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Efficacy of a cultural adaptation of the Identity Project intervention among adolescents attending multiethnic classrooms in Italy: A randomized controlled trial

May 2023
Child Development 94(5)

DOI:10.1111/cdev.13944

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CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

Authors:

Chiara Ceccon

University of Padova

Maja Katharina Schachner

Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg

Francesca Lionetti

University of Pavia Italy

Massimiliano Pastore

University of Padova

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This registered report evaluated the efficacy of an Italian adaptation of the Identity Project, a school-based intervention promoting adolescents' cultural identity. Migration background and environmental sensitivity were explored as moderators. After adapting and piloting the intervention, a randomized controlled trial was conducted between October 2021 and January 2022 on 747 ethnically diverse adolescents (Mage = 15 years, 53% girls, 31% with migration background) attending 45 classrooms randomly assigned to the intervention or control condition. Bayesian analyses confirmed the efficacy of the Italian IP in enhancing exploration processes (Cohen's d = .18), whereas no cascading effect on resolution emerged. Youth with higher (vs. lower) levels of environmental sensitivity benefited more in terms of exploration. Implications for developmental theory and practice are discussed.

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The successful adaptation and integration of immigrant

and ethnic minority youth is a key challenge that has

become increasingly relevant not only in societies with

a long history of migration and multiculturalism (e.g.,

US or Canada), but also in the European context due to

globalization and other major sociopolitical events, in-

cluding the so- called “refugee crisis” (Silove et al.,2017 ).

This is particularly true in recent receiving countries like

Italy, where immigration is still perceived as a new and

potentially threatening phenomenon by the local pop-

ulation. Politicians and the media often amplify these

negative sentiments, contributing to the perpetuation

of stereotypes and prejudice through the use of a narra-

tive emphasizing fear and societal insecurity (Rubaltelli

et al., 2020). In addition, the COVID- 19 outbreak has

further intensified socioeconomic disparities and dis-

criminatory acts against members of ethnic minorities

and immigrants (Cheah et al.,2020).

Given the growing social polarization and persistent

interethnic tensions, understanding one's own cultural

identity (a term often used in the European literature,

reflecting different histories and experiences regarding

immigrant and ethnic minority populations; see Juang

et al.,2020) and learning how to approach cultural di-

versity have become even more pressing tasks that both

ethnic majority and minority youth need to face on their

way to adulthood (Schwarzenthal et al.,2017). Achieving

a stable ethnic identity and intercultural competence are

REGISTERED REPORT

Efficacy of a cultural adaptation of the Identity Project intervention

among adolescents attending multiethnic classrooms in Italy:

A randomized controlled trial

ChiaraCeccon1 | Maja K.Schachner2 | FrancescaLionetti3,4 |

MassimilianoPastore1 | Adriana J.Umaña- Taylor5 | UghettaMoscardino1

DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13944

This is an ope n acc ess a rticle und er the terms of the Creative Com mons Attribution-NonComm ercial-NoDerivs Li cense, which permit s use a nd distribut ion in a ny

medium, prov ided t he orig inal work is prop erly cit ed, t he use i s non-c omm ercial and no mo dif ications or ad aptat ions ar e made.

Abbreviations: AES, Aes theti c Sens itivity; CFA, Conf irmator y Factor A nalys is; CFI, compar ative f it index; EIS, Eth nic Identity S cale; EOE, Eas e of Excit ation;

ERI, eth nic - racial id entity; FAS, Family A ff luence Sca le; HSCS, H igh ly Sensitive Ch ild Scale; IP, Identity Project; LST, Low Se nsor y Thr eshold ; RMSEA, root

mean s quare e rror of ap proxi mation; SES, socioe conom ic status; SRMR, stan dard ize d root mea n squa re res idual; TLI, Tucker Lewis in dex.

1University of Padova, Padova , Italy

2Martin- Luth er- Univer sität Halle -

Wittenberg, H alle , Germany

3Univers ity of Ch ieti- D 'Annunzio, Ch ieti,

Ital y

4Quee n Mary Un ivers ity of London,

London, UK

5Harvard Gra duate S chool of E ducat ion,

Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Correspondence

Ughett a Mosca rdino, Depa rtm ent

of Development al Psychology a nd

Socialis ation, Un ivers ity of Pad ova,

via Venez ia 8, 35131 Padova, Italy.

Emai l: ughetta.moscardino@unipd.it

Funding information

Fondaz ione Ca ssa di Rispa rm io di Padova

e Rovigo; Unive rsità d egl i Studi d i Padova ,

Grant/Award Number: C95F21007400005

Abstract

This registered report evaluated the efficacy of an Italian adaptation of the

Identity Project, a school- based intervention promoting adolescents' cultural

identity. Migration background and environmental sensitivity were explored as

moderators. After adapting and piloting the intervention, a randomized controlled

trial was conducted between October 2021 and January 2022 on 747 ethnically

diverse adolescents (Mage = 15 years, 53% girls, 31% with migration background)

attending 45 classrooms randomly assigned to the intervention or control

condition. Bayesian analyses confirmed the efficacy of the Italian IP in enhancing

exploration processes (Cohen's d = .18), whereas no cascading effect on resolution

emerged. Youth with higher (vs. lower) levels of environmental sensitivity benefited

more in terms of exploration. Implications for developmental theory and practice

are discussed.

CECCON et al.

two interrelated processes that are pivotal for adoles-

cents' well- being (see Rivas- Drake et al.,2014) and rep-

resent a step toward building more inclusive multiethnic

societies. Yet, despite international calls to promote tol-

erance and respect for diversity among youth and the

recognized importance of ethnocultural identity forma-

tion in the scientific field, evidence- based interventions

that provide effective tools and protected spaces for ado-

lescents to address such topics are still scarce, especially

in the European context.

The Identity Project (IP) is a school- based interven-

tion in which, through the stimulation of identity explo-

ration processes, all students are involved in a series of

activities that aim to foster sense of belonging, accep-

tance of cultural diversity, and quality of interethnic

relationships (Umaña- Taylor & Douglass, 2 017). The in-

tervention was designed and successfully tested in the US

(Sladek, Umaña- Taylor, Wantchekon, et al.,2021; Umaña-

Taylor, Douglass, et al.,2018; Umaña- Taylor, Kornienko,

et al.,2018), and a first study in the European context has

been recently carried out in Germany (Juang et al.,2020),

yielding promising results. However, as stated by the au-

thors, the small sample size decreased the power to de-

tect effects (see Juang et al.,2020). Thus, more research is

needed to test the efficacy of the IP in other countries out-

side the US with different histories and patterns of immi-

gration. For example, compared to the US and Germany,

Italian society differs greatly in terms of multicultural

policies, ethnic composition, and intergroup dynamics

between ethnic majority and minority members (Musso

et al.,2018). In addition, the identif ication of specific sub-

groups of adolescents for whom the intervention might be

most (or least) effective merits further investigation.

This registered report aimed to test the efficacy of a

culturally adapted version of the IP in Italy, a country that

is one of the main entries into Europe for immigrants and

refugees. Replication of efficacy studies in new sociocul-

tural contexts is essential to ensure external validity and

generalizability of evidence- based interventions, while

adaptation responds to a professed lack of cultural sensi-

tivity when implementing programs with different target

groups (Beelmann et al., 2018). Furthermore, given that

the efficacy of interventions might be underestimated

when it is hidden in individual- by- environment interac-

tions (Bakermans- Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn,2 015),

we explored whether migration background and sensi-

tivity to environmental influences (defined as the ability

to register, process, and respond to stimuli; Pluess, 2015)

moderated adolescents' response to the intervention.

The IP intervention: in pursuit of

ethnic- racial identity

The pursuit of identity is a core developmental task: even

though identity continues to evolve throughout the lifes-

pan, its formation is emphasized in adolescence by the

advances in cognitive maturity (e.g., abstract thinking,

introspection) and the possibility of exploring new op-

tions and different potential “selves” (Erikson, 1968).

During adolescence, individuals gain more independ-

ence from parents and autonomy in decision making,

are allowed to engage more freely with external environ-

ments, and are increasingly oriented toward interactions

with peers. Erikson referred to this phase as the “iden-

tity versus role confusion” stage, noting that a failure

in resolving one's identity could lead to negative conse-

quences, such as limiting the ability to develop close re-

lationships with others, or difficulties in def ining one's

values, goals, and future plans.

An important component of identity is ethnic- racial

identity (ERI ), which refers to a sense of belonging to, and

identification with, one's ethnic group (Phinney, 1989).

Similar to global identity, the process of ERI forma-

tion is critical in the teen years for ethnic minority and

immigrant youth as well as for majority youth (Musso

et al.,2018; Rivas- Drake et al.,2014). In partic ular, among

ethnic minority adolescents, exploration of one's own

ERI is associated with fewer depressive symptoms and

greater self- esteem, and both exploration and resolution

are related to higher levels of academic engagement and

achievement (Rivas- Drake et al., 2014). Furthermore,

increased exploration was found to be linked to greater

intercultural competence among the German majority

youth (Schwarzenthal et al., 2 017). Finally, in both mi-

nority and majority youth, ERI resolution was linked to

an increase in global identity cohesion, academic grades

and self- esteem, and a decrease in depressive symptoms

(Umaña- Taylor, Kornienko, et al.,2018).

The IP program was specifically designed to help

adolescents achieve the developmental competence

of ERI formation and promote a classroom climate of

tolerance and respect for diversity (Umaña- Taylor &

Douglass,2017 ). The conceptual model of the IP inter-

vention draws on developmental theory postulating that

a clear sense of one's own identity (i.e., resolution) results

from an extensive process of search, observation, and

consideration of that identity (i.e., exploration). This pro-

cess u ltimately al lows ind ividuals to exper ience a “whole”

and “complete” inner identity in which they integrate a

sense of who they were, who they are, and who they can

become (Erikson,1968; Marcia,1980). Furthermore, the

intervention is based on the idea that ERI is an essential

competence for youth from any cultural background and

that the strategies used by adolescents to explore their

heritage identity are common across cultural groups,

even if the content of the exploration itself may differ

(Umaña- Taylor, Kornienko, et al.,2 018). Thus, individ-

ual identity formation can also be promoted in a collec-

tive, multicultural context such as school, which holds a

central role in immigrant youths' acculturation process

(Schachner et al.,2016).

The IP intervention comprises 8 weekly sessions in-

volving developmentally appropriate activities that take

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IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

place in the classroom setting. The sessions are designed

to stimulate ERI exploration and resolution processes

and are conceived to be relevant and accessible to all stu-

dents, regardless of their family constellations and eth-

nic composition of the classroom. For example, when the

family topic is addressed, participants are encouraged to

adopt a broad and comprehensive perspective to make

them ref lect on how many meaningful individuals can

inf luence their own cultural identity and to avoid creat-

ing discomfort among youth whose family constellations

include people who are not their biological relatives.

Moreover, because classrooms often have a multifaceted

ethnic composition, activities refer to as many cultures

of origin as possible and always show examples that stu-

dents without a migration background can also relate to.

Throughout the different sessions, students are pro-

vided opportunities to examine their cultural heritage

and traditions (e.g., by taking and sharing photos of

meaningful cultural symbols and interviewing members

of their ethnic community), learn about others' back-

ground during moments of collective discussions, and

gain awareness about the country's history of migration

by discovering stories of past and present discrimina-

tion based on real- life events. By engaging in active re-

flections and debates with facilitators and classmates,

students are guided to overcome stereotypes and mis-

conceptions about ERI and to understand that each of

them is allowed to find their unique way of experienc-

ing this part of their identity (Umaña- Taylor, Douglass,

et al.,2018).

In terms of efficacy, a small- scale randomized con-

trol trial conducted in the US evidenced that the IP in-

tervention started a ripple effect, leading adolescents to

explore and thus gain a clearer sense of their ethnic iden-

tity which, in turn, was linked to a greater global iden-

tity cohesion as well as to psychological and academic

benefits (see Umaña- Taylor, Kornienko, et al., 2018). A

recent study testing the German adaptation of the IP

showed that students in the intervention group reported

more unequal treatment in school due to ethnic differ-

ences, but they were also more resilient in the face of so-

cietal inequalities than their peers in the control group

(Juang et al.,2020). Albeit promising, these results war-

rant further scrutiny to determine the efficacy of the IP

in other sociocultural contexts (Beelmann et al.,2018).

Here, we propose to replicate a culturally adapted ver-

sion of the IP intervention in a sample of adolescents

attending multiethnic classrooms in Italy. In doing so,

we followed recommended guidelines concerning study

preregistration and open science (see Nosek et al.,2018;

Syed & Donnellan,2020) to increase transparency, avoid

questionable research practices (e.g., insufficient statis-

tical power, p- hacking, hypothesizing after results are

known), and ultimately increase reproducibility.

A relevant issue in intervention research concerns

the extent to which efficacy may vary as a function of

specific individual or contextual characteristics. Based

on separate lines of research highlighting the impact

of migration background and trait- like environmen-

tal sensitivity on intervention eff icacy in the realm of

other school- based prevention/intervention programs

for adolescents (see Nocentini et al., 2018; Pluess &

Boniwell, 2015; Sladek, Umaña- Taylor, Wantchekon,

et al.,2021), in this study we explored the role of these

variables as candidate moderators, as discussed next.

Migration background and environmental

sensitivity as moderators

In the original IP, the authors considered ethnic group

membership as a relevant variable possibly inf luencing

intervention efficacy in light of their multiethnic sample.

Indeed, Sladek, Umaña- Taylor, Wantchekon, et al.(2021)

found that ethnic minority youth reported greater lev-

els of identity resolution from pre- to posttest, whereas

their majority counterparts showed higher increases in

this variable over a 1- year follow- up period. This result is

attributable to the higher salience of ERI- related issues

for ethnic minority adolescents due to their involvement

in acculturation processes and the need to accommodate

between heritage and mainstream culture values (Rivas-

Drake et al., 2014 ; Schachner et al., 2018). However,

several differences exist between the majority/minority

distinction within the US context and what is consid-

ered to be an “immigrant” or a person with a migration

background in Europe. For example, in the former case,

ethnic minorities are grouped into a few major racial cat-

egories (e.g., Hispanic or Latinxs, African Americans,

Asian Americans) that represent a sizable part of the

social fabric, whereas immigration in Europe is a rather

heterogeneous and relatively recent phenomenon in

many countries due to its rapid increase only in the past

50 years. In addition, whilst immigrants in the US tend

to become part of the majority group or extant minor-

ity groups over the course of two or three generations,

in European countries individuals of immigrant descent

keep being referred to as “immigrants” long after hav-

ing settled into host societies, also due to differences in

citizenship attribution (Motti- Stefanidi & Masten,2013).

Thus, in the European context, migration background

might play a different role in relation to identity pro-

cesses compared to ethnic majority or minority status in

the US.

Beyond group- based characteristics, theoretical and

empirical evidence also suggests that temperamentally-

based traits can influence individuals' responses to treat-

ment (Bakermans- Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2015;

de Villiers et al.,2018). Among these, environmental sen-

sitivity has gained particular attention in recent years

due to its importance for adaptation and mental health

(Lionetti, Pastore, et al., 2019). Environmental sensi-

tivity is defined as the fundamental “ability to register,

process, and respond to external factors” (Pluess, 2015,

CECCON et al.

p. 138). Although such ability is critical for all human

beings to adapt successfully to their social and physical

environment, people substantially differ in their levels of

sensitivity, with some being more affected by contextual

conditions than others (Aron et al.,2012). Building on pre-

vious theoretical models concerning person- environment

interactions and their role in adjustment quality (Aron

et al.,2 012; Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Boyce & Ellis, 2005),

Pluess(2015) proposed a meta- framework to capture the-

ories of individual- environment interaction under the

same umbrella and defined environmental sensitivity as

an inherited trait responsible for individual differences in

response to stimuli. This trait has been shown to increase

vulnerability when people are faced with negative events

(in line with the diathesis- stress model), but it also renders

individuals highly susceptible to positive environments,

as postulated by the “vantage sensitivity” proposition.

In line with this meta- framework, a number of studies

confirmed the moderating role of environmental sen-

sitivity in a variety of contexts. For instance, Lionetti,

Aron, et al. (2019) found that children with high levels

of behaviorally observed sensitivity were more affected

by the inf luence of a negative parenting style in relation

to emotional- behavioral problems, but they also showed

greater social competence in the presence of good par-

enting quality than low sensitive children. Similarly,

Scrimin et al.(2018) reported that highly sensitive chil-

dren were more vulnerable to the negative effects of a

stressful environment, but they also benefited more from

a supportive family environment than their low- sensitive

counterparts. Of importance, intervention studies where

the environmental variable was manipulated revealed

that highly sensitive adolescents had greater advantage

from being exposed to positive environmental conditions

compared to less sensitive ones (Nocentini et al., 2018;

Pluess & Boniwell,2015). Given that the IP aims to cre-

ate a safe context where students receive positive feed-

back and support in their identity formation process,

and consistent with the vantage sensitivity proposition,

it is possible that the intervention might be more effective

for high (vs. low) sensitive participants.

Italian sociocultural background

In comparison to both Germany and the US, Italy can

be considered a recently receiving society that rapidly

changed from a country of emigration into one of im-

migration starting from the 1990s. Although Italy is

becoming increasingly multicultural, immigration poli-

cies still reflect an “emergency” approach rather than a

structured, long- term, integration- oriented view. This

is also mirrored in the scarce resources allocated by the

national government to enhance teachers' preparedness

in the management of multicultural issues. However,

the Italian school system distinguishes itself from other

countries, including Germany, as it adopts a universalist

and inclusive approach involving the absence of early

school tracking, the integration of migrant children into

mainstream classes from the beginning of their school-

ing, and the possibility to attend Italian language classes

during school hours or after- school programs (European

Commission/EACEA/Eurydice,2019).

Another important difference concerns the ethnic com-

position of the population of immigrant descent in the

country, which counts approximately 5 million legally

residing citizens (9% of the total population) and includes

over 200 different nationalities, with the main countries of

origin being Romania (23%), Albania (8%), Morocco (8%),

China (6%), and Ukraine (4%; ISTAT,2020). Overall, the

main reason for immigration is related to better employ-

ment opportunities. People from former Communist (e.g.,

Albania, Romania, Ukraine) and North African countries

(e.g., Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia) tend to choose Italy as their

destination due to geographical and/or cultural proximity,

whereas individuals from farther nations are attracted by

the possibility of being employed in seasonal jobs (e.g.,

Bangladesh, Pakistan) or launching new business activities

(e.g., China). Therefore, immigrant communities in Italy

cannot be compared to long- standing ethnic minorities

such as the Turkish community in Germany or minori-

tized groups in the US (e.g., Latinxs, African Americans).

At the societal level, Italy exhibits moderately sup-

portive policies toward multiculturalism as indexed

by the Migrant Integration Policy Index (Solano &

Huddleston,2020) and the Multiculturalism Policy Index

(Queen's University, 2022). However, according to the

Eurobarometer (European Commission, 2018), almost

half of the Italian respondents (46%) consider immigrants

as having a negative impact on society, and only 21% have

a totally positive perception, whereas in Germany 27% of

respondents report a negative perception and 44% a com-

pletely positive perception. These differences reflect an

overall ambivalent attitude toward immigrants in Italy,

with the media often perpetuating negative stereotypes

and spreading narratives of migration associated with il-

legality and crime (Rubaltelli et al.,2020).

The present study

Considering the scarcity of empirically- based inter-

ventions designed to promote ERI development and

psychosocial adjustment among youths from diverse

ethnocultural backgrounds in the European context, the

purpose of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy

of a culturally adapted version of the IP intervention in a

sample of multiethnic adolescents in Italy. Specifically, we

aimed to replicate Umaña- Taylor, Douglass, et al.'s(2018)

process model postulating that the intervention would re-

sult in an increase in cultural identity exploration which,

in turn, would be linked to higher levels of resolution at

follow- up. In intervention research, replication is par-

ticularly important to evaluate whether the intervention

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

meets the challenges associated with cultural adaptation

and implementation in a different context, including the

use of materials in another educational setting, partici-

pant engagement, or the adjustment of organizational

structures (Huitsing et al.,2020). In addition, we explored

the possible role of migration background and environ-

mental sensitivity in moderating intervention efficacy.

Building on previous research related to the IP inter-

vention, the following preregistered hypotheses (htt ps://

osf.io/ kd2gb) were tested:

(H1) Adolescents in the intervention group will show

an increase in cultural identity exploration from pre-

test (T0) to posttest (T1) as compared to their peers in

the control group.

(H2) In the intervention (vs. control) group, increases

in cultural identity exploration from pre- (T0) to

posttest (T1) will be linked to increases in resolution

at follow- up (T2).

These hypotheses were formalized in terms of plausi-

ble effect sizes that are further described in AppendixA1

(see also Figure1).

In addition to these hypotheses, and in light of emerg-

ing evidence suggesting that personal characteristics

might play a role in how adolescents respond to school-

based interventions, our study also explored whether

participants with a migration background and those

with higher levels of trait- like sensitivity benefited more

(or less) from the intervention than their nonmigrant,

low- sensitive counterparts.

METHOD

Cultural adaptation of the IP intervention to the

Italian context

The IP contents and activities were adapted to the

Italian sociocultural context based on international

guidelines concerning the adaptation of evidence- based

interventions (Barrera et al.,2013). Specifically, we fol-

lowed five steps: (1) information gathering, (2) prelimi-

nary adaptation design, (3) preliminary adaptation test,

(4) adaptation refinement, and (5) cultural adaptation

trial. Due to space limitations, Steps 1– 4 are described

in AppendixA2, whereas Step 5 (main study) is the focus

of the current paper. Here, we will brief ly describe the

main outcomes of the preliminary adaptation design and

subsequent refinement which informed the large- scale

implementation of the Italian IP.

In relation to the intervention protocol, the major

changes concerned a conceptual and terminological

shift from “race”, “ethnicity”, and “ERI” to the terms

“culture” and “cultural identity.” Following the German

adaptation (Juang et al., 2020), this modification was

deemed necessary to address the taboo surrounding the

concept of race that is still present in European coun-

tries due to the racially motivated atrocities committed

during World War II. Moreover, we adapted the IP con-

tents to be more accessible for an Italian audience by

including facts from the country's history and personal

episodes experienced by individuals with an Italian

background.

As regards feasibility and acceptability, qualitative

feedback gathered from teachers and students through

focus groups confirmed the cultural salience of activi-

ties, students' appreciation of the interactive approach

adopted by facilitators, and a good participation rate,

whereas some concerns were raised in relation to the

length of survey assessments and insufficient time for re-

flections (see Ceccon et al., 2023). Our target measures

reported good psychometric properties, with the ex-

ception of one subscale of the questionnaire measuring

cultural identity (see Measures section). Based on these

findings, we further refined our adaptation of the IP (i.e.,

emphasis on participatory and practical tasks; creation

of additional activity about language and multilingual-

ism; shortening of assessment protocol; more time for

group discussions; use of long instead of a short version

of cultural identity measure).

FIGUR E 1 Target model. ET0 = exploration at T0; ET1 = exploration at T1; RT2 = resolut ion at T2; b = standard ized beta. Group coded as

1 = inte rventio n, 0 = waitlist control. Intercepts are om itte d for clar ity. Dotted arrows represent paramet ers considered in power analysis.

CECCON et al.

Main study

Design

We used Bayesian power analysis to determine our sam-

ple size, selecting relevant parameters and evaluating

a multivariate multilevel linear model to test our main

hypotheses (see Figure1). A detailed explanation of the

sampling plan is provided in AppendixA1.

The study was designed as a randomized controlled

trial at the classroom level. Participants from classrooms

in the intervention group received the 8- week IP inter-

vention, whereas their peers from classrooms in the con-

trol group were put on a waitlist prior to receiving the

intervention. The variables of interest were measured

1 week prior to the intervention (T0, pretest), 9 weeks

after baseline (T1, posttest), and 13 weeks after baseline

(T2, follow- up). Adolescents in the waitlist control group

received the intervention beginning 2 weeks after the T2

follow- up data collection, i.e., 15 weeks after baseline.

This means that classrooms in the control group started

the intervention 7 weeks after the classrooms in the ex-

perimental condition had completed the intervention.

This design was in line with international recommenda-

tions to include at least one follow- up at an appropriate

time interval beyond the end of the intervention, espe-

cially for outcomes that may weaken or decline over time

(Flay et al.,2005). The efficacy of the IP intervention was

compared relative to the waiting list control condition.

Classrooms were randomly distributed between the IP

intervention and the control sample 1 week before pre-

test due to organizational constraints, but neither stu-

dents nor teachers were informed about the group their

classroom had been assigned to at the time of baseline

assessment to prevent contamination effects. The ran-

domization procedure was implemented using computer-

generated randomization sequences.

Participants and procedure

Participants were recruited in public upper secondary

schools in northeastern Italy, specifically in the Veneto

region, a geographical area that hosts a large proportion

of legally residing citizens of immigrant descent in the

country (ISTAT,2020). According to regional statistics,

in most high schools (65%) the percentage of students

from immigrant families ranges from 0% to 15%; in 25%

of the schools between 15% and 30%; in 5% between 30%

and 40%; in the remaining 5%, students with a migration

background account for over 40% of the total student

population (MIUR, 2020). Over 200 different nation-

alities are represented, although more than half of these

students originate from Eastern Europe (e.g., Romania,

Albania), North Africa (e.g., Morocco), and Asia (e.g.,

Ch i na, Indi a).

The Italian school system is structured into primary

education, lower secondary education, and upper sec-

ondary education (14– 18 years of age, corresponding to

9th– 13th grade). Upper secondary schools can be pri-

vate or public and are divided into academic schools,

fine arts schools, technical, and vocational schools, with

no specific requirements in terms of academic achieve-

ment that need to be met to attend a specific type of

school. However, youth from immigrant families tend

to be overrepresented in public technical and vocational

schools due to several contextual factors (e.g., preference

for work- oriented schools to contribute to family in-

come). Therefore, we approached these types of schools

to ensure that at least 20%– 25% of our sample was com-

posed of adolescents of immigrant descent. Following

the original study, we focused on middle adolescence

as this particular age is considered to be most receptive

and sensitive to identity- related issues (Umaña- Taylor,

Douglass, et al.,2018).

All procedures were approved by the Ethic

Committee of the School of Psychology at the

University of Padova (protocol n. 3871). After estab-

lishing informal contacts with schools, we proceeded

to obtain approval from relevant authorities (i.e.,

school principals, teachers) and written informed

consent from parents. To achieve our planned sam-

ple size (i.e., N = 600), and based on national regula-

tions indicating that classroom composition in upper

secondary school entails between 20 and 30 students

per classroom (MIUR,2020), we asked 1037 students

from 45 classrooms in 6 different public upper second-

ary schools located in urban areas to volunteer for the

study. One teacher served as a contact person for each

school, organizing the intervention schedule to fit in

with preexisting activities. Participants were eligible if

they (1) attended 10th grade during the period of data

collection; (2) had sufficient knowledge of the Italian

language; (3) had no certified intellectual disability

or neurodevelopmental disorder. To avoid generating

feelings of social exclusion, students who did not meet

the second (n = 6) or third (n = 6) criterion were excluded

from survey assessments, but they were invited to par-

ticipate in the IP sessions and were further assisted

by a facilitator/support teacher and, for non- Italian

speakers, they were provided materials translated in

their respective mother tongues. Of the eligible partic-

ipants, 68 did not return parental consent, resulting in

a participation rate of 92%.

Thus, the final sample comprised 957 10th graders

(Mage = 15.12, SD = 0.68; 52% self- identifying as girls).

One percent of parents had received no education, 2%

had completed primary school, 22% had completed

lower secondary school, 47% had completed upper sec-

ondary school, 25% attended university, and 3% were

missing or preferred not to answer/did not know. With

regard to socioeconomic status (SES), the average score

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

on the Family Aff luence Scale (FAS; see Measures sec-

tion) was 6.35 (SD = 1.76, range = 0– 9). Overall, 32% of the

participants had a migration background (born abroad

or in Italy from at least one parent born abroad); among

these, 72% were born in Italy. Students reported 55 dif-

ferent countries of origin, the main ones being Romania,

Morocco, Moldova, Albania, and Tunisia.

The IP intervention involved 8 weekly sessions of

55 min each that were delivered between October and

December 2021 by the first author together with a team

of extensively trained and thoroughly supervised psy-

chology graduate students. The facilitators worked in

pairs, taking turns in conducting the activities. In par-

ticular, the second facilitator ensured that all planned

key goals, activities, and topics were covered, addressed

any potentially missing contents, and completed an ad-

hoc fidelity checklist to assess adherence, i.e., “the extent

to which the essential components of an intervention

are being delivered/implemented as designed” (Lee &

Chue,2013, p. 2510). In our study, the average fidelity of

implementation was 94% (range = 48%– 100%); moreover,

50% of the sessions reported a 100% fidelity. For those

sessions (n = 4, 2%) whose fidelity was lower than 60%,

facilitators made efforts to cover the missing contents in

the subsequent session. While there were no COVID- 19-

related school closures, a few classrooms were occasion-

ally quarantined and 6 meetings (3% of the total number)

were held from remote, building on previous experience

from the pilot study (see Ceccon et al., 2023). The week

after the follow- up survey (January 2022), we invited stu-

dents from the intervention classrooms and their teach-

ers to take part in focus group discussions. A total of ten

focus groups were carried out with students (5 students

on average per group) and six focus groups were con-

ducted with teachers (4 teachers on average per group).

Measures

Sociodemographics

Students were asked about their age, gender, birthplace,

parents' birthplace, length of residence in Italy (for

foreign- born youth), first and second language spoken,

family composition, parental occupation, and educa-

tional level. Consistent with previous research (e.g.,

Schachner et al.,2016), migration background was coded

as 0 (born in Italy from Italian- born parents) or 1 (born

abroad or in Italy from at least one parent born abroad).

Socioeconomic status

This variable was assessed via the FAS (Currie

et al.,2008), a widely used 4- item scale measuring fam-

ily wealth (e.g., “Do you have a room all by yourself ?”).

Scores assigned to each item are summed to yield a total

score ranging from 0 (lowest aff luence) to 9 (highest af-

fluence). This scale is particularly suitable for adolescent

samples and has shown good criterion and construct

validity in a large cross- cultural validation study involv-

ing 35 countries, including Italy (Boyce et al.,2006).

Cultural identity exploration and resolution

The two dimensions of cultural identity exploration and

resolution were assessed via the 17- item Ethnic Identity

Scale (EIS; Umaña- Taylor et al.,2004), using items from

the exploration (7 items; e.g., “I have attended events that

have helped me learn more about my ethnicity”) and the

resolution subscale (4 items; e.g., “I know what my eth-

nicity means to me”). Prior to answering those items,

students were asked to indicate their heritage culture

(e.g., Italian, Moroccan, Romanian, Chinese) and think

about that particular cultural group when answering sub-

sequent questions. Items were rated on a 4- point Likert

scale from 1 (does not describe me at all) to 4 (describes

me very well), and total scores were calculated by aver-

aging item responses of the respective subscales, with

higher scores indicating higher levels of each variable.

Students could then also list all other cultural groups with

which they self- identified. The EIS has been used to ex-

amine ethnic identity among multiracial adolescents and

adults in the US, showing good validity, internal consist-

ency, and measurement invariance across ethnic minor-

ity and majority group members (Sladek, Umaña- Taylor,

McDermott, et al.,2020; Umaña- Taylor et al.,2004), and

it exhibited high internal consistency in the German IP

study (Juang et al., 2020). We selected the EIS instead

of the EIS- Brief (Douglass & Umaña- Taylor,2015 ) used

in the US study due to the low internal reliability of the

exploration subscale found in our pilot study. Since the

questionnaire had not been previously used in the Italian

context, it was translated using standard translation- back

translation procedures in collaboration with the instru-

ment authors. In the current study, internal reliabilities

measured via Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's Omega

were α = .78, 95% CI [.75– .80] and ω = .79, 95% CI [.77– .81]

for the exploration subscale, and α = .84, 95% CI [.82– .86]

and ω = .85, 95% CI [.83– .86] for the resolution subscale.

A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was con-

ducted on the EIS to test the originally proposed 3- factor

structure (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation;

Umaña- Taylor et al., 2004). We used the Diagonally

Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) estimator to address

the ordinal nature of the data. To assess model f it we

computed various goodness- of- fit indices, including

the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis index

(TLI), the root mean square error of approximation

(RMSEA), and the standardized root mean square re-

sidual (SRMR). Based on suggested cutoff values (e.g.,

Schermelleh- Engel et al.,2003), the 3- factor model had an

overall acceptable fit (CFI = .98, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .09,

SRMR = .06).

Environmental sensitivity

Participants' sensitivity to environmental stimuli was as-

sessed through the short version of the Highly Sensitive

CECCON et al.

Child Scale (HSCS; Pluess et al., 2 018). The scale com-

prises 12 items (e.g., “I notice when small things have

changed in my environment”) pertaining to three sub-

scales: Ease of Excitation (EOE; 5 items), Low Sensory

Threshold (LST; 3 items), and Aesthetic Sensitivity

(AES; 4 items). Items are rated on a 5- point scale rang-

ing from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). In this study, we

used the mean score, which is obtained by averaging all

item responses, with higher scores indicating higher sen-

sitivity. The scale has shown good psychometric prop-

erties in terms of validity and reliability in adolescent

samples across different countries (Weyn et al., 2021).

In the original development and validation studies,

the HSCS showed adequate internal consistency, test–

retest reliability, and construct validity in relation to

measures of temperament and personality traits (Pluess

et al.,2018). Consistent with previous studies concerning

the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the

HSCS as applied in intervention research with children

(Nocentini et al.,2018), in the current sample the HSCS

had good internal reliability (Cronbach's α = .75, 95%

CI [.73– .77] and McDonald's ω = .74, 95% CI [.71– .77]).

As prior research showed that the HSCS f its a bifactor

structure, i.e. a general sensitivity factor with items load-

ing onto three separate factors represented by the three

subscales (EOE, LST, and AES; Pluess et al.,2018), we

tested this type of model using CFA. Results supported a

bifactor solution showing a good fit (CFI = .99, TLI = .9 9,

RMSEA = .03, SRMR = .04).

Focus groups

Students were asked open- ended questions regarding

which activities they enjoyed the most/least; if they had

noticed any changes in the way they perceived or felt

about their own cultural identity and attitudes toward

others' cultural backgrounds; and whether they would

add, remove, or modify any activities. Teachers were

asked about their general impressions of the curriculum;

whether any IP- related topics had been discussed dur-

ing standard lessons; possible issues encountered during

implementation; suggestions for improving the inter-

vention. Focus group discussions lasted approximately

1 h. All sessions with teachers were conducted online by

the corresponding author together with the f irst author,

whereas sessions with students were conducted in pres-

ence or from remote (4 and 6 out of 10, respectively) by

the facilitators who had carried out the intervention with

those students.

Data analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using R soft-

ware (R Core Team, 2 018) including blavaan (Merkle

& Rosseel, 2018) and brms (Bürkner, 2 017) packages,

and using STAN to implement MCMC sampling (Stan

Development Team, 2 018). In preliminary analyses, we

screened for missing data (see Appendix A3) and ex-

plored data distribution. If a participant had more than

10% of missing values on one of the questionnaires, we

explored the presence of recurrent patterns (if any) of

such values and critically discussed these findings as ap-

propriate (i.e., possibility of excluding these participants

from the analyses if missing data showed recurrent pat-

terns). We also ascertained whether adolescents from

classrooms randomly assigned to the intervention and

control group were comparable, with potential differ-

ences being taken into account in our statistical model.

Next, we computed descriptive statistics and bivari-

ate correlations among our study variables (see Ta ble1).

We subsequently evaluated our hypothesized model

(Figure1) using a full Bayesian approach; possible vari-

ations between students of different schools and class-

rooms were considered as random effects by analyzing

the posterior distributions of their associated variance.

Specifically, we compared a series of multivariate mul-

tilevel linear models (including school and classroom as

random intercepts): model 0, i.e. a model assuming that

there were no associations among the study variables;

model 1, representing the interaction between explora-

tion at T0 and group on exploration at T1, and the in-

teraction of exploration at T1 and group on resolution

at T2; model 2, a model including the main effects of ex-

ploration at T0 and group on exploration at T1, and of

exploration at T1 and group on resolution at T2; model

3, representing the interaction of exploration at T0 and

group on exploration at T1, and the main effects of ex-

ploration at T1 and group on resolution at T2; and model

4, considering the main effects of exploration at T0 and

group on exploration at T1, and the interaction between

exploration at T1 and group on resolution at T2.

We fitted an observed (vs. latent) variable model as

we were interested in replicating the original authors'

approach, and because the target questionnaires had

been previously validated in different countries and eth-

nic groups (see Douglass & Umaña- Taylor,2015; Weyn

et al., 2021). Moreover, the inclusion of additional pa-

rameters related to latent variables would have required

at least twice as many participants (approximately 1200)

as those determined by our power analysis, therefore

compromising study feasibility. We used the follow-

ing informative priors: for main effects (exploration at

T0 on resolution at T1; exploration at T1 on resolution

at T2) Student's t(3, 0.5, 0.5), for group effect Student's

t(3,1,0.5) and interaction effects Student's t(3, 0.2, 1); for

random effects and residual standard deviations we used

truncated Student's t(3, 0, 2.5); for residuals' correla-

tions a Lewandowski- Kurowicka- Joe distribution. For

all models, estimates were based on 4000 samples ex-

tracted from the posteriors with 4 chains, using the pack-

age brms (Bürkner,2017 ) which interfaces with STAN

(Stan Development Team,2018). Models were compared

using the following criteria: Bayesian R2; Leave- one- out

Cross Validation information criterion, with low values

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

TABLE 1 Correlations and des criptive statistics for study variables by g roup (intervention n = 382, c ontrol n = 365).

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

1. T0 exploration .57 .54 .53 .38 .41 .12 .20 .04 .01 −.07

2. T1 exploration .62 .69 .31 .51 .44 .11 .18 .10 .02 −. 05

3. T2 exploration .63 .72 .36 .39 .60 .13 .24 .04 .01 −.12

4. T0 resolution .44 .36 .37 .49 .50 .04 .20 −.13 .10 −.03

5. T1 re solution .38 .49 .46 .62 .58 .06 .13 −.05 .04 −.0 5

6. T2 resolution .40 .46 .55 .61 .78 .06 .18 −.0 4 .06 −.03

7. Environmental

sensitivity

.04 −.03 −.03 .02 .00 −.01 .18 .36 .09 −.12

8. Migration

background

.16 .13 .08 .23 .23 .17 .05 .13 .21 −.3 0

9. G end er .01 .02 .01 −.09 −.13 −.11 .33 −.04 −.02 −. 08

10. Age .06 .04 −.01 .09 .11 .0 4 −.0 6 .19 −.2 3 −.19

11. Socioeconomic

status

.02 −.01 −. 02 −.09 −.03 −.06 .05 −.31 .06 −.2 0

Inter vention

M (SD) 2.63 (0. 55) 2.7 0 (0.55) 2.64 (0.57) 2.81 (0 .65 ) 2.95 (0.62) 2 .88 (0.64) 4.56 (0.85) 0.30 (0.46) 1.55 (0.55) 15.10 (0.67) 6.3 8 (1.74)

Control

M (SD) 2.63 (0.61) 2 .61 (0.57 ) 2.62 (0.57) 2.86 (0.68) 2.83 (0.64) 2 .83 (0.63) 4.73 (0.87) 0.32 (0.47) 1.64 (0.54) 15.03 (0.62) 6.39 (1.74)

Note: Corr elations are prese nted for the inte rvent ion grou p (above the diagona l) and th e control g roup (below the d iagona l). Migr ation background was code d as 0 = without mig ration backg round (i.e., born i n Italy from

Itali an- born pa rents) an d 1 = with migration ba ckgrou nd (i.e., born in Ita ly or abroa d from at le ast one p arent b orn abroad). Gender was code d as 1 = boys, 2 = girls , and 3 = other (e.g., non- bina ry, gender fluid). T0 = pretest ,

T1 = 9- week postt est, T 2 = 13- week posttest.

CECCON et al.

reflecting a higher predictive capability of the model;

and model weights, with high values indicating a better

model. We also verified the normalcy of model residuals.

Finally, we addressed our exploratory research ques-

tions by including participants' migration background

and environmental sensitivity in our statistical model

using weak- informative priors. Before proceeding with

this step, as part of our quality check, we analyzed mea-

surement invariance of the two questionnaires (EIS and

HSCS) by exploring the degree of overlap of the posterior

distribution of parameters separately in the two groups

(i.e., students with and without a migration background).

This technique allows to obtain information on the ex-

tent to which the two groups may differ in relation to the

variables under investigation (Pastore & Calcagnì,2019).

Results of this analysis are reported in AppendixA4.

The focus group data were subjected to thematic con-

tent analysis to describe recurrent themes across partic-

ipants' responses following procedures from previous

research (e.g., Ceccon & Moscardino, 2022). The first

author and another member of the research team inde-

pendently reviewed students' and teachers' responses,

generated and compared codes, and discussed emerging

interpretations of salient aspects related to intervention

implementation.

RESULTS

Preliminary analyses

Among the participants designated for assessment

(N = 957), 908 completed the questionnaire at T0, 854 at

T1, and 845 at T2 (see Consort map in Figure2), with an

attrition rate of 7%.

When conducting CFA for the two main measures

(EIS and HSCS), we screened for missing data at base-

line: only 8% of participants had missing values in the

questionnaires. Specifically, 0.33% (n = 3) had more than

10% of missing values in the EIS measure at T0 and

0.23% (n = 2) at T1, while none of the participants had

more than 10% of missing values in the EIS at T2 or in

the HSCS measure at T0. No recurrent pattern emerged

from missing values. Because both instruments had

good psychometric properties (see Measures section),

we proceeded by calculating mean scores for our vari-

ables of interest at the different time points. To assess

whether participants who missed and did not miss sur-

vey administrations differed on sociodemographic and

intervention- related characteristics, we used a logistic

model which is further described in AppendixA3. Given

that none of these characteristics showed any effect, we

decided to use a listwise deletion approach and excluded

all those students who were not present at all three as-

sessments (n = 210, 22% of the sample designated for

assessment), resulting in a final analytic sample of 747

(intervention n = 382, control n = 365). Based on observed

data distribution (see AppendixA5), no relevant differ-

ences were detected between the intervention and control

groups on sociodemographic variables (gender, migra-

tion background, and SES) as well as on our variables

of interest (cultural identity exploration and resolution,

environmental sensitivity) at T0.

Main hypotheses testing

Tab l e 2 shows the results of the Bayesian model compari-

son. The best- performing model was model 2 (i.e., with-

out interactions and with random intercepts for school

and classroom), which highlighted a main effect of con-

dition (intervention vs. control) on cultural identity ex-

ploration at T1. Residuals of both dependent variables

of the model (exploration and resolution) were normally

distributed.

In this model, students in the intervention group re-

ported higher scores on cultural identity exploration

compared to the control group (H1). The expected differ-

ence between intervention and control group was about

0.10 points, with a 90% CI [0.04; 0.15], corresponding to

a Cohen's d posterior mean of 0.18, with a 90% CI [0.07;

0.28]. Standard deviation of intercepts (random effects)

ranged from 0.04 to 0.1, indicating irrelevant differences

between schools or classrooms. However, this model did

not include the hypothesized interaction effect of explo-

ration at T1 and group on resolution at T2, suggesting

that increases in resolution at follow- up were not linked

to increases in exploration in the intervention (vs. con-

trol) group; hence, H2 was not supported. Indeed, the

latter interaction was included in model 1 and model 4,

both of which had lower model weights than model 2. A

closer inspection of these models indicated that our pa-

rameter of interest was equal respectively to −0.01, with

a 90% CI [−0.13; 0.12] in M1 and to −0.01, with a 90% CI

[−0.13; 0.11] in M4, and therefore could not be considered

a relevant effect.

We reran this analysis with an imputed dataset ap-

plying a Bayesian estimation method to ensure that the

findings were not inf luenced by missing data. Results

obtained with the imputation were substantially the

same as those obtained with non- imputed data (see

AppendixA6).

Exploratory analyses

To address our exploratory research questions, we in-

cluded migration background and environmental sensi-

tivity as possible moderators in our analyses. Given that

the intervention and control groups were comparable in

terms of cultural identity exploration at baseline, in all

models we did not control for this variable. All tested

models are presented in Ta ble3. Results of model com-

parison suggested that the fi rst two models outperformed

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

the others to a comparable extent (in terms of weight and

explained variance): model 14 (with the interaction be-

tween group and environmental sensitivity and the main

effect of migration background on cultural identity ex-

ploration at T1, and the main effects of these variables

on resolution at T2) and model 10 (with the triple interac-

tion of group, migration background, and environmen-

tal sensitivity on cultural identity exploration at T1, and

the main effects of these variables on resolution at T2).

In model 14, there was a relevant effect of the interac-

tion between group and environmental sensitivity (0.05,

[−0.02; 0.12] 90% CI) on exploration at T1, suggesting

that for students in the intervention (vs. control) group,

those with higher levels of sensitivity reported greater

exploration at T1 compared to their less sensitive peers

(se e Figure3).

In model 10, there was a relevant effect of the three-

way interaction among group, migration background,

and sensitivity (0.19, [0.04; 0.35] 90% CI) on cultural iden-

tity exploration at T1. In other words, for students in the

intervention (vs. control) group, those with a migration

background reporting higher levels of sensitivity showed

greater exploration at T1 compared to their nonmigrant,

less sensitive peers (see Figure4).

FIGUR E 2 Consort map for trial enroll ment and analysis.

CECCON et al.

Effect sizes for moderation effects related to stu-

dent subgroups for models 14 and 10 are reported in

Appendix A7. We subsequently replicated the best-

performing model in terms of weight (i.e., model 14)

controlling for exploration at baseline, but the two-

way interaction effect was not evident anymore (see

Appendix A8), most likely due to the high correlation

between levels of exploration at T0 and T1.

Focus group analyses

A recurrent theme for students was their emphasis on

the usefulness of the IP in addressing issues related to

their heritage culture(s) and those of their classmates, as

these topics are seldom discussed in the school curricu-

lum. The opportunity for exploration was particularly

appreciated by students with a migration background,

who described how they developed further curiosity and

acceptance toward their heritage cultures (“I realized

that I was losing touch with my culture … Now I feel more

interested, I even started searching for in- depth material”,

“The fact that my classmates started asking me about our

traditions and symbols made me feel more accepted by

them and closer to my origins”) or became increasingly

aware of how this dimension could be integrated into a

multifaceted, multicultural identity (“Before the project I

felt only Chinese, now I think that the way I would define

TABLE 2 Compar ison of mu ltivariate multilevel li near models for main hypotheses testing.

Model R2ET1 R2RT2 LOO SE We ig ht

Model 2 0.38 0.36 2176 .62 8 65.308 0.60

Model 4 0.38 0.36 217 9.29 8 65.407 0.16

Model 3 0.38 0.36 217 9.30 2 65.349 0.16

Model 1 0.38 0.36 2180.6 72 65.348 0.08

Model 0 0.02 0.03 2534 .392 60.363 0.0 0

Note: N = 747. R2ET1 = B ayesi an R2 for explor ation at T1; R2RT2 = Bayesia n R2 for resolution at T2; weight = model weights. Mo del 0 = explorati on at T1 ~ (1|school/

classroom); RT2 ~ (1|scho ol/classroom). Model 1 = exploration at T1 ~ exploration at T 0 × grou p + (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ exploration at T1 × group + (1|school/

classroom). Model 2 = exploration at T1 ~ exploration at T0 + group + (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ explor ation at T1 + group + (1|school/classroom). Model

3 = exploration at T1 ~ explorat ion at T0 × group + (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ explo ration at T1 + group + (1|school/classro om). Model 4 = exploration at

T1 ~ exploration at T 0 + group + (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ explorat ion at T1 × group (1|school/classroom).

Abbrev iation s: LOO, leave - one- out cross - v alid ation i nformation c rite rion; SE, standard e rror.

TABLE 3 Compar ison of mu ltivariate multilevel li near models for explorator y analyses.

Model R2ET1 R2RT2 LOO SE We ig ht

Mo de l 14 0.06 0.06 2516.6 0 61.0 7 0.22

Mod el 10 0.07 0.29 2516.8 4 60 .72 0.19

Model 5 0.06 0.26 2 517.09 60.88 0.17

Mod el 13 0.06 0.06 2518.32 61.01 0.09

Mode l 12 0.06 0.26 2518. 50 60.80 0.08

Model 6 0.06 0.29 2518.76 60.91 0.07

Mo d el 11 0.06 0.26 2519. 52 60.92 0.05

Model 8 0.07 0.25 2519.62 60.93 0.05

Model 7 0.06 0.27 2520.05 60.88 0.04

Model 9 0.06 0.25 2520.05 61.08 0.04

Model 0 0.02 0.03 2534 .39 60.36 0.00

Note: N = 747. R2ET1 = B ayesi an R2 for explor ation at T1; R2RT2 = Bayesia n R2 for resolution at T2; L OO, leave- one- out cross- valid ation i nfor mation

crit erion; SE, sta ndard error; weight = model weights. Model 0 = exploration at T1 ~ (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ (1|school/classroom). Model 5 = exploration

at T1 ~ group + m igr. bac kgrou nd + sensit ivity + (1|scho ol/classroom); resolut ion at T2 ~ explorat ion at T1 + group + migr. ba ckgrou nd + sensit ivity (1|school/

classroom). Model 6 = exploration at T1 ~ migr. backg round + g roup × sen sitivity + (1|school/classroom); resolution at T2 ~ explorat ion at T1 + mig r.

backg round + group × sensitiv ity (1|school/cla ssroo m). Model 7 = exploratio n at T1 ~ sens itivity + g roup × mig r. b ackgr ound + (1|school/classro om); resolution at

T2 ~ exploration at T1 + sensit ivity + gro up × migr. ba ckgrou nd + (1|school/cla ssroom). Model 8 = exploration at T1 ~ group × m igr. bac kgrou nd × sensit ivity + (1|school/

classroom); res olution at T2 ~ exploration at T1 + group × mig r. backg round × sensiti vity (1|school/cl assroom). Model 9 = explorat ion at T1 ~ group + mig r.

backg round + sensitiv ity + (1|school /classroom); resolution at T2 ~ exploration at T1 + group × m igr. bac kgroun d × sensitiv ity (1|school/classroom). Mod el

10 = exploration at T1 ~ group × m igr. bac kgroun d × sensiti vity + (1|school/classroom); RT2 ~ exploration at T1 + group + m igr. bac kgroun d + sensiti vity

(1|school/class room). Model 11 = exploratio n at T1 ~ group + m igr. bac kgrou nd + sensit ivity + (1|school/classroom); resolution at T2 ~ explorat ion at T1 + mig r.

backg round + group × sen sitivity + (1|school/classro om). Model 12 = exploratio n at T1 ~ group + m igr. ba ckgrou nd + sensit ivity + (1|school/classroom);

resolution at T2 ~ exploration at T1 + sensitivit y + group × mig r. backg round + (1|sc hool/c lassroom). Model 13 = explorati on at T1 ~ sensitivity + gr oup × mi gr.

backg round + (1|school/c lass room); resolution at T 2 ~ sens itivity + g roup + mig r. b ackgr ound + (1|school/classro om). Model 14 = exploration at T1 ~ mig r.

backg round + group × sen sitivity + (1|school/classro om); resolution at T2 ~ sensitiv ity + group + m igr. back ground + (1|school/classroom).

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

myself would include my Italian identity as well”). The IP

was described as an eye- opening opportunity also by

majority students, who often found themselves ref lect-

ing for the first time on their own cultural identity and

on how culture may shape behaviors and ways of think-

ing (“This project made me think more about my culture

and the aspects that characterize it: I thought about things

that I normally do, and that in another culture would not

be normal or obvious”). Participants particularly enjoyed

the hands- on activities of sharing cultural symbols and

creating their own family tree, as well as the possibility

to strengthen relationships with their classmates. They

also valued the opportunity to engage with external

professional f igures (i.e., linguistic- cultural mediators,

psychologists) to discuss issues concerning social inclu-

sion and intercultural communication from a different

perspective. In addition, they pointed out that the IP

rendered them more sensitive to issues such as discrimi-

nation and prejudice and stimulated them to adopt a

more critical look at others' experiences. For instance,

some students reported how having participated in the

IP had prompted them to defend fellow classmates who

had been discriminated against (“After our sessions, I

started noticing that one of our classmates was treated in

a discriminatory way … I 'm trying to include him more in

our group, I don't want him to feel different”).

Among teachers, a recurrent theme concerning the

effects of the IP was the increase in cohesion among

classmates, mostly resulting from the sharing activities

(“It was most useful for students to know each other better,

and also to know themselves better”, “The sessions helped

students to build a team, to create a group”). Teachers also

FIGUR E 3 Expected value s of model 14 with the interaction between group and environment al sensitiv ity. Et1 = exploration at T1;

Rt2 = resolution at T2; group = experimental condition (0 = waitl ist control, 1 = intervention); HSCS, environmental sensitivity. Expected values

of the model on exploration at T1 as a function of envi ronmental sensitivity (x- axis) and group (colors). The bands indicate 90% credibility

inter vals.

FIGUR E 4 Expected value s of model 10 with the interaction among group, m igration background, and environ mental sensitivity.

Et1 = exploration at T1; Rt2 = resolution at T2; group = experimental condition (0 = waitlist control, 1 = i nter vention); HSCS, environmental

sensitivity; MIGR, migration background (0 = no, 1 = yes). Expecte d values of the model on exploration at T1 as a function of environmental

sensitivity (x- a xis), mig rant background (colors), and g roup (panels). The bands indicate 90% credibility intervals.

CECCON et al.

noticed a heightened sensitivity and awareness among

adolescents on issues of cultural belonging (“This year

I noticed how much it mattered to them, this sense of be-

longing to their own culture: it's a topic that really touched

them”). This observation led some of them to incorpo-

rate specific contents of the IP curriculum into their

lessons and carry out independent, content- related proj-

ects (“During my history class, we examined the concept

of identity in depth; it was no longer an abstract topic, a

‘required reading’, the students had made the topic their

own”).

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of a

culturally adapted version of the IP intervention among

adolescents attending multiethnic classrooms in Italy. In

doing so, we aimed to replicate the original study carried

out by Umaña- Taylor, Douglass, et al.(2018) in the US,

hypothesizing that the intervention would lead to an in-

crease in cultural identity exploration at posttest which,

in turn, would result in higher levels of cultural identity

resolution at follow- up. Moreover, we were interested

in exploring the potential moderating role of migration

background and environmental sensitivity on interven-

tion effects. Overall, the Italian version of the IP proved

to be eff icacious in stimulating exploration processes

among adolescents who participated in the intervention

compared to those who were in the waitlist control group,

but no differences were found in resolution at follow- up

(T2) as a function of levels of exploration at posttest (T1).

With regard to potential moderators, the results of our

model comparison revealed that in the intervention (vs.

control) group, students with greater environmental sen-

sitivity reported higher levels of exploration at posttest

than their less sensitive counterparts. In addition, youth

of immigrant descent who reported higher (vs. lower)

levels of sensitivity to environmental inf luences showed

more exploration at posttest. No effects of these vari-

ables on resolution emerged at follow- up.

Consistent with our theoretical model and pre-

vious implementations of the IP (Juang et al., 2020;

Umaña- Taylor, Douglass, et al., 2018; Umaña- Taylor,

Kornienko, et al., 2018), we observed higher levels of

exploration from pre- to posttest among adolescents in

the intervention (vs. control) group, confirming our first

hypothesis. In other words, despite originating from a

different sociocultural milieu, the IP in its culturally

adapted version to the Italian school context was effec-

tive in stimulating youths' reflections concerning their

heritage culture(s) through a meaningful search, obser-

vation, and consideration of this salient identity dimen-

sion across the sessions (Umaña- Taylor et al.,2004). This

heightened interest was also mirrored in students' re-

sponses during focus groups and supports the idea that,

in middle adolescence, providing a protected space for

collective ref lection on cultural diversity, inequalities,

and their implications for one's identity is beneficial for

an increased awareness and understanding of ethnically

diverse others among both ethnically minoritized and

majoritized groups (Juang et al.,2020).

In our study, no evidence was found to support the

cascading effect of cultural identity exploration at

posttest on resolution at follow- up in the intervention

group. Hence, the participants did not report a greater

sense of clarity concerning their own cultural identity

one month after experiencing an increase in exploration

processes linked to their attendance in the IP. This can

be interpreted in light of the peculiar characteristics of

identity development and socialization in Italy compared

to the US and other European countries. Indeed, identity

formation among Italian youth has been shown to be af-

fected by the “delay syndrome” (Livi Bacci,2008), which

involves the extension of education, deferral of entry into

the job market and in a committed relationship, living in

the parental home until the late 20s or 30s, and a delayed

transition to parenthood. This postponement of adult

commitments, which is overall socially accepted, can en-

hance identity instability during adolescence (Crocetti,

Rabaglietti, & Sica, 2012). Individuals may experience

adolescence as a prolonged period of moratorium,

during which they consider and reconsider multiple iden-

tity alternatives instead of solidifying a sense of identity,

or even as a return to a diffused state. In support of this

view, cross- country studies found that Italian youth had

lower levels of commitment and were more represented

in the moratorium status compared to their Dutch coun-

terparts (Crocetti, Schwartz, et al.,2012). Furthermore,

Crocetti et al.(2 011) reported that adolescents from im-

migrant families in Italy had higher levels of reconsider-

ation of commitment than their peers from mixed and

non- immigrant families. Indeed, these youths may expe-

rience additional difficulties in finding a personal iden-

tity coherence, possibly because this process is closely

intertwined with the negotiation between parents' ex-

pectations of carrying on their “cultural legacy” and the

pressure from peers and other societal agents to conform

to social norms of the majority group.

There is a dearth of studies concerning cultural so-

cialization processes in relation to identity formation

among both immigrant and non- immigrant youth in

Italy. This may be due to the relatively late unification

of the country, the coexistence of both regional and na-

tional identities, and the recency of the immigration

phenomenon, which started to become numerically

relevant from the 1990s (Juang et al.,2022). These fac-

tors, together with immigration policies emphasizing

assimilation rather than integration, may render cul-

tural socialization practices less salient than in con-

texts with a longer history of immigration such as the

US. In the latter society, complex interethnic dynamics,

as well as systemic and structural inequalities, likely

have contributed to an increased relevance of ERI

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

for individual development (Umaña- Taylor, 2 016 ). In

Italy, structured learning opportunities occur less fre-

quently within students' microsystems (family, school)

due to the inherent difficulty of such topics and the

lack of shared meanings concerning terminology and

conceptualization to address them (Juang et al.,2020).

Therefore, it is possible that messages about knowl-

edge, beliefs, and practices concerning one's cultural

heritage are much more pervasive in the US than in

Italian society. The qualitative data collected during

our post- intervention focus groups seem to support

this interpretation, given that especially for students

without a migration background, cultural identity was

less central to their global identity than other social

identities, such as gender identity and sexual orienta-

tion. Thus, the absence of a rippling effect on reso-

lution may reflect an overall delayed salience of this

identity in youth, connected with a lower emphasis on

cultural socialization. It also must be considered that

gaining awareness and clarity about one's own cultural

identity is a process that requires time and prolonged

reflection, as well as the opportunity to engage in mul-

tiple real- life experiences concerning one's own heri-

tage culture(s). Future research needs to shed light on

this issue, for example, by including more time points

and/or long- term assessments to ascertain the presence

of possible chain effects that could become evident

after the conclusion of the intervention.

Regarding our exploratory research questions,

Bayesian analyses revealed that the two models out-

performed the others to a comparable extent. The first

model indicated that, among adolescents in the inter-

vention (vs. control) group, those with greater environ-

mental sensitivity showed higher levels of exploration

at posttest in comparison to their peers with lower lev-

els of sensitivity. In the second model, participants in

the intervention group with a migration background

and who scored high on environmental sensitivity re-

ported greater exploration at posttest than their less

sensitive counterparts of immigrant descent. Thus,

students characterized by a deeper processing and a

greater reactivity to both favorable and adverse con-

ditions particularly benefited from having the oppor-

tunity to engage in activities and discussions within

the school setting focusing on one's heritage culture(s),

symbols and traditions, and people who are relevant

in shaping cultural identity, encouraging them to fur-

ther ref lect upon and explore their backgrounds and

possible selves. Interestingly, the second model also

indicated that this effect was more relevant for ado-

lescents of immigrant descent. Although caution is

needed when interpreting this result and more repli-

cation research is necessary, it suggests that potential

vulnerability factors like environmental sensitivity and

immigration- related challenges (e.g., discrimination,

acculturative stress), in the context of positive envi-

ronments and when considered in a combined fashion,

lend support to vantage sensitivity theory (de Villiers

et al.,2018; Pluess,2015). The latter posits that highly

sensitive individuals benefit especially strongly from

favorable features of environmental experience.

Our candidate moderators did not have any impact on

the expected cascading effect of exploration at posttest

on resolution at follow- up in the intervention group. As

mentioned in relation to our second hypothesis, resolu-

tion is a process that requires time, repeated and pro-

longed experiences allowing for exploration, as well as

cognitive- affective maturity (Sladek, Umaña- Taylor,

Wantchekon, et al.,2021). The time interval in which we

assessed adolescents' possible changes in their sense of

clarity regarding their own cultural identity is probably

insufficient to tackle these changes, at least in the Italian

social context, for both ethnic minoritized and majori-

tized groups. Of note, a previous study conducted with

US adolescents showed that ERI resolution increased

across a 1- year follow- up period for ethnic- majoritized

youth who participated in the IP (Sladek, Umaña- Taylor,

Wantchekon, et al.,2021). Hence, future research involv-

ing long- term follow- up assessments is warranted to shed

light on possible differential paths over time in terms of

intervention efficacy based on adolescents' ethnocul-

tural background. With regard to sensitivity, given that

this construct refers to the processing of environmental

(including interpersonal/social) stimuli, it might play a

greater role in exploration rather than in resolution pro-

cesses. Indeed, while exploration was prompted within

the classroom by facilitators and classmates during col-

lective discussions and reflections across the sessions,

resolution is a more introspective, private process in-

volving multiple individual characteristics which might

be less inf luenced by external factors.

Limitations and directions for future research

This replication study has a number of strengths, in-

cluding the cultural adaptation of an evidence- based

intervention that targets a pivotal developmental

task in adolescence (i.e., cultural identity formation),

the waitlisted pre- and posttest design with an addi-

tional follow- up assessment, the large sample size, the

a priori power analysis and preregistration of planned

hypotheses, research design, and analyses, the consid-

eration of potential moderators of intervention effi-

cacy, and quantitative and qualitative data collection.

However, there are several limitations that need to be

acknowledged.

First, the proportion of students with a migration

background in our sample was relatively small (around

30%) in comparison to other countries with longer his-

tories of migration such as the US, and there was high

diversity in terms of cultures of origin (i.e., more than

50 nationalities), reflecting the dynamics of immigra-

tion in Italy. Overall, this pattern may have inf luenced

CECCON et al.

intervention efficacy, since the IP has been shown to

be particularly effective in schools with a higher per-

centage of ethnic minority students (approx. 50%; see

Umaña- Taylor, Douglass, et al.,2018). Moreover, it was

not possible to ascertain differential effects based on

national origin or generational status due to the het-

erogeneous sample composition of youth of immigrant

descent. Future studies are warranted to determine

whether the IP is more eff icacious for particular eth-

nocultural groups, or first versus second- generation

adolescents (Sladek, Umaña- Taylor, McDermott,

et al.,2020). Second, as previously mentioned, several

changes were made to the original intervention proto-

col to accommodate both logistic/organizational needs

and cultural- contextual characteristics. Although facil-

itators used fidelity checklists to ensure implementation

quality, and feedback during focus groups highlighted

that specific adapted activities were deemed effec-

tive by participants, such modifications might have

impacted on intervention effects. More replication

studies are needed— especially within the European

context— to evaluate the IP intervention and identify

culturally specific components that may inf luence its

efficacy (Beelmann et al.,2 018). Third, the effect sizes

within our statistical models were relatively small, re-

sembling those found in previous implementations of

the IP (Juang et al., 2020; Umaña- Taylor, Douglass,

et al.,2018). Yet, it should be noted that large effect sizes

are rarely found in the context of psychological research

with large samples or in replication studies. Moreover,

a recent meta- analysis reported that the median aver-

age effect of universal intervention programs targeting

youth tends to fall within the range of 0.07– 0.16 stan-

dard deviations (Tanner- Smith et al., 2 018), indicating

that the value found in our study as regards exploration

(Cohen's d = .18) is in the upper boundary of this range.

As highlighted by Funder and Ozer (2019), when esti-

mates are reliable, small effects can still translate to a

considerable increase in individual outcomes if they are

aggregated across all the students in a class, a school,

or a school district. They may also trigger long- term

psychological change within an individual not only in

relation to cultural identity resolution, but also to ex-

ploration (see Rivas- Drake et al.,2014). Beyond quanti-

tative estimates, qualitative insights gained from focus

group data are equally important to consider given the

value of hearing adolescents' perspectives. Fourth, even

though a waitlist control design was chosen to ensure

that all students eventually received the intervention,

we cannot exclude that adolescents and/or teachers in

the intervention group possibly revealed information

about the project that might have reduced potential dif-

ferences between the two groups. Last, our study was

conducted in a northern Italian region (i.e., Veneto)

characterized by economic wealth, high population

density, and one of the highest shares of immigrants

coming to Italy (ISTAT, 2020). Thus, examination of

program efficacy in other geographical areas with dif-

fering sociodemographic characteristics and immigra-

tion patterns is necessary to ascertain generalizability.

Despite these limitations, our study provides novel

evidence concerning the efficacy of a universal, school-

based intervention stimulating adolescents' cultural iden-

tity exploration within multiethnic classrooms. While

the intervention was developed in the US, the current

study shows that it can also be effective in a European

country that considers itself an immigrant- receiving

society only since the past few decades. Furthermore,

it highlights the importance of youths' migration back-

ground and sensitivity to environmental influences as

conditions to better understand for whom the IP is more

beneficial, although more research is needed to uncover

the mechanisms underpinning individuals' heightened

responsivity to interventions. From an applied perspec-

tive, the current study emphasizes the importance of tai-

loring psychological interventions to the social context

in which they are implemented, especially when working

with minoritized groups. The Italian version of the IP

has proven to be feasible, acceptable, and efficacious in

engaging students with their heritage culture(s), resulting

in more exploration of their sense of self. Further work

is necessary to boost resolution processes, involve teach-

ers, and identify factors that can enhance long- term ef-

ficacy using rigorous statistical procedures and an open

science approach to generate reliable estimates, facilitate

replication, and share good practices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank all the students, teach-

ers, and linguistic- cultural mediators who partici-

pated in the study. We are also grateful to Gianmarco

Altoè for his statistical insights, and to Noemi Baino,

Virginia Barchetti, Francesca Bennato, Daniela Bossi,

Valentina Catalano, Claudia D'Agostini, Francesca De

Sensi, Adriana Jabbour, Fulvia Iadanza, Finicia Milan

Mutombo, Silvia Pescatore, Sarah Rodini, Sandra

Sosnierz, and Silvia Zampieri for their help during data

collection and implementation of the intervention.

FUNDING INFORMATION

This work was supported by a PhD scholarship from the

CARIPARO Foundation to CC, and a grant from the

University of Padova (SID Project— C95F21007400005)

to UM.

DATA AVAILABILI TY STATE MENT

The analyses presented here were preregistered, and

the data and code necessary to reproduce the analyses

are publicly accessible. Data, code, and preregistration

of the analyses are available at the following project

in the Open Science Framework (OSF): http s://osf.io/

zry23/.

IDENTI TY PROJECT I N I TALY

ORCI D

Chiara Ceccon https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2744-1987

Maja K. Schachner https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9388-7485

Francesca Lionetti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6029-0121

Massimiliano Pastore ht tps://orcid.

org/0000-0002-7922-6365

Adriana J. Umaña- Taylor https://orcid.

org/0000-0002-8618-0115

Ughetta Moscardino https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0722-4010

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