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What is this thing called “Post-Olympic Blues”? An Exploratory Study Among Danish Olympic Athletes

Authors:
  • Team Danmark

Abstract

The post-Olympic period is a challenging and stressful period in which many athletes can experience a range of negative psychological reactions. This has led to the coining of the term ‘post-Olympic blues.’ The purpose of this study is to explore the post-Olympic mental health of Danish athletes with the specific aim to investigate the number of Danish athletes experiencing ‘post-Olympic blues’ after the Tokyo Olympics. Forty-nine Olympic athletes completed measures of well-being (Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale), depression (Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9), and anxiety (Generalized-Anxiety-Disorders questionnaire) one month after the Olympics Games. The results indicated that 27% of athletes reported either below average well-being or moderate to severe depression scores, with 16% reported both below average well-being and moderate to severe depression scores. Female athletes reported significantly higher depression than male athletes, with no significant gender difference in well-being or anxiety. No significant age differences were found. No statistically significant results were found between athletes’ goal achievement and mental health, however, there was a tendency that athletes who failed to meet performance expectations reported more negative experiences post-Games. The current results are discussed with regards to developing a clear definition of post-Olympic blues, practical implications, and future research.
Scandinavian Journal of
Sport and Exercise Psychology
Corresponding author: Diment: gmdi@teamdanmark.dk
What is This Thing Called “Post-Olympic Blues”?
An Explorary Study Among Danish Olympic
Athletes
Gregory M. Diment1, Nina Due Stagis1 & Andreas Kuettel2
1Team Danmark, 2Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biometrics, University of Southern Denmark.
Corresponding author: Gregory M. Diment
E-mail: gmdi@teamdanmark.dk
Work place: Team Denmark, Brøndby Stadion 20, 2605 Brøndby, Denmark
The Olympic Games are the ultimate goal for many
elite athletes. It is seen by many as the pinnacle of an
athletic career and can be the culmination of years of hard
training and sacrifices. Whilst competing at the Olympics is
often associated with positive experiences such as national
and international recognition, fulfillment of life-long goals,
and sponsorship opportunities or financial benefit
(Wylleman, Reints & Van Aken, 2012), numerous studies
have also identified the Olympics Games as a challenging
environment where athletes experience a range of negative
psychological reactions (e.g., Gould et al., 2002; Gordin &
Henschen, 2012; Jensen et al., 2014; McCann, 2008;
Wylleman et al., 2012;). In recent years, several studies
have further examined the period after the Games,
identifying several challenges associated with post-Games
reality and associated negative psychological reactions
which have led to the coining of the term ‘post-Olympic
blues’ (e.g., Bennie et al., 2019; Bradshaw, Howells, &
Lucassen, 2021). Whilst recent qualitative studies have
given insight into the nature of ‘post-Olympic blues,’ no
study has explored the extent to which this phenomenon is
experienced among Olympic athletes. Therefore, the
purpose of this study is to explore the post-Olympic mental
health of Danish athletes with the specific aim to
investigate the extent of which ‘post-Olympic blues’ is
experienced amongst Olympic participants.
Mental Health in Elite Sport
Across an Olympic cycle before, during, and after
the Games athletes can experience a range of
psychological reactions that can impact their mental health.
There has been an increased academic interest in the
mental health of elite athletes in recent years. Kuettel and
Larsen (2020) defined mental health as “a dynamic state of
well-being in which athletes can realize their potential, see
a purpose and meaning in sport and life, experience
trusting personal relationships, cope with common life
stressors and the specific stressors in elite sport, and are
able to act autonomously according to their values” (p. 23).
According to this definition, mental health is not a fixed
state and is more than the absence of mental illness. Sport-
specific factors for poor mental health have been identified
including injury, concussions, and chronic stress (Golding
et al., 2020; Kuettel & Larsen, 2020), and recent reviews
have concluded that elite athletes appear to experience a
broadly comparable risk of high-prevalence mental
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
Abstract
The post-Olympic period is a challenging and stressful period in which many athletes can
experience a range of negative psychological reactions. This has led to the coining of the term
‘post-Olympic blues.’ The purpose of this study is to explore the post-Olympic mental health of
Danish athletes with the specific aim to investigate the number of Danish athletes experiencing
‘post-Olympic blues’ after the Tokyo Olympics. Forty-nine Olympic athletes completed measures of
well-being (Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale), depression (Patient-Health,
Questionnaire-9), and anxiety (Generalized-Anxiety-Disorders questionnaire) one month after the
Olympics Games. The results indicated that 27% of athletes reported either below average well-
being or moderate to severe depression scores, with 16% reported both below average well-being
and moderate to severe depression scores. Female athletes reported significantly higher
depression than male athletes, with no significant gender difference in well-being or anxiety. No
significant age differences were found. No statistically significant results were found between
athletes’ goal achievement and mental health, however, there was a tendency that athletes who
failed to meet performance expectations reported more negative experiences post-Games. The
current results are discussed with regards to developing a clear definition of post-Olympic blues,
practical implications, and future research.
Keywords: Post-Olympic blues, Mental health, Olympic Games, Well-being, Depression, Anxiety
Diment et al., SJSEP, 2023:5
doi: 10.7146/sjsep.v5i.134527
22
disorders (e.g., anxiety and depression) relative to the
general population (Golding et al., 2020; Rice et al., 2016).
Most people overcome stressful life situations
without developing pathological conditions, but major
stressful life events are known as a general risk situation
for the onset of clinical depression (e.g., Hagen, 2011).
Despite all the glamour and glory surrounding the
Olympics, participating in the Games represents a unique
situation and a potential stressor for many athletes (e.g.,
Jensen et al., 2014). Henriksen et al. (2020) reported how
athletes in their Olympic pursuit are at increased risk of
disappointment, identity foreclosure, and high life stress,
all of which can negatively impact their mental health. At
the Tokyo Games, U.S. gymnast and former Olympic
medalist Simone Biles made headlines by openly talking
about the pressures of competing at the Games, and her
poor mental health up to and during the Games (Keal et
al., 2022; Park & Gregory, 2021). Similarly, Olympic
swimmer Michael Phelps and tennis champion Naomi Osaka
shared their personal struggles with the aim of
destigmatizing mental struggles in elite sports (Tardelli, et
al., 2021). These popular media reports, in combination
with the scientific literature, highlight the growing focus on
athlete mental health, and in particular, the impact of the
Olympics both during and after on mental health.
After the Olympics and ‘Post-Olympic Blues’
In recent years, there has been an increased focus
on the phase immediately following the Olympic Games
which represents a potentially challenging time for Olympic
athletes (e.g., Bradshaw et al., 2021; Henriksen et al.,
2020). Numerous studies have reported how athletes
during this post-Games period can experience periods of
negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, irritability), behavioral
responses (e.g., crying, interpersonal hypersensitivity),
physical responses (e.g., burn-out, tiredness), social
challenges (e.g., loneliness), challenges to athletic identity,
as well as a decrease in motivation (Bennie et al., 2019;
Henriksen et al., 2020; Howells & Lucassen, 2018; Jackson
et al., 1998; Samuel, Tenenbaum & Bar-Mecher, 2016).
The findings of these studies have led to the term ‘post-
Olympic blues’ being coined.
According to Howells and Lucassen (2018), the term
‘post-Olympic blues’ has its origination in the post-natal
academic nomenclature of the 1970s and 1980s.
Researchers began to distinguish between a relatively
common, mild, and transient mood disturbance in the
period following childbirth (Buttner et al., 2012), and the
more severe and diagnosable postpartum depression or
major postpartum depressive episodes (DSM-5; American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). This literature highlights key
elements in differentiating between post-natal ‘blues’ and a
diagnosable depression including the nature, severity, and
duration of symptoms. However, despite ‘post-Olympic
blues’ being a well-documented phenomenon in elite sports
(Bennie et. al., 2019; Howells & Lucassen, 2018), there is
no clear definition of ‘the blues,’ and little research on how,
or if, post-Olympic ‘blues’ is different to a diagnosable
depression. Additionally, the academic world has yet to
explore the prevalence of ‘post-Olympic blues’ amongst
Olympic athletes.
Factors Affecting the Post-Olympic Experience
Numerous studies have presented a range of factors
that can affect how athletes experience the period after the
Olympics (e.g., Bradshaw et al., 2021; Henriksen et al.,
2020; Jackson et al., 1998; Samuel et al., 2016). Factors
contributing to a positive experience include structured
post-Games planning, time for rest after the Games,
continued financial support, as well as strong social support
from family, teammates, and sporting governing bodies.
Similarly, factors contributing to a negative experience in
the period after the Olympic Games include poor planning,
lack of support both social and from sporting organizations,
the challenge of transitioning back to reality and everyday
life, making decisions regarding retirement, coming to
terms with the Games experience and outcomes, as well as
avoidant or ineffective coping strategies (Bennie et al.,
2019; Bradshaw et al., 2019; Henriksen et al., 2020;
Howells & Lucassen, 2018).
A specific factor that has been identified as having a
significant effect on the post-Games experience is the
extent to which an athlete feels that he or she has met their
performance expectations. Howells and Lucassen (2018)
reported athletes who failed to meet performance
expectations from the 2016 Rio Olympic Games
demonstrated a variety of negative effects, including
anxiety, crying, and interpersonal hypersensitivity.
Similarly, athletes achieving personal bests or setting
national records have reported experiencing increased
motivation, improved self-confidence, as well as positive
media attention in the immediate phase following the
Olympics (Wylleman et al., 2012). This builds on research
that showed that Olympic gold medalists perceived positive
experiences post-Games to include financial gains, lifestyle
changes, enhanced recognition, and a sense of
accomplishment (Jackson et al., 1998). However, Jackson
et al. (1998) also found that 33% of the Olympic athletes
who won gold medals demonstrated difficulties (e.g.,
burnout, exhaustion, loss of motivation to compete,
confusion and personal life problems) after returning home.
These results indicate a complex and unclear relationship
between achieving performance goals and post-Games
experiences, and that achieving success at the Olympics
may not necessarily be a protective factor against
experiencing ‘post-Olympic blues.’
Study Aims
Several studies have investigated athlete
experiences after the Olympic Games, however, most of
these studies have adopted a qualitative approach relying
on athlete interviews, case studies, or practitioner
reflections (e.g., Samuel et al., 2016; Bennie et al., 2019;
Howells & Lucassen, 2018). These studies have given us a
rich insight into the many challenges that athletes
experience, as well as the many psychological reactions to
these challenges. However, no study has explored the
scope of this issue and we are yet to identify how many
Olympic athletes experience psychological difficulties after
the Olympic Games. Therefore, the current exploratory
study adopted a quantitative approach to investigate
athlete mental health after the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games.
Specifically, the current study aimed to explore the number
of athletes that experience ‘post-Olympic blues’, and the
relationship of ‘post-Olympic blues’ with gender, age, and
goal achievement.
Method
Participants
The sample in the current study consisted of 49
Danish Olympic athletes (n = 34 female athletes, Mage =
25.62, SD = 4.21; and n = 15 male athletes, Mage = 31.33,
SD = 8.64), representing both Olympic (n = 40; 82%) and
Paralympic athletes (n = 9; 18%). The sample was
comprised of athletes from 15 different sports (e.g.,
athletics, badminton, cycling, fencing, handball, rowing,
sailing, and swimming) participating at the Tokyo Olympics
that took place in July-August 2021.
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Procedure
One month after the conclusion of the Tokyo 2020
Olympics the questionnaires were sent directly to all
Olympic participants from Team Denmark (the Danish elite
sports organization). To ensure anonymity, all participants
were asked to create an identification number so that no
individual could be identified. Participants were informed
that participation was voluntary, and data would only be
used for research purposes. A total of 111 athletes were
contacted to participate in the study. The current project
was conducted as a part of a larger project exploring athlete
mental health over an extended period of time.
Measures
Demographic variables and goal-achievement:
Athletes were asked to complete a range of demographic
questions with regards to age, gender, sport, and previous
Olympic participation. Additionally, athletes were also
asked to report the extent to which they believe they
achieved their Olympic goals (“To what extent do you feel
you achieved your goals at the Olympics?”) providing three
response options: (a) achieved my goals, (b) somewhat
achieved my goals, and (c) did not achieve my goals.
Mental well-being. To assess athletes’ mental well-
being, the validated seven-item Danish version of the
Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale
(SWEMWBS, Tennant et al., 2007) covers both the hedonic
and the eudemonic dimensions of well-being was used
(Koushede et al., 2019). On a 5 point-Likert scale ranging
from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all the time), athletes
answered items such as “I’ve been feeling useful” and” I’ve
been feeling optimistic about the future”. The instrument
has been shown to have good internal consistency and has
been tested in similar age groups as our sample (Koushede
et al., 2019). Scores ≤23 indicate below average well-
being, scores from 24 to 29 indicate average well-being,
and scores ≥30 above average (Kuettel, Pedersen, &
Larsen, 2021; Nicholls, Madigan, Fairs, & Bailey, 2020).
Depression. To assess athletes’ depressive
symptoms, the Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9;
Kroenke et al., 2001) was used. Athletes responded to nine
statements (e.g., “Little interest or pleasure in doing
things”; “Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless”), each
representing one of the symptoms characterizing a
depressive episode (American Psychiatric Association,
2013) concerning how often these symptoms were
experienced within the last two weeks on a scale from 0
(not at all) to 3 (nearly every day). Scores from 0-9 indicate
no to mild symptoms, scores from 10-14 moderate
symptoms, and scores from 15-27 severe symptoms. At
cut-off 10 (generally used as an indicator if someone
experiences depressive symptoms), sensitivity was 88%
and specificity 88% (Kroenke et al., 2001).
Anxiety. To assess athletes’ anxiety symptoms, the
Generalized-Anxiety-Disorders questionnaire (GAD-7;
Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & Lowe, 2006) was used, which
is a valid and efficient tool for screening generalized anxiety
disorders. Athletes stated how often they have been
bothered by problems such as “Feeling nervous, anxious,
or on edge” or “Worrying too much about different things”
within the past two weeks on a scale from 0 (not at all sure)
to 3 (nearly every day). The proposed cut-off points of the
GAD-7 are 09 (minimal to mild symptoms), 1014
(moderate symptoms), and 1521 (severe symptoms).
Using the threshold score of 10, the GAD-7 has been shown
to have a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 82%
(Spitzer et al., 2006).
Data Analyses
Data were tested for missing values, distributions,
and assumptions of univariate and multivariate analyses
(Field, 2013). According to Q-Q plots and Shapiro-Wilk
tests, well-being scores from the SWEMWBS were normally
distributed, and anxiety (GAD-7) and depression (PHQ-9)
scores were non-normally distributed. The following
statistical analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS 28: (a)
descriptive statistics (M, SD) followed by a categorization
of the main variables according to their cut-off points; (b)
Spearman’s rho bootstrapped correlational analyses
between the three main variables; (c) independent t-test
(SWEMWBS) and Mann-Whitney-U test (GAD-7 and PHQ-
9) to reveal gender differences concerning mental health;
(d) One-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis-tests to explore
age-group differences related to mental well-being and
symptomatology; and (e) Fishers exact test (due to the
small sample sizes) to compare gender difference related
to mental health cut-off points, as well as the distribution
of results achieved in relation to post-Games depressive
symptomatology and mental well-being. The alpha level for
significance was set at p < 0.05 for statistical testing. Effect
sizes for t-tests (i.e., Cohen´s d) are 0.2 (small), 0.5
(medium), and 0.8 (large), for Fisher´s exact test (i.e.,
Cramers V), effect sizes can be interpreted as weak
association (0.1 to 0.3), medium association (0.4, 0.5), and
strong association (> 0.5), and for ANOVA and Kruskal-
Wallis-tests (i.e., eta/epsilon squared), effect sizes are 0.01
(small), 0.06 (medium), and 0.14 (large) (Field, 2013).
Results
AthletesMental Health Post Olympics
Regarding athletes mental well-being, the overall
sample (N = 49) had a SWEMWBS mean of 26.08 (SD =
5.28), with male athletes (M = 27.93, SD = 5.46)
expressing higher values than female athletes (M = 25.26,
SD = 5.07), however not statistically different (t(49) =
1.65, p = .104, Cohens d = 0.50 (i.e., medium effect size).
According to the well-being categories, 14 athletes (28.6%)
were classified in the below-average well-being group (13
female and 1 male), 23 athletes (46.9%) in the average
well-being group (13 female and 10 male), and 12 athletes
(24.5%) in the above average group (8 female and 4 male).
These difference in the gender distribution related to the
well-being categories were not statistically significant,
Fishers exact test p = .063, Cramer’s V = 0.33 (i.e., weak
association).
Regarding athletes depressive symptoms, the
overall sample had a PHQ-9 mean of 4.71 (SD = 4.35) with
females (M = 5.53, SD = 4.04) reporting significantly
higher depressive scores than males (M = 2.87, SD =
4.50), Mann-Whitney-U = 140.5, p = .012. According to
the scales cut-off points, 38 athletes (77.6%) were
classified as having no to mild symptoms (24 female and
14 male), 10 athletes (20.4%) expressed moderate
symptoms (only females), and one male athlete (2%)
reported severe depressive symptoms. These differences in
the gender distribution related to depressive symptoms
were statistically significant (Fishers exact test, p = .011,
Cramer’s V = 0.38; weak to moderate association). Figure
1 displays the percentage of male and female athletes
regarding the three depression cut-off points.
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Figure 1: Post-Games Depression Cut-off Scores by Gender
Note: Depressive symptoms according to the Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001) with cut-off scores
0-9 (none-mild), 10-14 (moderate), and 15-17 (severe).
Regarding athletes anxiety symptoms, the overall
sample had a GAD-7 mean of 3.33 (SD = 4.26) with
females (M = 3.71, SD = 4.16) reporting higher anxiety
scores than males (M = 2.47, SD = 4.50). This gender
difference was not statistically different, Mann-Whitney-U
= 182, p = .105. According to the scales cut-off points, 46
athletes (93.9%) were classified as having no to mild
anxiety symptoms (32 female and 14 male), one female
athlete expressed moderate symptoms (2%), and one
athlete of each gender reported severe anxiety symptoms
(4 %). These differences in the gender distribution related
to anxiety symptoms were not statistically significant,
Fishers exact test, p = .675, Cramer’s V = 0.13 (i.e., weak
association).
Spearmans correlational analyses showed a
significant positive relation between depression and anxiety
(rs =.77, p < .001), and a negative between depression and
well-being (rs = -.73, p < .001), and anxiety and well-being
(rs = -.66, p < .001), respectively. A scatterplot (Figure 2)
displays the distribution of the well-being and the
depression scores including the cut-off points. Figure 2
indicates that 13 athletes (27%) reported either below
average well-being or moderate to severe depression
scores, with 8 athletes (16%) reporting both below average
well-being and moderate to severe depression scores.
Age Group Differences and Post-Olympic Mental
Health
To examine the effects of age-related mental health
outcomes post-Olympics, the sample was divided into three
age group categories (i.e., 18-24; 25-29; 30 and older).
Means and standard deviations of the groups related to
well-being, depression, and anxiety are displayed in Table
1. ANOVA tests showed no statistical differences in
SWEMWBS scores between age groups F(2, 46) = 1.38, p
= 2.63 (η2= .056). Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed that the
distribution of PHQ-9 scores H(2, 46) = 2.32, p = .313 (ε2=
.007) and GAD-7 scores H(2, 46) = 5.52, p = .063 (ε2=
.076) was the same across age group categories. Since
there was a difference in the distribution of male and female
athletes in the age groups (significantly more females in
age group 18-24 and more male athletes in the age group
≥30), the same tests were calculated separately for both
genders with age groups and mental health, yielding similar
results (not reported here).
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Figure 2: Participants Post-Olympics Well-being and Depression Scores
Note. The vertical dotted lines indicate the cut-off points related to the well-being categories of the Short-Warwick-Edinburg-
Mental-Wellbeing-Scale (SWEMWBS) with values ≤23 (below average), 24-29 (average), and 30-35 (above average). The
vertical lines represent the cut-off points related to depressive symptoms of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) with
values 0-9 (no to mild), 10-14 (moderate), and 15 and higher (severe).
Goal Achievement and Post-Olympic Mental Health
Figure 3 displays the relations between goal
achievement at the Olympics and athletes’ depressive
symptoms. Concerning post-Olympic depression, moderate
symptoms were stated in athletes regardless of goal
achievement. Among the athletes who reached their goals
were 12 with no-to mild symptoms, two with moderate, and
one had severe symptoms. Among the 12 athletes who did
not achieve their goals were four with moderate depressive
symptoms, but none with severe symptoms. Fishers exact
test showed no statistical difference in the distribution of
depressive symptoms and goal achievement, p = .651,
Cramer’s V = 0.20 (i.e., weak association). With regards to
goal achievement and post-Games mental well-being,
Figure 4 shows that relatively more athletes who achieved
their goals are either in the below average (n = 6) or above
average group (n = 6). Among the 12 athletes who did not
achieve their goals, there was no one scoring above
average well-being values. Fisher´s exact test revealed
that the relation of goal achievement and mental well-being
was significant, p = .041, Cramer’s V = 0.35 (weak to
moderate association).
Table 1: Post-Olympic Average Scores for Well-being, Depression, and Anxiety by Age-group
Age group n Well-being Depression Anxiety
18 - 24 16 27.38 ± 5.08 3.94 ± 4.17 2.56 ± 4.57
25 - 29 21 24.67 ± 4.64 5.48 ± 4.01 4.19 ± .3.47
30 + 12 26.83 ± 6.36 4.42 ± 5.25 2.83 ± 5.13
Total 49 26.08 ± 5.28 4.71 ± 4.35 3.33 ± 4.26
Note. Well-being was assessed with the Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale (SWEMWBS, Tennant et al., 2007).
Depressive symptoms were measures with the Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001). The Generalized-
Anxiety-Disorders questionnaire (GAD-7; Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & Lowe, 2006) was used to assess symptoms of anxiety.
Diment et al., SJSEP, 2023:5
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Figure 3: Post-Games Depression Cut-off Scores and Goal Achievement at the Tokyo Olympics
Note. Depressive symptoms according to the Patient-Health-Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001) with cut-off
scores 0-9 (none mild), 10-14 (moderate), and 15-17 (severe).
Figure 4: Post-Olympic Games Well-being Cut-off Scores and Goal Achievement at the Tokyo Olympics
Note. Short-Warwick-Edinburg-Mental-Wellbeing-Scale (SWEMWBS, Tennant et al., 2007) cut-off points with scores 0-23
(below average), from 24-29 (average) and scores ≥30 (above average).
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Discussion
Numerous studies have investigated ‘post-Olympic
blues,’ however, no study has yet reported the extent to
which this phenomenon is experienced by Olympic athletes.
This exploratory study aimed to adopt a quantitative
approach to investigate athlete mental health after the
Tokyo 2020 Olympics, more specifically, the number of
athletes that experience ‘post-Olympic blues.’ With this aim
in mind, the current results focused predominantly on the
number of athletes within the cut-off ranges on the
questionnaires rather than looking at mean scores which
gives little indication of the number of athletes reporting
specific symptomology. The results of the current study
indicated that 27% reported either below average well-
being or moderate to severe depression scores, with 16%
reporting both below average well-being and moderate to
severe depression scores.
More specifically, the results indicated that 22% of
Danish athletes reported severe or moderate depressive
symptoms after the Olympic games. This number is higher
than the 11% reported by Kuettel, Melin, Larsen, and
Lichtenstein (2022) in their investigation of mental health
amongst Danish athletes1. Additionally, the current results
indicated that 29% of athletes reported below average well-
being after the Olympics. This number is slightly higher
than the 22% reported by Kuettel et al. (2021). The current
results also showed that 6% of athletes reported moderate
to severe anxiety symptoms which is lower than 14%
reported in Danish elite athletes from 17 sports using the
same scale and cut-off points (Kuettel et al., 2021). The
results indicated that few athletes suffered moderate or
severe anxiety, suggesting that high anxiety may not be a
common symptom reported by athletes after the Olympics,
and not a factor related to post-Olympic blues.
The current study also aimed to explore the
relationship of ‘post-Olympic blues’ with gender, age, and
goal achievement. The results indicated that female
athletes reported lower mental health than male athletes
after the Games. Specifically, female athletes reported
significantly higher average depressive scores than male
athletes. More female athletes (29%) reported moderate
depression symptoms compared with males (7%). More
female athletes (38%) reported below-average well-being
compared with male athletes (7%). These results are
consistent with Kuettel et al. (2021) who found that Danish
female athletes reported higher anxiety and depressive
symptoms than male athletes, along with lower mental
well-being scores than male athletes.
Our results showed no statistically significant
differences in post-Olympic mental health regarding age,
but medium effect sizes indicate that mental health
symptoms were more pronounced in the age group 25-29
who expressed the highest anxiety and depressive scores
together with the lowest well-being scores compared to the
youngest and oldest group. Bennie et al. (2019) reported
how multi-Olympians who are likely older and more
mature were able to draw on previous experiences and
better at putting things in a broader perspective on life,
which could also provide an explanation for them coping
better with the period after the Games. Jensen et al. (2014)
also highlighted some of the unique experiences and
challenges experienced by Olympic debutants. However,
the average age of the debutants in this study was 27 years
1 Kuettel et al. (2022) used the Center for Epidemiological Studies
Depression scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) with adjusted cut-off scores
and not the PHQ-9 used in the current study.
old, representing a relatively older group when compared
to the youngest age group in the current study.
Additionally, sample sizes in the three age group categories
were relatively small making it difficult to detect significant
differences. There remains the need for more research into
age differences and post-Olympic blues.
Studies have indicated that an athlete’s
performance at the Olympics can be a factor in
experiencing ‘post-Olympic blues’ (e.g., Jackson et al.,
1998; Samuel et al., 2016). The current results indicate
that athletes who ‘did not achieve’ their goals reported
proportionally more severe or moderate depressive
symptoms (33%) than athletes who ‘achieved’ (20%) or
‘somewhat achieved’ (18%) their goal. Similarly, none of
the athletes who ‘did not achieve’ their goals reported
above average well-being. Despite not being statistically
significant, our results indicate a tendency that is consistent
with previous studies (Bennie et al., 2019; Howells &
Lucassen, 2018) reporting that athletes who failed to meet
performance expectations reported more negative
experiences post-Games. The current study also reported
that those athletes who ‘achieved their goals’ reported
polarized well-being scores (small-medium effect size) with
40% reporting below average well-being, 40% reporting
above average well-being, and only 20% reporting average
well-being. These results and the conflicting existing
literature indicate a complex and potentially individual
relationship between goal-achievement and ‘post-Olympic
blues.’
The ‘Post-Olympic Blues’
Despite post-Olympic blues receiving attention in
recent years, there remains no clear definition and little
understanding of the true extent of the problem. The
results of the current study indicate that depressive
symptoms and well-being were closely related, and both
were higher than a normal athlete population. However,
few athletes in the current study reported elevated anxiety
scores. This supports the idea that describes ‘post-Olympic
blues’ as a period of depressed mood and a general loss of
interest in life (Howells & Lucassen, 2018), where
symptoms are more consistent with depression rather than
anxiety. However, there still remains no clear distinction
between ‘the blues,’ and a depression in a clinical
understanding. The current study indicated that 27% of
athletes reported either below average well-being or
moderate to severe depression scores, with 16% of the
athletes representing a specific sub-group with both below
average well-being and moderate to severe depression
scores. It could be that the larger group represents the
athletes suffering from ‘post-Olympic blues’, with the
smaller sub-group representing low mental health with a
potentially more clinical nature.
The present study provides information regarding
the number of athletes experiencing low mental health after
the Olympics Games, as well as the severity of symptoms,
however, it provides no insight into how long athletes
experience these symptoms. Howells and Lucassen (2018)
reported that all 18 of the athletes in their study reported
symptoms that lasted for several weeks, with two of the
athletes reporting a more enduring period of negativity
lasting several months. Despite these studies, there
remains a lack of understanding regarding the severity,
pervasiveness, and duration of symptoms, as well as the
Diment et al., SJSEP, 2023:5
doi: 10.7146/sjsep.v5i.134527
28
difference between 'post-Olympic blues’ and a diagnosable
depression.
‘Post-Olympic Blues’ and COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic had significant
consequences for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. The
Games were postponed one year, and widespread
lockdowns, canceled competitions, and training restrictions
affected athletes’ preparation (Håkansson et al., 2020).
During this locked- down period, many athletes
experienced increased depression, anxiety, and stress
symptoms (Facer-Childs et al., 2021). Similarly, Schinke et
al. (2020) described reactions that included decreased
sleep, decreased appetite, increased rumination, and
loneliness associated with social isolation. The lockdown
also had consequences on the financial situation of athletes
and associated financial existential fears (Fröhlich et al.,
2021). However, not all responses were negative. Some
athletes saw the delay as extra time to qualify for the
Games, to further develop areas in performance, or focus
on recovery (Şenışık, Denerel, Köyağasıoğlu, & Tunç, 2021;
Schinke et al., 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic
undoubtedly impacted many athletes’ preparation for the
Tokyo Games and influenced the athletes’ psychological
states in the lead-up to the Games (Stambulova et al.,
2020). Although it was not directly tested, it is reasonable
to assume that the results of the current study were also
directly affected by the pandemic and its impact on
athletes’ mental health in general.
Limitations
Several limitations need to be considered when
interpreting the results of the current study. Firstly, all
athletes in the current study had access sports psychology
support throughout the course of the project. The first and
third authors of this study are employed in Team Denmark
and worked as part of the team that provided sports
psychology support to the participants before, during, and
after the Games. For example, as part of Team Denmark's
post-Olympic support plan, all athletes were contacted
approximately 14 days after the Games to evaluate their
experiences and assess if any additional support was
needed. This intervention occurred before the
questionnaires were sent to the participating athletes. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that this intervention
affected the way in which athletes responded to the
questionnaire, and the responses could have been different
if the sports psychology team had not intervened.
Another limitation of the current study is that there
were relatively few athletes that completed the
questionnaires after the Games. Denmark has a relatively
small Olympic team with 111 athletes competing at the
Tokyo Games and only 49 athletes (44%) completed the
questionnaires. There is no doubt that both the stress and
challenges of the post-Olympic period led to a lower
response rate. Therefore, conducting statistical analyses
with relatively few participants limits the power of the
various analyses that can be conducted (Ibrahim &
Molenberghs, 2009). Additionally, when examining gender
differences in our sample, it must be noted that the groups
were both different in size (34 females vs. 15 males) as
well as age (Mage female = 25.6 vs. Mage male = 31.3) that
potentially impacted the analyses. As previously
mentioned, all athletes were contacted after the Games and
the psychology team continued to provide sports
psychology support to athletes in the following months.
Through this close contact, several athletes told the authors
that they did not feel that they were in a good mental state
to commit time and energy to completing the
questionnaire. Therefore, whilst the current study gives a
good insight into the scope of ‘post-Olympic blues,’ it must
be noted that the number of athletes that reported low
mental health may be lower than the actual number of
athletes experiencing psychological difficulties after the
Games.
Future Research
The current research adds to the existing knowledge
of athlete mental health after the Olympic Games;
however, numerous areas require further investigation. A
key area of investigation is further clarifying the exact
nature of ‘post-Olympic blues.’ Existing qualitative studies
provide insight into how athletes can experience ‘post-
Olympic blues,’ and the current study supplements this
knowledge with information on how many athletes may
experience ‘post-Olympic blues. However, future research
is required to shed more light on the exact nature of ‘post-
Olympic blues,’ and the distinction or overlap with
diagnosable depression. The current study assessed mental
health one month after the Games. However, future studies
could assess mental health at numerous time points
following the Olympic Games (e.g., two weeks after, one
month, three months, etc.). This could give insight into how
long ‘post-Olympic blues’ lasts, as well as the number of
athletes experiencing it over an extended period.
Additionally, qualitative studies could adopt formal
assessment interviews to help shed light on the clinical
nature of ‘post-Olympic blues’ experienced by athletes.
These studies could help clarify the extent to which ‘post-
Olympic blues’ is actually a diagnosable depression or
rather a sub-clinical state of ‘depressed of mood’.
The current exploratory study is a step forward in
understanding the extent to which ‘post-Olympic blues’ is
experienced among Olympic athletes, however, this study
only investigated Danish athletes. Studies have been
conducted in various countries such as Britain (Bradshaw
et al., 2021), Australia (Bennie et al., 2019), and Israel,
(Samuel et al., 2016). However, future research is required
to explore the extent to which ‘post-Olympic blues’ is
experienced across countries and cultures. As previously
described, there is a considerable chance that the COVID-
19 pandemic affected both athletes' mental health and the
Olympic experience. Therefore, it would be relevant to
repeat the current study after the Paris 2024 Olympics. This
would serve both as a comparison to the current results,
but also eliminate the potentially confounding effects of
COVID-19 on our understanding of Olympic mental health.
Applied Implications
The current study has numerous implications for
applied sports psychology work. The study showed that
approximately 27% of athletes reported signs of ‘post-
Olympic blues.’ Therefore, it is important that responsible
sporting organizations, such as National Olympic
Committees (NOCs) or elite sports institutes, develop a
support program for athletes during this time. These
strategies could include individual and group consultations,
support groups, as well as psychoeducation programs
aimed at normalizing the potentially negative responses. A
critical strategy could also be working with sports
federations, coaches, and sports managers in developing
sport-specific strategies to support the athletes. Some
Olympic sports are professional (e.g., cycling and
handball), whilst different sports have different competition
schedules after the Games. Therefore, any support
delivered to athletes must be specific and relevant to their
own sport. Furthermore, both the current results and
existing research indicate lower mental health amongst
female athletes suggesting the need for specific support
programs for this group of athletes.
Diment et al., SJSEP, 2023:5
doi: 10.7146/sjsep.v5i.134527
29
Conclusions
The Olympic Games are often seen as the pinnacle
of an athletic career. However, numerous studies have
shown that the period after the Games can be a difficult
period for many athletes. The current exploratory study
found that 27% of athletes reported low mental health after
the Olympic Games, with female athletes reporting
significantly lower mental health than male athletes. The
findings of the current project have practical implications
regarding psychoeducation of both athletes and elite sports
organizations, as well as the development of support
programs for athletes before, during, and after the Games.
Despite the current study contributing to knowledge
regarding the scope of ‘post-Olympics blues’, future
research is required the develop a clear definition of ‘post-
Olympics blues.’
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... The phenomenon of 'post-Olympic blues' has previously been described, whereby athletes experience negative emotions and mental health issues following the Olympic Games [18,19], and is characterized by a period marked by increased anxiety, depression, burnout, and challenges in adjusting back to everyday life. The period has been marked by anxiety, depression, burnout, and challenges in adjusting back to everyday life [19]. ...
... In addition, the degree to which athletes meet their performance expectations significantly affects their post-Games experience, with unmet expectations leading to various negative reactions. Still, the nature of 'post-Olympic blues' remains unclear and it has been suggested that future research is required the develop a clear definition of 'post-Olympics blues' [18]. Furthermore, 'post-Olympic blues' may be specific to elite athletes. ...
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