate anticipated losses associated with not buying
products, consumers are likely to purchase items (Frost &
Gross, 1993; McKinnon et al., 1985). Furthermore, when consumers
perceive product scarcity (e.g., limited availability), they tend to buy a
product even if they do not need it immediately (Sternquist, 2007). In
addition, when consumers project the consequences of inaction (not
buying) against the action of other consumers, that anticipation
becomes a strong driver of action under a limited timeframe
(Abendroth & Diehl, 2006).
For fast‐fashion (nonluxury) brands, the perceived NFT scarcity
value of a product intensifies the losses associated with not buying,
and consumers tend to minimize those losses by buying (Byun &
Sternquist, 2012); thus, a fashion marketing strategy based on
scarcity (i.e., promoting perceptions of a limited quantity of NFT
clothing) can be an influential psychological approach. Here, we apply
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a combination of game theory and prospect theory to understand the
mechanism of psychological consumer behavior toward NFT luxury
brand items in the metaverse.
We argue that perceived NFT authenticity and scarcity value of
luxury fashion items influence consumers' assessments of potential
gains and losses of (not) buying, as explained by game theory and
prospect theory. Some consumers in the metaverse buy NFT items
after considering the perceived NFT authenticity and scarcity value.
For a new product such as a luxury brand NFT, consumers do not
have enough information to make a purchase decision. In particular,
the volatile cryptocurrency and NFT markets harbor a significant
level of risk (Wilson et al., 2022). Due to the nature of risk associated
with NFTs as digital assets, consumers anticipate gains and losses.
Thus, we posit that both perceived NFT authenticity value and
perceived NFT scarcity value drive benefit assessment processes,
leading to decisions to buy luxury brand NFTs.
In summary, both the perceived NFT authenticity and scarcity
value likely affect anticipated gains or losses associated with (not)
buying such items. Consumers may consider the emotional losses
resulting from an anticipated lost or delayed purchase opportunity
(Bechwati & Qualls, 2001; Cooke et al., 2001) and, after purchase,
leverage its economic value by reselling it in the future. Furthermore,
the evaluation of anticipated gains or losses associated with (not)
buying relative to other consumers on the metaverse platform likely
leads to behavioral outcomes in both the virtual world and the real
world, as consumers in the metaverse are likely to engage in similar
activities in the real world. Therefore, we predict:
H3: Perceived NFT authenticity value in the metaverse positively
influences (a) anticipated gains associated with buying and
(b) anticipated losses associated with not buying.
H4: Perceived NFT scarcity value in the metaverse positively
influences (a) anticipated gains associated with buying and
(b) anticipated losses associated with not buying.
H5: Anticipated gains associated with buying luxury brand NFTs in
the metaverse positively influence luxury brand purchase
intentions in (a) the metaverse and (b) the real world.
H6: Anticipated losses associated with not buying luxury brand
NFTs in the metaverse positively influence luxury brand
purchase intentions in (a) the metaverse and (b) the real world.
2.5 |Effects of ideal self‐image congruence on
behavioral outcomes
The theory of ideal self‐image congruence (Sirgy, 1982,1986)can
further explain consumers' desire for luxury fashion brands for avatars
in the metaverse, because luxury brands may help consumers express
their ideal selves (Chebat et al., 2006; Kressmann et al., 2006;O'Cass
&Grace,2008). Consumer behavior studies define “self‐image
congruence”as the consistency between consumers' self‐concept
(actual self, ideal self) and a brand image (Kressmann et al., 2006;Sung
& Huddleston, 2018). In addition, self‐image can be categorized as the
actual self or ideal self, depending on the extent to which the images
associated with specific products and brands match a consumer's self‐
concept. When the COVID‐19 pandemic forced people to maintain
social distance, they found new virtual platforms that enabled them to
express or hide aspects of themselves through fashion. In line with this
digital virtual world trend, luxury fashion brands have become
interested in blockchain‐based NFTs as an authenticity verification
mechanism in the metaverse's virtual luxury fashion market.
In the metaverse, digital entities (e.g., avatars, game characters)
represent consumers and provide ways for them to express
themselves via digital fashion. Because luxury brands convey symbolic
associations with luxury or prestige (Belk, 1988), image and identity are
salient factors in fashion retailing (Cheng et al., 2008). Conspicuous
consumption can increase consumers' status or self‐esteem because
they perceive luxury items as symbols of individual or social identity
(Vickers & Renand, 2003; Wang & Griskevicius, 2014).
Just as appearance shapes evaluations during social interactions
in the real world (Jung, 2006), the appearance of an avatar or game
character conveys information about a consumer's image in the
metaverse. Self‐schema theory posits that consumers are con-
cerned about how they represent themselves to their social groups
(Markus, 1977), leading them to focus on “external beauty, including
attractive dress and youthful appearance”(Sung & Huddleston,
2018,p.65).
We apply these theoretical concepts to our current study in the
virtual metaverse environment. The metaverse provides new avenues
for marketers to connect with current and prospective consumers
through engaging and immersive encounters (Dwivedi et al., 2023).
Furthermore, marketing within the metaverse is currently in a highly
experimental phase, presenting marketers with a wide range of
obstacles to overcome (Hazan et al., 2022). Unlike the real world,
interactions in the metaverse occur via representative fashionable
avatars that do not necessarily reflect their owners' actual appear-
ances; thus, from a marketing perspective, it is important to
empirically assess whether social value influences ideal self‐image
congruence and consumers' behavioral intentions in this context.
In the metaverse, users are likely to carefully select brands for
their avatars or game characters, leading them to consider the social
value of NFT luxury fashion items. Given the importance of
appearance in the metaverse, the social value of NFT luxury fashion
items likely influences the extent to which they foster ideal self‐
image congruence. Furthermore, high ideal self‐image congruence
likely has a positive influence on purchase intentions in the
metaverse platform as well as in the real world. Thus:
H7: Social value stemming from the importance of avatar
appearance in the metaverse positively influences ideal self‐
image congruence.
H8: Ideal self‐image congruence between avatars and NFT brand
items in the metaverse positively influences purchase
intentions in (a) the metaverse and (b) the real world.
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2.6 |Cultural dimensions
2.6.1 |International consumer behavior
International luxury brand marketing and luxury value studies have
compared similarities and differences in consumer perceptions and
behavior (Hennings et al., 2012). Understanding cultural differences
or different cultural orientations in consumer perceptions of luxury
and luxury value can help luxury brand marketers develop effective
marketing strategies (Wiedmann et al., 2009). Several studies on
luxury brand consumption have shown that cultural differences
shape consumers' attitudes and preferences (Seo et al., 2015;
Shukla & Purani, 2012; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998).
Applying these insights to the metaverse, we examine the impact
of cultural orientation on users' attitudes toward and preferences for
NFT luxury fashion items. According to Hofstede's (1991,2018)
cultural dimensions, consumers in individualist and collectivist
cultures exhibit different behaviors, especially in the luxury brand
context (Choi et al., 2020; Sung et al., 2020). Individualism reflects
“individuals' tendency to make their own decisions and choices,”
whereas collectivism reflects “a sense of knowing one's place within a
social group”(Hofstede, 2018), indicating that social image in public is
important. The United States is considered an individualist country,
while South Korea is a collectivist country (Hofstede, 1991).
According to prior studies, prestige/luxury brands function as a
means of signaling high social status (Lichtenstein et al., 1993;
Veblen, 2005), and prestige sensitivity varies by culture (Moore
et al., 2003; Sternquist et al., 2004). Psychological motivation for
purchasing prestige brands could come from culturally grounded
social interactions, a desire for social belonging, and heightened
public self‐image when using luxury brand items (Sung et al., 2020).
Furthermore, according to Hennigs et al. (2012), as the perceived
value of luxury differs across cultures, the social aspect of luxury
brands is valid. For example, prestige, as a social value, holds
importance among South Koreans, particularly as their social groups
emphasize collectivism as a cultural orientation (Sternquist
et al., 2004; Sung et al., 2020); thus, prestige brand purchases are
higher in South Korea than in the United States because of social
aspects such as social belonging and public image. Social impact
theory (Latane & L'Herrou, 1996; Latané, 1981; Rashotte, 2007)
explains how a person's behavior becomes more similar to that of
others during social interactions. That is, individual behavior is
affected by the behavior of other people. Furthermore, according to
this theory, social influence is a progression of modifications in a
person's attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or emotions that stem from
his or her interactions with others who help shape the person to be
like‐minded (Rashotte, 2007).
Building on our literature review, we predict that consumers in a
collectivist culture (e.g., South Korea) are more likely to value digital
luxury brands than those in an individualist culture (e.g., United
States). We apply this concept in the context of digital NFT brand
item purchase behavior in the virtual world to investigate whether
this view holds true in this setting. Thus, we predict:
H9: In the proposed model, consumers in the collectivist culture of
South Korea exhibit more positive responses to NFT luxury
brand items than consumers in the individualist culture of the
United States.
2.6.2 |Effects of gender on responses
In addition to the different cultural orientations, we investigate the
effect of gender on consumer responses. Gender differences have
attracted research attention as a moderator in the technology
adoption literature (e.g., online learning, gaming; Park & Kim, 2020;
Suh et al., 2021; Wang, 2014). In a study based on the technology
acceptance model, Minton and Schneider (1980) accounted for
gender differences in the use of technology in terms of perceived
usefulness, perceived ease of use, and subjective norms (social
pressure), indicating that men tend to be more task‐oriented than
women when using technology; moreover, performance expectancy
is likely to be more salient for men. Furthermore, high effectance and
sociality motivation due to technology anxiety (Blut & Wang, 2020)
or social connection purposes (Epley et al., 2007) could explain why
men hold more favorable attitudes toward technologies, especially
robotic technologies (De Graaf & Ben Allouch, 2013). Building on
these findings, we investigate the effect of gender on consumer
responses in each cultural orientation (individualism and collectivism)
with regard to NFT brand items in the metaverse. Thus:
H10: Gender moderates consumer responses to NFT luxury brands,
such that men exhibit more positive responses to NFT brand
items than women.
3|METHOD
We tested our overall conceptual framework (Figure 1)and
investigated cross‐cultural differences in consumer behavior in
the metaverse based on Hofstede's cultural dimensions (individ-
ualism vs. collectivism). In particular, we tested a series of
antecedents (appearance, NFT authenticity, NFT scarcity, NFT
social value, and NFT economic value) and consequences
(purchase intentions in the metaverse and the real world) of
consumers' evaluations of anticipated gains and losses of (not)
buying NFT luxury items. We used PLS‐SEM to perform the
analyses as well as analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the
interaction effects.
3.1 |Sample characteristics
The main model test is based on 469 actual metaverse platform users
across the United States and South Korea (see Table 2). In the United
States, a marketing research firm collected usable data from 146
respondents, who completed the survey and passed the screening
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questions (i.e., metaverse user, attention check, and familiarity with
NFTs). Most metaverse users are active on multiple platforms.
Respondents were actual metaverse platform users who used
Fortnite (69.2%), Roblox (58.9%), Horizon (30.1%), ZEPETO (6.2%),
and other gaming/virtual social platforms (15%). Of the 146
respondents, 65.1% were men; respondents were in their 20s
(30.1%), 30s (39.8%), 40s (21.2%), and 50s (8%).
A local marketing research firm in South Korea recruited 323
actual metaverse platform consumers, who completed the survey
and passed the screening questions. Respondents were actual
metaverse platform users who used Fortnite (13%), Roblox (28%),
Horizon (19.5%), ZEPETO (46%), and other gaming/virtual social
platforms (4.6%). Of the 323 respondents, 42.7% were men;
respondents were in their 20s (31.9%), 30s (22.9%), 40s (24.1%),
and 50s (21.1%).
3.2 |Measurement
3.2.1 |Manipulation check
As noted above, the sample contains actual metaverse platform
users. For the manipulation check, we used individualism (United
States) and collectivism (South Korea) as an indicator of different
cultural orientations. Both measures are based on a 7‐point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree,7=strongly agree). Following prior
studies (Evanschitzky et al., 2014;Sungetal.,2020), we included
items that measure individualism (Furrer et al., 2000)andcollectiv-
ism (Yoo et al., 2011) to validate cultural orientation. The
individualism items are “Everyone grows up to look after him‐/
herself and his/her immediate family only,”“People are identified
independently of the groups they belong to,”and “People are
identified by their position in the social networks to which they
belong;”the collectivism items are “Individuals should sacrifice self‐
interest for the group,”“Individuals should stick with the group
even through difficulties,”“Group welfare is more important
than individual rewards,”“Group success is more important than
individual success,”and “Group loyalty should be encouraged even
if individual goals suffer.”As the results show, individualism scores
were significantly higher for participants in the United States
(M=4.87,SD = 1.12) than for participants in South Korea (M= 4.44,
SD =1.10, t(1, 467) = −3.824, p< 0.001). Moreover, collectivism
scores were significantly higher for participants in South Korea
(M=4.47, SD = 1.52) than for participants in the United States
(M=4.17, SD =1.09; t(1, 467) = 2.353, p< 0.001), validating the
cultural dimensions.
3.2.2 |Measurement
We developed the measures and modified them by drawing on
concepts from previous studies to fit the metaverse context using 7‐
point Likert scales (1 = strongly disagree,7=strongly agree). Table 3
reports the results of the convergent and discriminant validity tests
using SmartPLS across the two culture orientations (individualism and
collectivism). The results show that: all rho_A values exceed the
threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2017); all average variance extracted
(AVE) values are between 0.653 and 0.880, indicating that the AVEs
for all constructs are greater than the squared correlations between
constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981); and all factor loadings are well
above the threshold of 0.50 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Moreover, all
HTMT values are less than 0.848, below the threshold of 0.85
(Henseler et al., 2015). In addition, the results of the lateral
collinearity test of common method variance (Kock, 2015) show that
all variance inflation factor values are less than 1.85, well below the
threshold of 5. Thus, the results confirm measurement validity across
the two cultures.
Furthermore, for the instrumentation and procedure across the
cultures, we used two versions of the survey questionnaires (one in
English and one in Korean). All three researchers are bilingual: two
researchers translated the English questionnaire into Korean and the
third researcherback‐translated the Korean version into the English
version. Finally, all three researchers cross‐examined both versions to
make final adjustments to ensure measurement equivalence.
3.3 |Invariance test across culture
Because we used PLS‐SEM to establish theoretical composite model
building, we employed the measurement invariance of composite
model (MICOM) for our cross‐cultural study (Hair et al., 2017).
Specifically, we followed a three‐step MICOM procedure (Henseler
et al., 2016): (a) configural invariance, (b) compositional invariance,
and (c) equal mean values and variances. In the first step, we
established configural invariance across groups, which serves as an
initial assessment of the composites' specification (our theoretical
model) across the two groups and indicates the proper use of
identical indicators per measurement model (see Table 3). In the
second step, we ran a compositional invariance test provided by the
SmartPLS MICOM procedure to ensure a composite is built properly
and equally across the groups (Hair et al., 2017). The composite is the
same in our measurement, meaning that the composite scores are not
significant across the two groups, supporting compositional
invariance. Although the permutation pvalue of one construct is
TABLE 2 Sample characteristics.
Samples N(469) Gender (male) Age (<40 years old) Fortnite Roblox Horizon Zepeto Others
United States 146 65.1% 69.9% 69.2% 58.9% 30.1% 6.2% 15.0%
South Korea 323 42.7% 54.8% 13.0% 28.0% 19.5% 46.0% 4.6%
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TABLE 3 Measurement validity tests.
Construct Measurement item
Factor loading
(United States/
Korea)
rho_A (United
States/Korea)
AVE (United
States/Korea)
Importance of appearance in metaverse (Sung &
Huddleston, 2018)
I work at trying to maintain a youthful appearance via my avatar
in the metaverse.
0.716/0.809 0.826/0.885 0.652/0.739
I enjoy getting my avatar dressed up in the metaverse. 0.803/0.868
Dressing well via my avatar is an important part of my
metaverse life.
0.912/0.885
An avatar's attractive appearance is crucial for success in the
metaverse platform.
0.785/0.875
Social value of luxury brand (Shang et al., 2012) I like to know which luxury fashion brands in the metaverse
make good impressions on others.
0.840/0.796 0.941/.915 0.755/0.697
Metaverse community members' perceptions of luxury fashion
brands are important to me.
0.878/0.854
I pay attention to what types of avatars buy certain luxury
fashion brands in the metaverse.
0.860/0.845
It is important to know what others think of avatars who use
certain luxury fashion brands in the metaverse.
0.886/0.836
I am interested in determining which luxury fashion brands my
avatar should buy to make good impressions on others in the
metaverse.
0.855/0.865
It is important that others have a high opinion of how my avatar
dresses (e.g., luxury fashion brands) and looks in the
metaverse.
0.895/0.811
Perceived NFT authenticity value (Park et al., 2019) The purpose of collecting NFTs is to secure products that do not
exist in the real world.
0.628/0.865 0.806/0.852 0.657/0.767
The reason for collecting NFTs is product originality, as NFTs
prove that items are luxury brand products.
0.878/0.867
The reason for collecting NFTs is product authenticity, as NFTs
prove that items are luxury brands.
0.897/0.895
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
Construct Measurement item
Factor loading
(United States/
Korea)
rho_A (United
States/Korea)
AVE (United
States/Korea)
Perceived NFT scarcity value (Byun &
Sternquist, 2012)
The luxury brand items with NFTs that I was interested in were
almost out of stock in the metaverse.
0.771/0.905 0.784/0.883 0.700/0.796
There were only a limited number of luxury brand items with
NFTs in each size, style, and color in the metaverse.
0.857/0.870
Luxury brand items with NFTs of interest were often scarce in
the metaverse.
0.878/0.900
Anticipated gains of buying luxury brand NFTs
(Byun & Sternquist, 2012) When I found a product
of interest in the metaverse, I thought that…
This luxury brand NFT item would enhance my self‐image. 0.930/0.927 0.939/0.929 0.880/0.875
This luxury brand NFT item would make me feel good about
myself.
0.946/0.945
This luxury brand NFT item would make me feel special. 0.939/0.934
Anticipated losses of not buying luxury brand NFTs
(Byun & Sternquist, 2012) When I found a luxury
brand NFT item of interest in the metaverse, I
thought that…
If I do not buy it right now, I would regret it later. 0.726/0.927 0.942/0.964 0.802/0.875
I was afraid that this item would be out of stock in my next visit. 0.943/0.928
I thought that it would be a loss if I did not buy it today. 0.922/0.941
I was concerned that this item might not be available if I came
back later.
0.950/0.949
If I do not get it immediately, I would lose an opportunity to
purchase it because it will be gone tomorrow.
0.919/0.931
Ideal self‐image congruence in the metaverse (Malär
et al., 2011)
The personality of Brand X [your chosen luxury brand] in the
metaverse is consistent with how I would like to be.
0.886/0.934 0.889/0.923 0.818/0.866
The personality of Brand X (your chosen luxury brand) in the
metaverse is an image of the person I would like to be.
0.908/0.929
The personality of Brand X (luxury brand) in the metaverse
reflects how I would like to be.
0.919/0.928
Luxury brand purchase intentions in the metaverse
(Raggiotto et al., 2019; Visentin & Scarpi, 2012)
After this metaverse experience, I will purchase more frequently
from luxury fashion brands in the metaverse.
0.953/0.944 0.955/0.935 0.918/0.885
As a result of the metaverse experience, I will increase my
spending on luxury fashion brands in the metaverse.
0.970/0.954
I will purchase more avatar products from luxury fashion brands
in the metaverse due to the metaverse experience.
0.951/0.924
(Continues)
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borderline (0.05), the overall compositional invariance test is satisfied
and thus acceptable. Finally, in the third step, we used partial
measurement invariance, as “the standardized coefficients of the
structural model can be compared across groups”(Hair et al., 2017,
p. 299). Given the results of the MICOM procedure, we proceeded to
test the main model.
4|RESULTS
4.1 |Main model test
We conducted our analysis for the main structural model using PLS‐
SEM with a bootstrapped sample of 5000 cases to estimate path
coefficients. Figure 4shows the results of the PLS‐SEM test for each
country.
With regard to H1, the results indicate that the higher the
perceived economic value of NFT luxury brand items, the higher the
perceived value of NFT (a) authenticity (United States: β= 0.268,
t= 3.24, p= 0.001; South Korea: β= 0.373, t= 7.56, p= 0.000) and (b)
scarcity (United States: β= 0.427, t= 5.63, p= 0.000; South Korea:
β= 0.407, t= 7.61, p= 0.000), providing support for H1 in both
countries. The results also show that the higher the perceived social
value of NFT luxury brand items, the higher the perceived value of
NFT (a) authenticity (United States: β= 0.367, t= 3.60, p= 0.000;
South Korea: β= 0.501, t= 9.79, p= 0.000), and (b) scarcity (United
States: β= 0.197, t= 2.252, p= 0.024; South Korea: β= 0.215,
t= 3.438, p= 0.001), providing support for H2 in both countries.
The R
2
values for the social value of luxury brands are 0.369 in the
United States and 0.363 in South Korea, indicating that the
importance of avatar appearance in the metaverse explains 36.9%
(United States) and 36.3% (South Korea) of the variance in the social
value of luxury brands.
In addition, the results indicate that perceived NFT authenticity
positively influences anticipated (a) gains associated with buying
(United States: β= 0.281, t= 3.533, p= 0.000, R
2
= 0.426; South
Korea: β= 0.339, t= 5.070, p= 0.000) and (b) losses associated with
not buying (United States: β= 0.197, t= 2.486, p= 0.013; South
Korea: β= 0.334, t= 5.966, p= 0.000) luxury brand NFTs, providing
support for H3 in both countries. The results also indicate that
perceived NFT scarcity positively influences anticipated (a) gains
associated with buying (United States: β= 0.438, t= 5.904, p= 0.000;
South Korea: β= 0.464, t= 6.785, p= 0.000) and (b) losses associated
with not buying (United States: β= 0.483, t= 6.298, p= 0.000; South
Korea: β= 0.334, t= 5.979, p= 0.000) luxury brand NFTs, providing
support for H4. The R
2
values for the perceived value of NFT
authenticity are 0.264 in the United States and 0.502 in South Korea,
indicating that the perceived social and economic value of NFT luxury
brand items explains 26.4% (United States) and 50.2% (South Korea)
of the variance in the perceived value of NFT authenticity. The R
2
values of the perceived value of NFT scarcity are 0.269 in the United
States and 0.261 in South Korea, indicating that the perceived social
and economic value of NFT luxury brand items explains 26.9%
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Construct Measurement item
Factor loading
(United States/
Korea)
rho_A (United
States/Korea)
AVE (United
States/Korea)
Luxury brand purchase intentions in the real world
(Raggiotto et al., 2019; Visentin & Scarpi, 2012)
After this metaverse experience, I will purchase more from
luxury fashion brands in the real world.
0.966/0.933 0.961/0.937 0.927/0.888
As a result of the metaverse experience, I will increase my
spending on luxury fashion brands in the real world.
0.970/0.955
I will purchase more products from luxury fashion brands in the
real world due to the metaverse experience.
0.952/0.935
Economic value of luxury brands The reason for collecting NFTs is economic, as NFTs ensure that
luxury products can be resold in the future without
depreciation in value.
1.00
Abbreviations: AVE, average variance extracted; NFT, nonfungible tokens.
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(United States) and 26.1% (South Korea) of the variance in the
perceived value of NFT scarcity.
Moreover, the results show that anticipated gains associated with
buying NFT luxury brands positively influence luxury brand purchase
intentions in (a) the metaverse (United States: β=0.472, t=5.759,
p=0.000; South Korea: β=0.341,t= 4.823, p= 0.000) and (b) the real
world (United States: β=0.445, t=5.705, p=0.000; South Korea:
β= 0.321, t= 4.304, p= 0.000), providing support for H5 in both
countries. The R
2
values of anticipated gains of buying luxury brand
NFT items are 0.366 in the United States and 0.522 in South Korea,
indicating that the perceived value of NFT authenticity and scarcity
explains 36.6% (United States) and 52.2% (South Korea) of the variance
in the anticipated gains of buying luxury brand NFT items. Furthermore,
the results indicate that anticipated losses associated with not buying
NFT luxury brands positively influence luxury brand purchase inten-
tions in (a) the metaverse (United States: β= 0.209, t=2.760,p=0.006;
South Korea: β=0.345, t=5.440, p= 0.000) and (b) the real world
(United States: β=0.207,t= 2.079, p= 0.038; South Korea: β=0.374,
t=5.822,p= 0.000), providing support for H6 in both countries. The R
2
values of anticipated losses of not buying luxury brand NFT items are
0.344 in the United States and 0.418 in South Korea, indicating that the
perceived value of NFT authenticity and scarcity explains 34.4%
(United States) and 41.8% (South Korea) of the variance in anticipated
losses associated with not buying luxury brand NFT items.
The results also indicate that the importance of appearance in
the metaverse positively influences the social value of luxury brands
(United States: β= 0.611, t= 10.290, p= 0.000; South Korea:
β= 0.604, t= 13.07, p= 0.000) and ideal self‐image congruence
(United States: β= 0.378, t= 3.40, p= 0.001; South Korea:
β= 0.434, t= 6.97, p= 0.000). Moreover, the social value of luxury
brands positively influences ideal self‐image congruence in the
metaverse (United States: β= 0.270, t= 2.691, p= 0.007, R
2
= 0.369;
South Korea: β= 0.401, t= 6.358, p= 0.000, R
2
= 0.426). Therefore,
social value stemming from the importance of avatar appearance
positively influences ideal self‐image congruence, providing support
for H7. The R
2
values of ideal self‐image congruence are 0.331 in the
United States and 0.557 in South Korea, indicating that the
importance of appearance and the social value of luxury fashion
NFTs explain 33.1% (United States) and 55.7% (South Korea) of the
variance in ideal self‐image congruence.
In addition, the results show that ideal self‐image congruence
positively influences purchase intentions in (a) the metaverse (United
States: β= 0.189, t= 2.512, p= 0.012, R
2
= 0.426; South Korea:
β= 0.233, t= 3.765, p= 0.000, R
2
= 0.426) and (b) the real world
(United States: β= 0.104, t= 1.414, p= 0.157, R
2
= 0.426, f
2
= 0.743;
South Korea: β= 0.211, t= 3.597, p= 0.000, R
2
= 0.426, f
2
= 0.743)
only in South Korea, not in the United States, providing support for
H8. The R
2
values of purchase intentions in the metaverse are 0.534
in the United States and 0.607 in South Korea, indicating that the
anticipated gains associated with buying, anticipated losses associ-
ated with not buying, and ideal self‐image congruence explain 53.4%
(United States) and 60.7% (South Korea) of the variance in purchase
intentions in the metaverse. The R
2
values of purchase intentions in
the real world are 0.416 in the United States and 0.593 in South
Korea, indicating that the anticipated gains associated with buying,
anticipated losses associated with not buying, and ideal self‐image
congruence explain 41.6% (United States) and 59.3% (South Korea)
of the variance in purchase intentions in the real world.
FIGURE 4 Results of NFT main model. NFT, nonfungible tokens.
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4.2 |Multigroup analysis
Figure 4shows the overall results of a multigroup analysis between
the United States and South Korean respondents for each path of our
main model. Following the procedure for our main analysis, we
adopted a PLS‐SEM approach with a bootstrapped sample of 10,000
cases to estimate path coefficients.
First, the path comparison between the United States (β=0.197,
p< 0.05) and South Korea (β=0.387, p< 0.05), shows a statistically
significant difference (p= 0.05) only for the path between authenticity
and anticipated losses associated with not buying NFT luxury brands
(path coefficient difference: Δβ
US‐Korea
=|–0.190|), providing partial
support for H9. Although consumers in both countries indicated that
the perceived value of NFT authenticity positively influences their
evaluations of potential losses associated with not buying NFT luxury
fashion items, this influence is stronger in South Korea. Second,
indirect effects are significantly stronger (p< 0.05) in South Korea
across the two mediation processes from antecedents to conse-
quences as follows: appearance →social value →authenticity →
anticipated losses associated with not buying →purchase intentions in
the metaverse (Δβ
US‐Korea
=|−0.023|, p= 0.028) and the real world
(Δβ
US‐Korea
=|−0.026|, p= 0.022); economic value →authenticity →
anticipated losses associated with not buying →purchase intentions in
the metaverse (Δβ
US‐Korea
=|−0.052|, p= 0.008) and the real world
(Δβ
US‐Korea
=|−0.058|, p=0.007).
4.3 |Effects of gender
An ANOVA test of the interaction effect of gender (men vs. women) on
consumer responses shows statistically significant differences in drivers
of NFT collection behavior (1 = U.S. men;2=U.S. women;3=South
Korean men;4=South Korean women;F
(3, 465)
=4.243, p=0.006).
Specifically, the perceived economic value of NFT luxury fashion items
has a stronger influence on the behavior of men than women in South
Korea (M
S.Korean_men
=4.63, SD =1.50 vs. M
S.Korean_women
=4.08,
SD =1.64, p= 0.01), whereas economic value does not have a
significant effect on U.S. men (M
U.S._men
=4.54, SD =1.74) and Korean
women (M
S.Korean_women
=4.08, SD =1.64, p> 0.05). Overall, the eco-
nomic value of NFTs (i.e., for future resale) has a similar influence on the
behavior of U.S. consumers and South Korean men (see Figure 5).
South Korean women are not interested in collecting luxury brand
NFTs to resell them (M=4.08, where 4=“neutral”on a 7‐point Likert
scale). Overall, South Korean men exhibit more positive responses to
perceived economic value than South Korean women, providing partial
support for H10 (M
S.Korean_men
=4.63, SD =1.50 vs. M
S.Korean_women
=
4.08, SD = 1.64, p=0.01; seeFigure 5).
5|DISCUSSION
A dramatic digital transition driven by the technologies of the fourth
industrial revolution is in full swing. Among these technologies,
blockchain‐based NFTs are facilitating the emergence of a market for
digital assets, particularly those offered by luxury consumer brands.
We investigated this emerging NFT field to understand the under-
lying mechanism in the consumer decision‐making process (e.g.,
whether perceived values/factors hold true in the virtual environ-
ment, perceptions toward NFT characteristics), with implications for
both theory and practice. A lack of sufficient evidence has impeded
luxury brand marketers' understanding of the factors that influence
metaverse consumers' decisions to (not) purchase NFT items and
how these may differ from the real world.
The findings from our main analysis support our structural model
of the psychological decision‐making process: the desire for NFTs
increases as a result of higher perceived economic value (i.e., resale
FIGURE 5 Results of interaction effects of gender on economic value of NFTs (group 1 = United States; group 2 = South Korea). NFT,
nonfungible tokens.
2320
|
SUNG ET AL.
without depreciation) and social value, and higher perceived NFT
authenticity and scarcity, which influence consumers' assessments of
potential gains and losses associated with (not) buying NFTs. These
processes affect purchase intentions in the metaverse as well as in
the real world. In addition, the importance of avatar appearance and
the social value of luxury brands influence ideal self‐image congru-
ence, which in turn influences behavioral intentions.
We also investigated the NFT behavior of consumers in two
countries with different cultural orientations (United States: individ-
ualism; South Korea: collectivism). The overall structural model is
valid in each country. Our analyses of consumers' psychological
evaluation process and cultural differences indicate that the
perceived value of NFT authenticity has a stronger influence on
anticipated losses associated with not buying for consumers in South
Korea (vs. the United States), indicating that these consumers worry
that they may lose an opportunity to gain benefits by not
buying NFTs.
In addition, we measured the interaction effects of gender on the
economic and social value of NFTs to determine which value has a
stronger influence on NFT collection behavior for specific demo-
graphic groups in the metaverse. The overall results show that
economic value (resale potential) has a stronger influence on NFT
collection for U.S. consumers than for South Korean consumers. For
the interaction effect, the influence of economic value is significantly
stronger for U.S. consumers and South Korean men than for South
Korean women on the metaverse platform; the influence of the social
value on NFT luxury item collection does not differ across cultures.
5.1 |Theoretical contributions
First, our main empirical findings contribute to literature based on
game theory (Aumann, 2008; Osborne, 2004; Shubik, 1981) and
prospect theory (Byun & Sternquist, 2012; Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979). These theories explain the psychological evaluation
process whereby consumers assess potential gains (Spears, 2001) and
losses (Aggarwal & Vaidyanathan, 2003) associated with (not) buying
(Frost & Gross, 1993; McKinnon et al., 1985) products. Drawing on
these theories, we developed a model that explains this process for
NFT luxury fashion items that includes several factors—their
authenticity (Seong et al., 2021) and scarcity (Byun &
Sternquist, 2012) and their economic (resale) and social (self‐
expression, self‐image congruence) value (Shavitt, 1989; Wilcox
et al., 2009)—in the virtual space that influence consumers' purchase
decisions. Unlike traditional luxury brand products that focus on
social value by emphasizing luxury or prestige (Kapferer & Valette‐
Florence, 2016), we have identified perceived economic value as an
important factor influencing purchase decisions regarding luxury
fashion brand NFTs in the metaverse. Our findings also show that
consumers place high importance on the appearance and image
projected by their avatars in the metaverse; thus, the perceived social
value of luxury NFTs (supported by authenticity and scarcity) strongly
influences NFT purchase decisions.
In particular, the authenticity of NFT digital assets (Seong
et al., 2021) plays an important role in consumers' evaluations of
potential gains and losses of (not) buying (Bechwati & Qualls, 2001;
Cooke et al., 2001) luxury fashion brand NFTs. Blockchain technology
also plays a critical role by certifying the authenticity and ownership
of digital assets in virtual environments (Seong et al., 2021). We
contribute to the blockchain literature (Kaushik, 2021; Seong
et al., 2021) by demonstrating the importance of NFT authenticity
for luxury brand digital assets in the metaverse.
Second, as cultural differences influence preferences for luxury
brands (Seo et al., 2015; Shukla & Purani, 2012; Wong &
Ahuvia, 1998), we employed Hofstede's (1991,2018) cultural
dimensions to compare consumer behavior in individualist (United
States) and collectivist (South Korea) cultures. Traditionally, prestige
brand purchases are higher in South Korea than in the United States
due to social norms around belonging and public image (Sternquist
et al., 2004; Sung et al., 2020). According to applied social impact
theory (Latane & L'Herrou, 1996; Latané, 1981; Rashotte, 2007),
people often change their behavior to be similar to that of collective
others. We found that the impact of the perceived value of NFT
authenticity on perceptions of losses associated with not buying NFT
items is stronger for consumers in South Korea. We contribute to the
traditional global luxury brand literature by providing evidence of
cultural differences in consumer behavior in the metaverse. The
perceived value of NFT authenticity is critical to consumers in
collectivist cultures when evaluating the potential benefits and costs
of (not) buying luxury NFTs. Thus, Korean consumers are concerned
more about NFT ownership control and pay attention to transparent
transaction histories and blockchain certification of NFT ownership.
Evidence of the importance of NFT authenticity verified by
blockchain (Seong et al., 2021) in the risk evaluation of luxury brand
digital assets is our most meaningful contribution. There is a lack
empirical evidence to explain luxury fashion NFT purchase behavior
due to the recent dramatic transition to digital virtual platform usage.
Our study provides insights into the psychological evaluation process
for luxury brand NFTs in both individualist and collectivist cultures.
Third, whereas consumers evaluate traditional luxury brand items
in the real world primarily based on their potential social value (e.g.,
benefits such as social status, identity, uniqueness, and prestige)
(Belk, 1988; Kapferer & Valette‐Florence, 2016; Shavitt, 1989;
Wilcox et al., 2009), our findings show that consumers evaluate
NFT luxury brand items in the metaverse based on both their
potential economic value (i.e., resale potential) and their potential
social value (Vickers & Renand, 2003; Wang & Griskevicius, 2014).
These antecedents, which influence the consideration of and
preference for the perceived value of NFT scarcity and authenticity,
shape how consumers assess potential gains and losses associated
with (not) buying luxury brand NFTs.
Furthermore, especially with regard to the economic value of
NFTs, our findings reveal differences between the United States and
South Korea, in that economic value has a stronger influence on U.S.
consumers and South Korean men than on South Korean women.
Notably, conspicuous consumption of traditional luxury fashion items
SUNG ET AL.
|
2321
is common among South Korean women. Indeed, South Korea's
luxury goods market totaled US$5.8 billion in 2021, ranking seventh
in the world (https://daxueconsulting.com/south-koreas-luxury-
market/). Therefore, it might take time for South Korean women to
perceive digital NFT fashion brand items as potential investments.
This finding aligns with previous research showing that men adopt a
more task‐oriented approach to technology adoption (Park &
Kim, 2020; Suh et al., 2021; Wang, 2014).
Finally, we found that the ideal self‐image congruence (Chebat
et al., 2006; Kressmann et al., 2006; O'Cass & Grace, 2008) between
consumers' avatars and digital NFT luxury fashion brands influences
purchase intentions in the metaverse and in the real world through a
psychological process. Specifically, consumers perceive luxury fash-
ion NFT items as having social value (Kapferer & Valette‐
Florence, 2016) because the appearance of representative avatars
or game characters is important to them. Notably, these behavioral
intentions extend to the real world as well.
5.2 |Practical implications
Our empirical evidence has important managerial implications for luxury
brand marketers who are interested in leveraging blockchain‐based
NFTs on virtual platforms. First, our findings show that the authenticity
of luxury brand NFT fashion items influences their economic and social
value across cultures. With regard to purchase intentions, the effect of
authenticity on risk evaluation (loss associated with not buying) is
stronger for South Korean consumers. Therefore, luxury brand
marketers using NFTs need to emphasize that NFTs are authentic.
They can promote how the blockchain is securely maintained in
partnerships with metaverse platforms and transaction security
providers. Furthermore, some NFTs allow copied items to circulate on
virtual platforms. In such cases, reporting whether the NFT is an
unauthorized copy or a counterfeit is a way to increase perceptions of
the authenticity of digital assets. Finally, transparently providing
information about the ownership history of a luxury brand NFT is a
way to preserve authenticity, similar to car titles in the United States. In
this way, luxury brands can maintain their reputations in the market for
digital NFT fashion items. Importantly, luxury brand marketers should
pay particular attention to emphasizing authenticity when promoting
digital NFT fashion items to South Korean consumers. Overall,
marketers need to consider how to maintain their brands' prestige to
harness their full potential in the metaverse.
Second, our findings show that item scarcity also influences the
perceived economic and social value of NFT luxury fashion items.
Thus, luxury fashion brands should control NFT inventory by offering
limited quantities of digital fashion items. In accordance with game
theory and prospect theory, consumers evaluate the relative risk of
(not) buying items with regard to potential gains or losses associated
with each action. To increase the potential gains of buying and the
potential losses associated with not buying, luxury brands can reduce
the number of allowed copies when releasing an NFT product for a
special promotion or event, or as compensation for using certain
strategies in games (e.g., Louis the Game for Louis Vuitton). Luxury
fashion brands also need to identify the purpose of releasing NFTs
(e.g., to expose gamers to their brands to support future NFT sales, to
make a profit by selling NFTs to mature luxury brand consumers).
Then, they need to decide whether to distribute NFTs on gaming
platforms such as Horizon and Fortnite, social communities such as
ZEPETO, or other metaverse platforms and to test whether and how
NFT items can be used across multiple platforms. Marketers can
gradually expand NFTs to many different metaverse communities
until the platforms begin to be interchangeable or a few dominant
metaverse platforms emerge.
Finally, our findings show differences in the perceived economic
value of NFTs when considering interaction effects of gender and
country, in that U.S. consumers and South Korean men intend to
collect NFTs for their economic (i.e., resale) value while South Korean
women tend to collect NFTs for their social value. Thus, in South
Korea, luxury fashion brand marketers can employ different strate-
gies to target men (emphasizing economic value) and women
(emphasizing social value), whereas in the United States, we
recommend emphasizing the economic value of NFT luxury items.
5.3 |Limitations and future research directions
Despite yielding findings with valuable implications for luxury brand
marketers regarding how consumers evaluate NFT digital assets in the
metaverse, our study has limitations that present opportunities for future
research. First, as the concept of digital assets (NFTs) is new, the
economic value of luxury fashion brand NFTs should be further explored.
We focused on the economic value of NFT luxury fashion items from a
resale perspective. Traditional luxury fashion brand products typically
cannot be resold without depreciation. However, the NFT market is
based on game theory, much like the stock market, making the economic
value of NFT luxury fashion items more salient. This aspect is new for
traditional luxury fashion brands, which typically emphasize the social
value of products to support conspicuous consumption.
Combining traditional luxury brand marketing strategies with
advanced technology is a cutting‐edge practice, and the use of
blockchain‐based NFTs is still nascent in the metaverse. In future
research, scholars might investigate how luxury brands can cooperate
with metaverse platforms through joint ventures, partnerships,
alliances, or outsourcing to invest in new applications for NFTs. For
example, the luxury fashion brand Louis Vuitton established the Aura
Blockchain Consortium to develop Louis the Game with NFTs.
In future research, the terms “the luxury brand,”“luxury brand
items,”and “certain luxury brands”should be consistently and accurately
employed. We did not specify the names of luxury brands. Instead, we
asked about general perceptions of luxury brand NFTs. Scholars can
further test our model using specific luxury brand NFTs in future work.
Furthermore, given the dramatic digital transformation since the
COVID‐19 pandemic, Gen Z consumers are attracting attention as a
key target market on metaverse platforms. During the pandemic,
members of Gen Z, who are currently in their teens and twenties,
2322
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SUNG ET AL.
have shifted many everyday activities such as education (taking
classes), consumption, socialization, and entertainment to the virtual
environment. Therefore, luxury brand marketers need to integrate
marketing strategies wisely to introduce these consumers to luxury
brands in virtual spaces to lay the groundwork for future consump-
tion as this generation matures and their disposable incomes
increase. Luxury brands also need to maintain their reputations,
and thus they need to appropriately manage the authenticity and
scarcity of their NFT items in the metaverse to ensure that
consumers' behavioral intentions extend to the real world.
We tested the luxury brand consumer behavior of users of virtual
platforms (e.g., metaverse). In future research, scholars could
investigate NFT behavior beyond the metaverse as well as NFT
items in other product/service categories.
Self‐indulgence or subtle signals of inconspicuous consumption
(Berger & Ward, 2010) may also be a factor for consumers who
purchase luxury brands. Thus, in the future, researchers might
investigate luxury brand consumer behavior from this angle.
Furthermore, current virtual platforms might confront inter-
operability challenges (Belk et al., 2022; Seong et al., 2021) when
transferring consumers' characters and assets to metaverse plat-
forms. Thus, brands need to think about how to develop consistent
virtual environments with platform developers to enable consumers
to derive benefits from using brand items.
Finally, many studies distinguish between individualist and
collectivist culture at the national level. However, we acknowledge
that specific individuals or communities within a given nation may not
align with the general cultural trend of a country.
In conclusion, our study opens new research avenues related to
blockchain‐certified NFTs of luxury brands in the metaverse. We
have developed a model that explains factors that affect consumers'
purchase decisions related to NFT luxury fashion items for their
avatars or game characters in the virtual environment. Additional
research is warranted to examine how the advent of the fourth
industrial revolution and reality‐enhancing technologies are trans-
forming the consumer market.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by (1) College of Business & Entrepreneur-
ship at Montana State University and (2) National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF‐2020S1A3A2A02093277).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
ORCID
Eunyoung (Christine) Sung https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
1903-8538
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