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Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools Through Teacher Professional Development: A Systematic Review

School Psychology Review

May 2023
53(4)

DOI:10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

Authors:

Lindsay M. Fallon

University of Massachusetts Boston

Tyler Ayana Womack

Children's Hospital of Orange County

Laura A Alba

University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center

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Racism is enmeshed within the fabric of U.S. public education, making it critical to identify and dismantle. One way to do this is to provide professional development (PD) to teachers targeting antiracism to build awareness, decenter whiteness, and advance racial equity in schools. This systematic review is a synthesis of antiracism PD studies, summarizing the (a) topics and activities integrated, (b) participants, (c) settings, and (d) outcomes associated with participation. Thirty-eight studies published from 1981 to 2020 met study criteria. Results indicated that study participants were most likely to be white educators from urban, public elementary schools who received, on average, nearly 18 hours of professional development. Training included authentic learning and reflection opportunities, with many participants reporting increased critical consciousness and improved racial literacy after PD. However, results also illuminated (a) inconsistencies in the way white teachers responded to training, likely aligning with their own readiness to learn and racial identity development, (b) that school leadership has a key role in creating a safe, trusting, well-resourced environment for this work, and (c) white teachers may need assistance moving from talking about decentering whiteness to taking antiracist action. We conclude with implications for research, practice, and policy.

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Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools

Through Teacher Professional Development: A

Systematic Review

Lindsay M. Fallon, Patrick Robinson-Link, Tyler A. Womack, Laura A. Alba,

Ryan Sunda, Staci Ballard, Margarida Veiga & Austin H. Johnson

To cite this article: Lindsay M. Fallon, Patrick Robinson-Link, Tyler A. Womack, Laura A. Alba,

Ryan Sunda, Staci Ballard, Margarida Veiga & Austin H. Johnson (2023): Learning to Decenter

Whiteness in Schools Through Teacher Professional Development: A Systematic Review, School

Psychology Review, DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

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SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools Through Teacher Professional

Development: A Systematic Review

Lindsay M. Fallona , Patrick Robinson-Linka, Tyler A. Womackb, Laura A. Albab# , Ryan Sundaa,

Staci Ballarda , Margarida Veigaa, and Austin H. Johnsonb

aCounseling and School Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA; bGraduate School of Education, University of

California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA

ABSTRACT

Racism is enmeshed within the fabric of U.S. public education, making it critical to identify and

dismantle. One way to do this is to provide professional development (PD) to teachers targeting

antiracism to build awareness, decenter whiteness, and advance racial equity in schools. This

systematic review is a synthesis of antiracism PD studies, summarizing the (a) topics and activities

integrated, (b) participants, (c) settings, and (d) outcomes associated with participation. Thirty-eight

studies published from 1981 to 2020 met study criteria. Results indicated that study participants

were most likely to be white educators from urban, public elementary schools who received, on

average, nearly 18 hours of professional development. Training included authentic learning and

reflection opportunities, with many participants reporting increased critical consciousness and

improved racial literacy after PD. However, results also illuminated (a) inconsistencies in the way

white teachers responded to training, likely aligning with their own readiness to learn and racial

identity development, (b) that school leadership has a key role in creating a safe, trusting, well-

resourced environment for this work, and (c) white teachers may need assistance moving from

talking about decentering whiteness to taking antiracist action. We conclude with implications for

research, practice, and policy.

IMPACT STATEMENT

In-service professional development is one potential vehicle to prepare teachers to recognize and

disrupt racial injustice, decenter whiteness, and dismantle white supremacy in educational spaces.

A variety of antiracism programs exist, yet PD may be most impactful if it is structured to meet

teachers where they are and aim to increase white teachers’ critical consciousness, racial literacy,

identity development, and desire to change their practice.

In the U.S., whiteness is a term used to describe how

white norms (e.g., customs and beliefs) serve as the stan-

dard against which all other racial and ethnic groups are

compared, perpetuating institutional and structural rac-

ism (Schooley etal., 2019). The term whiteness is not

synonymous with white racial identity but rather implies

unearned privilege and power, and is considered a social

construct (Lynch, 2018). Scholars have argued that

because whiteness is a social construct, it can be disman-

tled (Gregory, 2021). In other words, white people can

recognize whiteness and actively work to decenter beliefs

or unlearn behaviors that perpetuate oppression and

harm. This is especially critical to public education in

the U.S., which is replete with racist policies and prac-

tices (Crutchfield, 2022), causing harm to racially and

ethnically minoritized (REM) youth and teachers (e.g.,

Henderson etal., 2019).

As most teachers in the U.S. identify as white and

female (Spiegelman, 2020), it is critical to teach educators

to understand and interrogate whiteness and actively learn

to resist and dismantle racism in public schools. Indeed,

nearly half of the students being served by teachers in U.S.

schools are from minoritized racial backgrounds (Ahmad

& Boser, 2014) indicating a critical need for all teachers to

understand and interrogate their own roles in racism.

Teachers may need training to understand why and how

they should do this. School psychologists can advocate for

this critical professional development (PD) in consultation

with school leaders. As such, it is important for school

psychologists to know why PD targeting antiracism is

needed and how it has been studied in schools. This paper

presents a systematic literature review of qualitative and

quantitative studies investigating schoolwide training tar-

geting race and racism.

CONTACT Lindsay M. Fallon lindsay.fallon@umb.edu Counseling and School Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard,

Boston, MA 02125, USA.

#Current affiliation: Center For Autism and Developmental Disabilities, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.

KEYWORDS

professional issues in school

psychology, teachers,

student teacher relationships

https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received August 19, 2022

Accepted March 17, 2023

ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Pamela Fenning

2 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

TERMINOLOGY AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

Prior to a review of existing literature, we define relevant

key terms: race, racism, racial equity, antiracism, and

antiracism PD. Race is a social construct used as a means

of classification and to justify racial exploitation whereas

racism can take many forms (e.g., structural, institutional,

interpersonal) and is “a system of beliefs (racial preju-

dices), practices (racial discrimination), and policies based

on race that operates to advantage those with historical

power [including] white people in the United States and

most other Western nations” (Haeny etal., 2021, p. 886).

Racism is a social determinant of health (impacting ineq-

uities in housing, education, employment, life expectancy)

and is a known barrier to health equity (American Public

Health Association, 2022). Racial equity is a state achieved

when race no longer predicts how a person fares in the

U.S. or other societies in which racism is pervasive

(Bonilla-Silva, 2020). Antiracism is concerned with expos

ing and disrupting the ways in which racism is embedded

within relationships, institutions, systems, and structures

(Ladhani & Sitter, 2020). It is central to antiracism PD for

teachers, which is an opportunity for educator training or

coaching that intentional addresses issues of race and rac-

ism (Carr, 2006). Antiracism PD may target disparities in

educational outcomes (or other impacts of racism in the

context of schools and society), racial identity, racial stress

and trauma, the construction of whiteness and white priv-

ilege, and/or the need to advance racial equity and justice

in schools. The two primary theoretical frameworks that

ground this systematic review are critical race theory

(CRT) and the notion of whiteness.

Critical Race Theory

CRT emerged in the 1970s and 1980s through the work

of lawyers, activists, and legal scholars such as Derrick

Bell, Alan Freeman, Richard Delgado, and Kimberlé

Crenshaw (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Critical race the-

orists contend race is a social construct (a product of

social thought and relation, not biological difference), and

that racism is pervasive and permanent, with white people

having little incentive to disrupt or eradicate racism based

on their material and psychological benefit from it

(Crenshaw etal., 1995). CRT integrates tenets from other

theories such as the notion of indeterminacy from critical

legal studies (or the idea that not every legal case has one

“correct” outcome) arguing that legal principles are

instead applied in a way that perpetuates racial hierarchy

(Thomas, 2000), and can extend to educational policy

such as its application in school discipline decisions (Ross,

2020). CRT also builds on feminist theory by calling into

question power structures and the construction of social

roles, as well as conventional civil rights thinking which

values group empowerment to achieve change (Delgado

& Stefancic, 2017).

A major tenet of CRT is intersectionality (Crenshaw,

1991), which acknowledges the intersecting roles of race

and gender in understanding social issues such as experi-

ence with racism and oppression. Analytical frameworks

used by critical race theorists include counter-storytelling

to elucidate the experiences of those with marginalized

identities, or to tell “the stories of those people whose

experiences are not often told” (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002,

p. 32). Counter-narratives illuminate the ways in which

whiteness is upheld throughout society, and specifically

related to the current review, in schools (Matias, 2013).

Critical Whiteness Studies

Whiteness was first described as a socially constructed

phenomenon in the work of W. E. B. Du Bois. In his book,

Black Reconstruction in America (1935), Du Bois incisively

characterized whiteness as being accompanied by a “public

and psychological wage,” which has been interpreted to

mean, in part, that white privilege validates and is vali-

dated by racism (Hartman, 2004, p. 24). Du Bois’ scholar-

ship laid the foundation for subsequent waves of critical

whiteness studies, which included legal scholar and critical

race theorist Cheryl Harris’ paper, “Whiteness as Property”

published in 1993. This seminal work argued racial iden-

tity and property are intricately related concepts and that

the law protects whiteness as property. Annamma (2015)

wrote is critical for white teachers to understand and that

white teachers should be taught theories of race, racism,

and inequities in training.

Scholarship focused on decentering whiteness examines

how white people understand and acknowledge their own

privilege, as well as how white supremacy influences racial

injustices within the environments and systems we occupy

(Matias & Boucher, 2021). This approach places the unlearn-

ing and decentering of whiteness on white people who often

experience difficulties acknowledging their privilege and

contributions to white supremacy (Matias & Boucher, 2021).

This, again, has been argued to extend to how policy is

formed and enacted, specifically in schools. Given that the

majority the K–12 educator workforce comprises of indi-

viduals identifying as white (Spiegelman, 2020), both critical

race theory and critical whiteness studies inspired work in

antiracist education including PD for teachers (Lynch,

2018). Antiracism education PDs for teachers are pivotal

since many teachers enter the workforce completely unaware

of racism and how their own whiteness influences educa-

tional spaces (Flintoff etal., 2015; Galman etal., 2010).

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 3

ANTIRACISM TEACHER PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

As many teachers enter the field without awareness (or

with outright resistance) to the ways in which racism

informs educational pedagogy, practice, and policy

(Wynter-Hoyte et al., 2019), antiracism teacher PD is

critical to ensure all students, especially those from mar-

ginalized communities, can access a high-quality educa-

tion in a safe and affirming environment (Lawrence &

Tatum, 2004; Matias, 2013; Utt & Tochluk, 2020).

Antiracism teacher PD is rooted and aligned with trans-

formative educational scholarship by leaders such as

James Banks and Sonia Neito (multicultural education),

Beverly Tatum (racial identity development and the class-

room), Geneva Gay (culturally responsive teaching), Gloria

Ladson-Billings (culturally relevant pedagogy), and Django

Paris (culturally sustaining pedagogy). It is race-centered,

encouraging race-intentionality (or explicit engagement

with topics of race and racism; Chang-Bacon, 2022). As

described by St. Denis (2007), “antiracist education

explores the practices, processes, and ideologies of racial-

ization, which includes a study of not only how racism

disadvantages some but also how racism advantages oth-

ers, and how whiteness gets produced and constructed

as superior” (p. 1087).

Researchers emphasize the importance of antiracism

and social justice within teacher training (e.g., Gorski,

2016; Picower & Kohli, 2017; Utt & Tochluk, 2020).

Specifically, preservice teacher training programs should

educate teachers on recognizing race and racism and

engaging in critical self-reflection on how their own racial

identities influence the classroom environment. However,

preservice teacher education may fall short of offering

comprehensive training on race and racism, or may be

silent on topics related to social justice, diversity, inclusion,

and antiracism (Morgan, 2022). This creates barriers for

teachers to actively decenter whiteness and promote anti-

racism in their pedagogy unless in-service PD opportu-

nities are provided. School leaders are encouraged to

develop a comprehensive professional development plan

to support educators’ (specifically white educators’) under-

standing of racism, the harm it causes, and how whiteness

maintains racist structures, policies, and practices.

There is not currently a consensus in the literature on

how teacher professional development focused on race

and racism should be structured and what the outcomes

might be. In consideration of available research and guid-

ance, it may be helpful to consider what

Knowles etal. (2005) theorized as the six assumptions

of andragogy (i.e., adult learning). Specifically, they pro-

posed that when designing adult learning opportunities,

it is important to (1) explain why learning is necessary

(i.e., the purpose), (2) consider the learner’s self-concept

(and encourage the learner to be responsible for their own

decisions in the learning process), (3) connect learning to

the learner’s life experiences, (4) consider the learner’s

readiness to learn and design engaging material, (5) incor

porate authentic learning opportunities into training or

teaching, and (6) consider the adult’s motivation to learn.

For professional development focused on race and rac-

ism, Carter etal. (2020) leveraged these assumptions by

proposing that in-service professional development is led

by a trained facilitator who understands the community’s

desired outcomes, and conveys to educators that to achieve

growth and collective healing, learning may cause discom-

fort. This discomfort occurs as a result of moving beyond

didactic training models to incorporating active learning

activities such as (a) critical self-reflection (e.g., journal-

ing), (b) authentic and reflective race-centered community

dialogue, (c) goal-setting to transform instructional prac-

tice, or (d) accountability to grow reciprocal partnerships

with families and community partners.

Others have discouraged discomfort in lieu of cultivat-

ing safe spaces for white teachers to self-interrogate their

complicity with racism (Scott & Mumford, 2007) or learn

strategies for disrupting their own bias (McIntosh etal.,

2014). These may be critical for educators in the early

stages of their white racial identity development (Helms,

1990), or those just learning to recognize racism and white

privilege, as well as respond to racial situations in their

environment. Still others encourage using modalities such

as film, literature, or other forms of art to depict the every-

day experience of racism to white teachers. This may cen-

ter counter-narratives (Matias, 2013), but Hambacher and

Ginn (2021) warn the purpose should not be to “exploit

the… stories of historically marginalized peoples in an

attempt to cultivate a social justice or advocacy orientation

in white [teachers] (p. 338).”

PURPOSE OF SYNTHESIS

As there are various approaches suggested as to how to

conduct in-service PD on race and racism in schools, but

has (to our knowledge) been no systematic review on the

topic, we endeavored to synthesize common training fea-

tures and the outcome of PDs delivered in existing studies.

Specifically, we sought to review existing studies to deter-

mine (a) who participated in and facilitated training, (b)

where and how long training occurred, (c) what specific

topics and activities were incorporated into training, and

(d) what outcomes were examined to evidence a change

or impact. The implications of the current findings might

inform future research and subsequent action in practice

and policy making.

4 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

METHOD

Research Team and Positionality

The research team consisted of eight individuals. The first

author identifies as a white, cisgender female university

professor. The second author is a white, cisgender male doc-

toral student. The third author is a biracial Black, cisgender

female graduate student. The fourth author is a Latinx,

nonbinary postdoctoral fellow. The fifth author is a white,

cisgender male doctoral student. The sixth author is a white,

cisgender female doctoral student. The seventh author is a

Cape Verdean Black female doctoral student. The eighth

author is a white, cisgender male university professor. As

we collectively represent privileged and marginalized iden-

tities, we vary in our personal experience with racism,

oppression, and injustice. All authors value the importance

of advancing racial equity in schools through staff training

and acknowledge our positionality as influencing how we

conceptualized the research described herein.

Study Identification Procedures

Both peer-reviewed journal and dissertation studies were

included in the review. Authors searched five educational and

social science databases (ERIC, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES,

Education Full Text, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses)

with the following search terms: “professional development”

OR “training” OR “coaching” OR “in-service” AND

“ antiracism” OR “antiracism” OR “antibias” OR “ antiprejudice”

OR “antioppression” OR “racial justice” OR “equity” OR “div-

ers*” OR “antistereotyping” OR “social justice” OR “educa-

tional justice” OR “critical consciousness” OR “race” OR

“raci*” OR “multicultural” OR “diversity” OR “culture” AND

“teacher*” OR “educator*” OR “school*.” Overall, the search

produced 29,394 hits (see the PRISMA diagram in Figure 1),

and after removing duplicates, 22,269 studies with relevant

titles and abstracts were screened for inclusion. The research

team used an online platform to screen studies (Covidence,

2021). Each title and abstract were screened by two members

of the research team. If there was a disagreement regarding

screening criteria, the first author reviewed the study and

reconciled the disagreement. Due to this review’s focus on

racism in the U.S., studies were required to have occurred in

the U.S. and be published in English. The result of this pre-

liminary screening produced 362 candidate studies for

retrieval.

Screening

The 362 candidate studies were retrieved and further

screened using the following criteria. First, the study had

to include training provided in a K–12 educational context

(i.e., not at a professional conference, university, or other

setting). Second, the training had to be provided to edu-

cators (i.e., school-based staff such as teachers, school

psychologists; not other vested partners such as parents

or students). Third, the training had to be race-intentional,

meaning it addressed race or racism explicitly, for the pur-

pose of changing participants’ attitudes, beliefs, or actions

(i.e., not just elicit attitudes). Studies focused solely on

inequities related to other variables (e.g., socioeconomic

status) were not included. Finally, researchers had to ana-

lyze an outcome of the training (e.g., qualitative themes,

quantitative change in knowledge) and, therefore, theo-

retical and position papers were ineligible. Studies that

were not screened into the review were typically excluded

because no PD was offered, the training provided was not

race-intentional, or the research occurred outside of a

K–12 school (see Figure 1). As a result, 103 studies were

read in depth by at least two members of the research team

to assess final eligibility and inclusion. In total, 38 studies

were coded and included in the analysis.

Coding

The first author created a coding manual to document the

(a) type of training provided, (b) topics and foci addressed,

and (e) whether the training evidenced a change or impact.

Items were created to collect information to answer each

research question. For instance, to answer the first research

question about the type of training provided in studies

reviewed, the first author generated items to code who

provided the training, the type of training program imple-

mented, length and duration of training, as well as types

of activities between training sessions. All codes are

described in the sections that follow. The first author mod-

eled the manual after those used in previous systematic

reviews (Fallon et al., 2021; Maggin etal., 2012) and sent

it to the second and last author for feedback. The finalized

manual used in the project is available on the project’s

Open Science Framework project page at https://osf.

io/8fqjb/?view_only=a80f20a315b34eeebb43907

e477a5762.

Participants and Trainers

For each study in the review, coders recorded the number

of staff participants who received training and the per-

centage of REM staff within each training cohort. Coders

also noted if the PD was led by trainers external (e.g., con-

sultant, university researcher) or internal (e.g., principal,

school staff) to the school. In addition, coders documented

whether training recipients were staff within a single

school or entire district.

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 5

Setting

Coders noted the (a) urbanicity of the school community,

(b) type of school (i.e., public, private, charter), (c) grade

level (i.e., elementary, middle, high school), and (d) per-

centage of REM students within the training environment

(i.e., school, district).

Training Features

Coders also documented the number of training sessions,

the duration (e.g., hours), and length (e.g., weeks) of train-

ing sessions. Coders noted topics covered and the materi-

als and activities incorporated into sessions. Finally, coders

documented the methodology and specific study findings

related to training provided.

Coder Training

The first and second author provided training to six cod-

ers (third through eighth authors). During the training,

each item within the manual was reviewed. Then, the

coders reviewed a sample study that the first author

coded using the manual. The first author subsequently

answered all questions and before coders practiced inde-

pendently with a sample study. The goal of the indepen-

dent practice was achieving >90% agreement with the

first author. Agreement was calculated by dividing the

number of agreements by the number of all possible

agreements and converting that value to a percentage.

Agreement across raters exceeded criterion at 98.17%.

The team met once more to discuss any discrepancies

Figure 1. PRISMA Flowchart for Review Procedures

6 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

and build consensus before coders proceeded to rate all

eligible studies independently.

Interrater Agreement

Prior to the start of coding, 33% of studies were randomly

selected to be double coded for the purpose of calculating

interrater agreement. Overall, interrater agreement ranged

from 80.12−100% and averaged 92.22% across the studies.

Coding discrepancies were reviewed among the team until

consensus was reached.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequency counts, percentages)

were used to summarize coding variables across the 38

studies that met inclusionary criteria. Authors then met

to collaboratively synthesize the data and interpret results

using the lenses of critical race theory and whiteness to

identify critical findings and devise recommendations for

implications to research and practice.

RESULTS

Below, we summarize results of all coded studies, specifi-

cally the participants, trainers, and setting (see Table 1) as

well as training features and impact (see Table 2).

Study Participants and Trainers

Although all trainings involved school staff, the number

of study participants varied, ranging from 3 to 71. Some

authors reported the number of all staff trained whereas

other authors reported the number in the study’s sample

(i.e., a subset of all staff). In some cases, both numbers

were reported (n = 10, 26.31%). Half of the studies

(n = 19, 50.00%) included 10 or fewer participants. Of

the 34 papers that reported the racial and ethnic back-

ground of staff members, on average, 35.29% of staff

identified as being racially or ethnically minoritized. In

nine papers (23.68%), all staff reported being white.

Trainers were more often external (n = 23, 60.52%) than

internal (n = 14, 36.84%) to the school building or school

district. External trainers were frequently researchers

(n = 14, 36.84%) or consultants (n = 9, 23.68%) to the par-

ticipating school or district. Internal trainers were most

often school administrators (n = 9, 23.68%) or other build-

ing staff (n = 6, 15.79%) such as teachers or instructional

coaches. Training audiences were more often within a

single school (n = 22; 57.89%) than the broader school

district (n = 16, 42.11%)

Setting

Over half of the studies occurred in urban (n = 20, 52.63%),

public (n = 33, 86.84%), elementary (n = 29, 76.32%) schools.

For studies that reported student demographic data (n = 25;

63.16%), 16.00% of study schools included 0-25% REM

students, 12.00% of study schools included 26-50%

REM students, 36.00% of study schools included 51-75%

REM students, and 36.00% of study schools included

greater than 75% REM youth.

Training Features

For studies that reported the frequency of training sessions

(n = 35; 92.11%), the frequency ranged from 3–30 sessions,

averaging 8.24 sessions (SD = 5.66 sessions) across studies.

For studies that reported the duration of training sessions

in hours (n = 28; 73.68%), the duration ranged from

1–7 hours per session, averaging 2.99 hours (SD = 2.10 hours)

per session across studies. Treatment dosage was calculated

for studies that reported both frequency and duration of

training sessions (n = 28; 73.68%) by multiplying the two

numbers together. Dosage ranged from 5–30 hours of train-

ing total, averaging 17.52 hours (SD = 8.35 hours) of total

training hours across studies. Of the 23 studies (60.53%)

that reported the scheduling of training sessions, most were

at least monthly (n = 31; 81.58%).

Although all trainings focused on race, racism and anti-

racism, many studies also stated an explicit focus on racial

identity (n = 22; 57.89%), racial privilege (n = 18; 47.39%),

cultural and linguistic diversity (n = 11; 28.95%), dispari-

ties in school discipline (n = 10; 26.32%), equity (n = 8;

21.05%), oppression (n = 6; 15.79%), social justice (n = 4;

10.53%), and power imbalance (n = 2; 5.3%). Of the 36

studies that included a description of the materials and

activities involved in the PD provided, most studies

reported trainings that incorporating discussion and dia-

logue (n = 33; 91.67%), book or article readings (n = 15;

41.67%), handouts or worksheets (n = 14; 38.89%), teach-

ing or direct instruction (n = 12; 33.33%), and videos or

film(s) (n = 8; 22.22%). Still other papers reported partic-

ipants engaged in journaling (n = 6; 16.67%), role playing

or team building activities (n = 5; 13.89%), assignments

(n = 4; 11.11%), received coaching and feedback on their

classroom practice (n = 4; 11.11%), and/or listened to guest

speakers (n = 3; 8.33%).

Study Methods and Findings

Of the 36 qualitative (n = 28) and mixed methods (n = 8)

studies, most incorporated participant interviews to gauge

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 7

Table 1. Participants and Settings

Participants Setting Trainer

# Staff (N) % REM Staff Urbanicity Type of School Grade Level % REM Students Trainer Type Trainer Audience

Qualitative Studies

Acosta (2020) 30 (13) 77% Urban Public N/R N/R External

(Consultant)

District-based

Allen and FitzGerald

(2017)

5 40% Urban Public E 85% No Trainer (PLC) School-based

Baker (2012) 5 0% Urban Public E 67% External

(Researcher)

District-based

Blaisdell (2018) 26 66% Urban Public E 56% External

(Consultant)

School-based

Coles-Ritchie and Smith

(2017)

4 50% Urban Public E 57% Internal (School

Staff)

District-based

Crabtree (2020) 7 0% Urban Public H 39% External

(Researcher)

District-based

Delano-Oriaran and

Meidl (2013)

28 0% N/R Public N/R N/R External

(Researcher)

District-wide

Elliott (1996) 11 (8) 100% Suburban Public E, M, H N/R External

(Consultants)

District-based

Flynn (2007) 10 40% Suburban Public H N/R External

(Consultant)

School-based

Garcia (2016) 4 N/R Urban Public M 97% Internal (Principal) School-based

Gaskew (2017) 50 (8) N/R Urban Public E 100%, 71% Internal (Principals) School-based

Gies (2010) 17 (14) 29% Suburban Public E, M, H 20.1% External

(Consultant)

District-based

Hamlin (2019) 4 25% Suburban Public E N/R Internal (School

Staff)

District-based

Harrison (2019) 3 0% Suburban Public E 70% Internal (Coach) District-based

Hoard (2017) 4 50% Urban Charter H 100% External

(Researcher)

School-based

Hyland (2000) 24 21% Urban Public E N/R External

(Researcher)

School-based

Johnson (2016) 4 50% Suburban Public E, M, H N/R External

(Researcher)

District-based

Koster (2006) 5 0% Suburban Public E N/R Internal (School

Staff)

School-based

Marcy (2010) 28 (10) 0% Urban Charter E 58.3% Internal (School

Staff)

School-based

Palmer and Louis (2017) 29 N/R Suburban Public M, H N/R External

(Consultant)

District-based

Roberts (2002) 7 71% Urban Public E 99% External

(Researcher)

School-based

Sadler (2000) 6 83% Urban Public E N/R External

(Consultant)

School-based

Schniedewind (2005) 50 (5) 40% Rural Public E, M, H 14% External

(Consultant)

District-based

Shaw (2020) 65 (5) 0% Urban N/R E, M, H N/R External

(Researcher)

School-based

Szech (2019) 9 33% Suburban Public E 75% External

(Researcher)

School-based

West (2007) 9 100% Urban Public E 99.80% Internal (Asst

Principal)

School-based

Young (2011) 7 29% Urban Public E 88% External

(Researcher)

School-based

Mixed Methods Studies

Affolter (2017) 28 38% Urban Public E 20% External

(Researcher)

District-based

Aiyedun (2019) 71 (47) 57% Urban Charter E, M N/R Internal (Teacher) School-based

Brady (2020) 12 17% Urban Charter E, M, H 72.8% Internal (Principal) School-based

Braun (2019) 9 11% N/R Public E 75% Internal (School

Team)

School-based

Casey (2013) 6 0% Suburban Public E, H 32% Ex ternal

(Researcher)

District-based

Cooper (2014) 5 60% Urban Public E, M 100% External

(Researcher)

School-based

Frentress (2014) 25 (14) 32% N/R Public E N/R External

(Researcher)

School-based

Jewett (2020) 12 0% Suburban Public M 62.2% Internal (Asst

Principal)

School-based

Sumner (2018) 20 (7) N/R Suburban Public M 39% Internal (Asst

Principal)

School-based

Quantitative Studies

Tatum (2000) 83 15% N/R Public E, M, H 24% External

(Consultant)

District-based

Washington (1981) 49 49% Rural Public E N/R Internal (District) Distric t-based

Note. Studies with two numbers in the Staff Participant column represent the total staff trained and, in parenthesis, the total staff who participated in the study.

8 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

Table 2. Training Features

Training Length Duration Example Training Topics Example Activities and Materials Findings

Qualitative Studies

Acosta (2020) 5 five-hour sessions Oppression, racial literacy, identity,

positionality, trauma-informed

education, self-care

Workshop lessons, video clips, readings,

discussions; activities

Results from semi-structured interviews and focus groups

indicated critical consciousness and racial literacy helped

construct a healing praxis which built community and

helped process racialized stress.

Allen and FitzGerald

(2017)

7 sessions Cultural care, social justice practices,

racism, equity, school climate

Discussions, reflections, activities Results from semi-structured interviews and permanent

product analysis indicated recognizing students’ race

is important for demonstrating care, supporting

student behavior, as well as improving school climate.

Baker (2012) Monthly seminars for four years Racism, gender, cultural sensitivity, family

partnerships, school climate

Discussions, team building, reflection, training

modules

Results from semi-structured interviews and a focus

group indicated white lead teachers maintained an

overt antiracist ideology but did not accept white

privilege nor believed they had benefited from it.

Blaisdell (2018) Monthly training Racism, equity Discussions Results from analysis of field notes and artifacts indicated

that white teachers resisted racial equity work based

on discomfort whereas teachers of color were able to

reframe discomfort positively. Also, equity coaching

was helpful in facilitating race-based discussions.

Coles-Ritchie and Smith

(2017)

Weekly meetings for 3 years Racial identity, racial disparities, racism in

schools, race and achievement, how

to discuss race

Workshops, discussion, mentoring Results from semi-structured interviews indicated teachers’

lived racial experiences impacted their approach to

conversations about race (e.g., fear, fatigue). Courageous

Conversations1 provided a ‘new language’ and created

an open space for race talk.

Crabtree (2020) 4-day workshop Racial identity, privilege, oppression,

inequity in science, health disparities,

epigenetics

Worksheets, lessons, discussions, data and map

activities, small group work

Results from interviews, audio recordings of workshop

sessions, and document review indicated participants

found value in understanding systemic inequities,

defining, and acknowledging race, and teaching as

liberation in their delivery of science instruction.

Delano-Oriaran and

Meidl (2013)

4 weekly two-hour sessions Race, racism, and racial identity,

Whiteness

Discussions, readings Results from participant book discussions indicated they

were motivated to seek cross-cultural relationships

and request more training to apply knowledge.

Experienced white racial identity awareness.

Elliott (1996) 11 three-hour sessions and 3

seven-hour sessions

Racial identity, school desegregation,

racial disparities, racism in schools,

White privilege

Handouts, worksheets, videos, lessons,

discussions, speakers, reflections

Results from interviews indicated Black educators had

positive PD experiences, but also the emotional costs

of participation were high. They reported PD should

by comprehensive and explicitly address white

privilege, racial identity theory, and the institutional

and interpersonal dynamics that perpetuate racism.

Flynn (2007) 5 three-hour afterschool sessions Racial identity, White privilege, racism in

schools

Watched three major films centering race,

discussions, journaling

Results from interviews and group film discussions

indicated participants became more comfortable with

having discussions about race upon watching films but

struggled to reflect and discuss whiteness.

Garcia (2016) 10 two-hour sessions Racism, bias, culturally relevant

pedagogy, affirming language, critical

literacy

Listening to HipHop, videos, role play,

speakers, journaling, meditation, coaching

Results from interviews indicated participants’ increased

self-awareness as well as increased (a) awareness of other

cultures, (b) emphasis on student voice, and cultural

relevance, and (c) sense of classroom community.

Gaskew (2017) 4 monthly sessions; 3–6 hours each Culture, language, racial identity,

strengths-based teaching,

multicultural awareness

Handouts, worksheets, discussions, lessons,

reflections

Results from semi-structured interviews and teacher

reflections indicated participants reported heightened

awareness of themselves and culture, more

understanding of race and language, changes in

instructional practice, and more interest in CRP.

(Continued)

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 9

Gies (2010) 2 full- and 5 half-days over nine

months

Institutional racism, racial identity,

cultural competency

Guest speakers, activities, role play, feedback Results from semi-structured interviews, focus groups

and observation indicated participants made shifts in

their perceptions and practices, emphasizing the

importance of trust and safety in the training space.

Hamlin (2019) Six 1.5 hour sessions Deconstructing Whiteness, identifying

bias, cultural relevance

Reflections, lesson planning, affinity group Results from semi-structured interviews indicated that

participants rationalized race avoidance in different

ways based on their own identity and experience.

Harrison (2019) Six two-hour sessions over three

months

Deconstructing Whiteness, vulnerability Readings, reflections, discussions, coaching Results from semi-structured interviews indicated that

participants were able to identify self-biases and biases

observed between white teachers and students of color.

Hoard (2017) 20 weekly one-hour sessions Intersectionality, critical race theory,

science department, privilege

Readings, discussions, written reflections Results from participant interviews and artifacts indicate

teachers reflected on their identity and positionality

in relation to STEM and how that could impact their

students’ learning and experience in class.

Hyland (2000) Weekly two- hour sessions for

16 weeks

Racial disparities, CLD students, racism,

White privilege

Handouts, readings, discussions, reflections Results from semi-structured interviews, observations

and document review indicated many teachers were

risk-takers (i.e., challenging race politics); and

recognized racist reactions to antiracist progress.

Jewett (2020) Twice a month for six months Racial identity, White privilege,

microaggressions

Discussions Results from self-assessments and interviews indicated

participants reported personal growth in understanding

race relations, microaggressions, bias, white privilege,

hegemony, and barriers.

Johnson (2016) Five 3-hour sessions African American literacy, power

dynamics, identity

Readings, discussion, activities Results from semi-structured interviews included

participants’ valuing student-teacher relationships,

identities, and strong literacy instruction.

Koster (2006) 10 sessions in 6 months White privilege, children’s awareness of

racism

Study group, discussions, reflection Results from observation and informal interviews

included participants engaged in action to implement

antiracist instruction in classrooms.

Marcy (2010) 10 monthly, hour long sessions Racism in schools, White privilege, racial

disparities, equity, student voice

Readings, discussions, reflections, field trip Results from participant observations and interviews

indicated that teachers marginalized conversations

abou t race, expressed racial contradictions, and

espoused deficit thinking about families of color.

Palmer and Louis (2017) Four sessions/year for many years Racial equity, institutional racism, White

privilege

Lessons, discussions Results from semi-structured interviews indicated

participants reported increased understanding and

decreased fear talking about race; felt shared

ownership of equity work; noted changes in discourse,

perspectives, beliefs, and individual practice.

Roberts (2002) Monthly 1.5 hour sessions for six

months

Racism in schools, Black scholars,

African-centered pedagogy

Handouts, readings, discussions, study groups Results from interviews indicated participants described

being agents of change vs. defenders of status quo.

Also, study groups sought to challenge and question

mainstream Eurocentric education.

Sadler (2000) 5, three-hour workshops Racial identity, Africana curricula, racially

responsive instruction

Guided planning time, performance feedback Results from interviews indicated participants thought

PD helped with implementation of an Africana

curriculum and racially responsive teaching; teachers’

willingness to change was an important factor.

Schniedewind (2005) 30-hour sessions Racial identity, White racism, White

privilege

Discussions, readings, videos Results from participant discussions indicated PD

encouraged racial consciousness and challenging of

white privilege and racism.

Shaw (2020) 5 sessions; 3-6 hours each Privilege; ethnocentrism, racism, systemic

inequity

Guest speakers; direct instruction; discussions;

performance activities

Results from participant interviews and document

review indicated participants reporting gaining

sociopolitical and racial consciousness but wanting

‘permission’ to deviate from Eurocentric discourses

to engage in culturally responsive teaching.

(Continued)

Table 2. continued

10 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

Szech (2019) Five 2-4 hour monthly sessions Racism, power dynamics, racial identity Videos, journals, discussion, home visits Results indicated teachers reflected on their own

privilege, defining whiteness, and enacted some

change to classroom practice and instruction.

West (2007) 21 weekly sessions Intersectionality, racial identity, White

privilege

Worksheets, readings, discussions Results from participant interviews indicated leaders

should act in the interests of students and teachers, be

understanding and seek feedback.

Young (2011) 8 monthly sessions Racial identity; White privilege; racism in

Schools

Readings, dialogues Results from participant interviews indicated most

teachers’ beliefs about their own racism did not

change while some did recognize their ‘unintentional

racism’ and exhibited a growing critical consciousness.

Mixed Methods Studies

Affolter (2017) 6 two-hour sessions Culturally responsive teaching, antibias

curriculum

Discussions; journaling Results from participant interviews and artifacts

indicated participants used more culturally responsive

teaching strategies and were more self-aware and

comfortable engaging in “difficult conversations.”

Aiyedun (2019) A series of sessions over 2 years White privilege, culturally and

linguistically diverse students

Videos; handouts and worksheets, discussions Results from participant survey data indicated

respondents reported transforming toward greater

cultural competence and perceptions of a changing

school climate, but also the continued need for

training staff.

Brady (2020) 10 one-hour sessions over 5 months Personal biases, cultural awareness,

family outreach

Direct instruction, discussions, reflection Results from surveys and semi-structured interviews

indicated participants’ increased reflection on

personal bias, awareness of cultural backgrounds,

and need for culturally responsive instruction.

Braun (2019)30 min/ month;

4 days/year

Racism, prejudice, equity Student data, discussion Results from semi-structured interviews and achievement

data indicated training impacted teacher self-concept

and practice but not in a way that reduced racial

academic achievement inequities.

Casey (2013) 8 two-hour sessions White privilege, identity development,

culturally responsive teaching, social

dominance

Discussions, reflections, group activities Results from journal reflections, interviews, and surveys

of participants indicated meaningful changes on

scores of awareness of racial privilege, institutional

racism, and blatant racism. Major qualitative themes

included the need for change and community.

Cooper (2014) 3 two-hour sessions Racism, White privilege Videos; discussions; written reflections Results from surveys and interviews indicated the

participants reported the training helped them know

and respect students’ culture, but lesson plans showed

little change in their practice.

Frentress (2014) 6 weekly 2-hour sessions Uniting to Understand Racism Program;

racial identity, privilege

Videos, worksheets, discussions, readings Results from surveys and interviews indicated participants

reported improved understanding of institutional

racism, bias and privilege, setting higher student

expectations, and better family relationships.

Sumner (2018) 12 biweekly, sessions Racial identity, implicit biases,

self-awareness

Discussions, readings Results from surveys and focus groups indicated

participants reported increased cultural competence

and better interactions with families.

Quantitative Studies

Tatum (2000) N/R Privilege, internalized oppression, racial

identity

Readings, action planning, reflection papers Results from permanent product analysis (i.e., action

plans) indicated 56% of participants intended to

change their curricula to be more representative, 30%

to change relationships with students and families.

Washington (1981) 5-day workshop White consciousness, racial self-concept Videos, audiotapes, discussions Pre/post survey data indicated minimal changes in

antiracist attitudes; Black teachers responded more

favorably than white teachers.

Table 2. continued

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 11

the impact of the antiracism training provided (n = 32;

88.89%). Some incorporated other qualitative methods such

as thematic analysis of focus groups (n = 4; 11.11%), perma-

nent products, artifacts, or documents (n = 8; 22.22%),

training discussion transcripts (n = 4; 11.11%), participants’

self-reflections and journaling (n = 3; 8.33%), as well as

observations and field notes (n = 5; 13.89%). Of the 10 quan-

titative (n = 2) and mixed methods (n = 8) studies reviewed,

most incorporated the analysis of survey (n = 8; 80.00%) or

student data (n = 2; 20.00%) to evaluate the impact of training.

Across studies, a variety of outcomes were examined to

evidence a change or impact. Several studies stated par-

ticipants reported increased critical consciousness (n = 15;

39.47%), improved racial literacy (n = 8; 21.05%), and a

greater awareness of their identity and positionality (n = 7;

18.42%). Many studies indicated participants reported an

increased interest in and use of culturally responsive prac-

tices (n = 7; 18.42%) and/or reported the desire to change

their classroom practice to reduce disparities and advance

equity (n = 7; 18.42%). In other studies, the results indi-

cated that participants gained an understanding of the

importance of recognizing students’ race to demonstrate

care, support behavior, and improve school and classroom

climate (n = 6; 15.79%). In addition, several studies indi-

cated participants reported a change in their thinking

(n = 5; 13.16%) or encouraged their adoption of an overt

antiracist ideology (n = 4; 10.52%). Some studies’ results

indicated participants reported being more open to con-

versations about race (n = 3; 7.89%). Still other studies

reported participants wanting to invest energy in building

relationships with students and families (n = 4; 10.52%),

incorporate student voice (n = 1; 2.63%), and construct a

healing praxis in their classrooms (n = 1; 2.63%). In two

studies, results indicated that participants explicitly

expressed an interest in additional training (n = 2; 5.26%).

For participants who identified as holding minoritized

identities, some reported that training helped process

racialized stress (n = 1; 2.63%), whereas others reported

that the emotional cost of participation in these training

sessions was high (n = 1; 2.63%). This coincides with white

educators reporting they were uncomfortable or struggled

through the training (n = 5; 13.16%) or outright resisted

training content (n = 4; 10.52%). None of the papers

reviewed offered clear evidence of the impact on student

outcomes, which is an area for future research and analysis.

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this review was to synthesize studies of

in-service teacher training focused on race and racism.

Below, we discuss study characteristics, a synthesis of

study findings, as well as implications and limitations to

the review.

Study Characteristics

Most studies reviewed used a qualitative or mixed method

design. We located only two quantitative papers that met

our inclusion criteria. Although we did not conduct a for-

mal review of study quality, results indicated that, across

studies, most (a) educator participants were white and

trained by an external consultant or researcher, (b) train-

ing took place in urban, public, elementary schools, and

youth. Participants received, on average, 8.24 training ses-

sions, with sessions averaging 2.99 hours in length, and a

mean total dosage of 17.52 hours of training. Training

most frequently occurred once per month.

All trainings centered topics of race and racism, yet

also incorporated topics such as identity (e.g., Sadler,

2000; Szech, 2019; West, 2007), positionality (e.g., Acosta,

2020; Hoard, 2017), racial privilege (e.g., Casey, 2013;

Jewett, 2020; Koster, 2006; Palmer & Louis, 2017), diver-

sity (e.g., Sumner, 2018), equity (e.g., Marcy, 2010; Shaw,

2020), and social justice (e.g., Allen & FitzGerald, 2017).

Aligned with recommendations by Carter etal. (2020),

every PD in the studies reviewed encouraged active learn-

ing activities (e.g., discussion, trust-building tasks, jour-

naling; see Garcia, 2016; Gies, 2010) to promote critical

self-reflection, authentic race-centered community dia-

logue, and accountability for change. There were no stud-

ies in which only didactic training or instruction occurred.

Emerging themes from studies using qualitative meth-

ods frequently included descriptions of participants’ expe-

riences, such as improvements in their own racial literacy

(e.g., Acosta, 2020), understanding their racial identity (e.g.,

Delano-Oriaran & Meidl, 2013; Elliott, 1996; Hoard, 2017),

valuing students’ identities (e.g., Johnson, 2016), building

relationships with families (e.g., Frentress, 2014), and incor-

porating culturally responsive teaching practices in the

classroom (e.g., Affolter, 2017). Perhaps most notably, some

participants reported how trainings changed their thinking

(e.g., Aiyedun, 2019), encouraged their openness to talking

about race (e.g., Coles-Ritchie & Smith, 2017), and pro-

pelled a commitment to antiracist ideology (e.g., Baker,

2012; Koster, 2006). Specifically, some described a desire

to construct a healing praxis (Acosta, 2020) and a culture

of care in their classrooms (e.g., Allen & FitzGerald, 2017),

as well as wanting more training to inspire concrete change

in their classrooms and schools (e.g., Aiyedun, 2019;

Delano-Oriaran & Meidl, 2013). However, these positive

outcomes were not a universal finding. We discuss this and

other takeaway points from a synthesis of studies below.

Synthesis of Findings

Based on findings from the current review, three key take-

away points are evident. First, participants’ perceptions of

12 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

training were inconsistent, especially for white educators

who made up most study samples in the papers reviewed.

As described above, many white teachers reported that

antiracist training helped them to increase their racial

consciousness (Frentress, 2014; Gies, 2010; Jewett, 2020;

Sh aw, 2020) and made them feel more comfortable talking

about race (Palmer & Louis, 2017). Yet many other white

teachers outright resisted conversations about race (Baker,

2012; Flynn, 2007), rationalized race avoidance (Hamlin,

2019), struggled to engage in conversation authentically

due to discomfort (Flynn, 2007), or simply reported no

change in their beliefs about their own perpetuation of

racism after training (Young, 2011). Critical race theorists

might argue this finding is unsurprising as white teachers

may have little incentive to disrupt or eradicate racism

based on their material and psychological benefit. Further,

critical race theorists argue that educational spaces are

constructed to protect whiteness.

As many teachers enter the profession completely

unaware of racism and how their own whiteness influences

educational spaces (Flintoff etal., 2015; Galman et al.,

2010), it may be critical to consider Knowles etal. (2005)

theory of adult learning and be intentional in explaining

why learning is necessary, devoting time to promoting

learners’ readiness to engage in training. It may also be

that resistant participants are just beginning their racial

identity development (Helms, 1990), a time characterized

by viewing whiteness as “normal” and a lack of under-

standing racism and oppressive systems. It is important to

meet teachers where they are to engage in this work, and

it may be critical to have an expert facilitator lead difficult

yet important conversations (Aiyedun, 2019; Delano-

Oriaran & Meidl, 2013).

This leads to our second takeaway point. Findings

from studies reviewed indicated conversations about

race brought up intense emotions (anger, fear, fatigue;

Coles-Ritchie & Smith, 2017; Washington, 1981), so

trust and safety are important to the training space

(Gies, 2010). This is critical for a myriad of reasons, two

being to (a) prevent or ameliorate the racialized stress

and emotional cost of participation for REM educators,

and (b) promote authentic engagement in training by

white educators as they explore their whiteness, privi-

lege, and perpetuation of racism. An expert facilitator

can support creating these spaces, but school leadership

must also message the importance of this work (West,

2007) and prioritize the resources necessary to do this

work well (Elliott, 1996). Trust is built over time, and

having a comprehensive professional development plan

(e.g., ongoing monthly training) may build these con-

versations and resultant action into the culture of the

school, promoting shared ownership of both the work

and progress (Palmer & Louis, 2017).

Our third takeaway point is the importance of moving

conversation and learning to action, especially for white

educators (Washington, 1981). Cooper (2014) noted this

did not occur naturally in their study; participants reported

that professional development helped them know and

respect students’ culture, but little change was observed in

teachers’ lesson planning and instruction as a result. Some

teachers reported wanting ‘permission’ from school lead-

ership to deviate from Eurocentric pedagogy and engage

authentically in culturally responsive teaching (Shaw,

2020). Other trainees failed to take action to challenge

oppressive institutional policy (e.g., discipline codes) as

they did not think it was in their sphere of influence

(Roberts, 2002).

Leadership can message to educators how and why to

take action, as well as create an environment which prior-

itizes support for educators to make change. Schools can

create educator study groups, accountability groups, or

professional learning communities (PLCs) to reflect and

work together toward individual and collective action

(Allen & FitzGerald, 2017; Koster, 2006). In these spaces,

teachers might be prompted to reflect on their identity and

positionality in relation to their content area (e.g., STEM;

Hoard, 2017) and use this reflection to change their ped-

agogy. These groups can be supplemented with individu-

alized coaching for educators who require more support

(Harrison, 2019), and school leadership could require

evidence of change (e.g., implementation of culturally

responsive teaching strategies) as a result of participation

in training activities (Affolter, 2017; Delano-Oriaran &

Meidl, 2013).

Implications

Implications for Research

The current review highlights the need for continued

research regarding antiracism PD, as several gaps in

knowledge remain. One important gap to prioritize in

future research is how minoritized individuals experience

antiracism training. Although one study reviewed repor-

ted that training helped REM participants to process racial

stress, another described the high emotional toll of par-

ticipation. Research related to minoritized individuals’

experience in anti racism training would be critical to drive

future directions for practice, ideally reducing or amelio-

rating harm that can occur in these contexts. This research

should center the voice of minoritized individuals and be

used to guide the creation of safe training spaces for

minoritized educators who too often bear the undue

burden and stress related to leading or participating in

antiracism training. Such recommendations would benefit

school psychology programs and trainers, too, who could

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 13

use the research to guide the climates and environments

of their own training programs.

In addition, more research should be conducted in

underrepresented spaces (e.g., rural schools) and with

trained facilitators who might support internal trainers.

This might then build a school’s or district’s capacity for

sustainable engagement in PD efforts. Future researchers

might also focus on participant resistance (e.g., refusal

to recognize privilege or denounce racism) and how that

may change based on the continuity of teacher trainings

focused on race and racism throughout the school year.

In addition, given the wide variety in frequency and

length of PD sessions found in this review, future work

might examine how the dosage of PD implementation

impacts how teachers apply content related to decenter-

ing whiteness and denouncing racism in the classroom.

Finally, measuring student outcomes in addition to par-

ticipant perceptions of trainings may be informative for

assessing the larger impact trainings may have on schools.

Implications for Practice

Findings from the current review highlight the potential

impact of providing access to high quality antiracist PD

to educators. Although there remains a need for research

determining how PD leads to changes in practice, many

studies indicated that participants experienced positive

changes in their attitudes, beliefs, and/or knowledge about

race and antiracism following training. For instance,

many qualitative studies suggested that the training

increased educators’ desire to include culturally respon-

sive practices, promote antiracist ideologies, as well as

advance racial equity. These changes in thinking can

encourage teachers working with REM students and

school staff to address racism and oppressive pedological

practices in their classrooms. Implementation of teacher

trainings focused on race and racism can also reduce

teacher assumptions of classroom behavior that largely

stems from research using predominately white samples.

Given that racism is a core determinant of child health

and influenced by the environment (Henderson et al.,

2019), having a teacher that actively decenters whiteness

and embeds antiracism approaches in the classroom is

pivotal for student development. School psychologists, in

consultation with school leaders, can leverage these find-

ings to shape their school environments to promote anti-

racism and a culture of care.

Implications for Policy

Results from this narrative review support the need for

policy that prioritizes access to high-quality PD and

in-service learning opportunities related to race and rac-

ism. Elliott (1996), reviewed in this study, articulated the

need for policy support and resources, stating, “without

institutional commitment, the weight would fall back on

[educators from minoritized backgrounds] to call atten-

tion to racism. Perception of administrative retrenchment

would ultimately inhibit efforts to strengthen teachers’

relationships with [minoritized] students and have an

adverse effect on the quality of life of [minoritized] adults

in the schools.” Local policy that prioritizes decentering

whiteness and antiracism PD can promote a culture of care

(Davis, 2022), transforming educational spaces to be wel-

coming, inclusive spaces for students and staff.

At the state and national level, school psychologists

might gain involvement in advocacy efforts to oppose and

resist legislation bans on school conversations about race

and racism, and critical race theory, specifically (Morgan,

2022). School psychologists might actively oppose state

legislative bans grounded in misinformation and white

supremacy (Benson, 2022) and support nonprofit organi-

zations fighting racist legislation such as the NAACP Legal

Defense and Education Fund and the American Civil

Liberties Union. Advocacy to dispel misinformation about

the harms of teaching and learning about racism in school

are critical to creating responsive policy initiatives that

advance equity and promote a culture of care.

LIMITATIONS

Although we employed a robust search procedure, it is

possible that relevant studies were not located and

therefore not included. Furthermore, we searched for

race-intentional studies. Studies that did not mention

race, racism, or antiracism in relation to the training

materials were eliminated. This may have eliminated

studies that included content on race but did not explic-

itly name it as such (e.g., culturally responsive teaching).

Finally, our search parameters included research pub-

lished through 2020. In the time since, existing inequi-

ties were exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, the

murder of George Floyd (and several others) prompted

a broadened public discourse on racial justice (specifi-

cally for white individuals), and several states intro-

duced legislation to ban critical race theory (Morgan,

2022). It is likely that there is research published since

2020 that may meet our search criteria. However, the

results of this review could serve as a useful comparison

to the literature in existence before the impact of these

influential events.

CONCLUSION

Educator PD focused on race and racism is critical for

decentering whiteness and promoting antiracism in

schools, creating a safe and affirming school environment

14 School Psychology Review DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

for all students. Results of this review can be used to

inform consultation with school leaders and other school

staff about the common components of antiracist PD,

including participants, trainers, and outcomes. Trainings

should include active discussions and learning focused on

recognizing internalized racism, decentering whiteness,

and how to incorporate antiracist policies and practices.

School psychologists and leaders should be prepared to

meet white teachers where they are, anticipate and respond

to resistance, create a safe, trusting, resourced environ-

ment for the work, and help white teachers move from

discussion to action. Future scholarship should identify

critical components of training and how training impacts

student outcomes.

OPEN SCHOLARSHIP

This article has earned the Center for Open Science badges for

Open Materials through Open Practices Disclosure. The data and

materials are openly accessible at https://osf.io/8fqjb/?view_only=

a80f20a315b34eeebb43907e477a5762. To obtain the author’s dis-

closure form, please contact the Editor.

FUNDING

The U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education

Sciences supported this research through Grant No

R324B170010 to the University of Massachusetts Boston. The

opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not repre-

sent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.

ORCID

Lindsay M. Fallon http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0813-3337

Laura A. Alba http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5044-9741

Staci Ballard http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2699-3288

Austin H. Johnson http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6349-0049

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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENTS

Lindsay M. Fallon is an Associate Professor and Director of

Training of School Psychology at University of

Massachusetts Boston.

Patrick Robinson-Link is a doctoral student at University of

Massachusetts Boston.

Tyler A. Womack a doctoral student at University of California-

Riverside.

Laura A. Alba is a Postdoctoral Fellow in Child Clinical

Psychology at the Center For Autism and Developmental

Disabilities at University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools through Teacher Professional Development 17

Ryan Sunda is a doctoral student at University of Massa-

chusetts Boston.

Staci Ballard is a doctoral student at University of Massa-

chusetts Boston.

Margarida Veiga is a doctoral student at University of Massa-

chusetts Boston.

Austin H. Johnson is an Associate Professor and Director of Training

of School Psychology at University of California-Riverside.

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Sep 2021

Joshua R. Gregory

Whiteness—distinct from individuals who identify as white—is a social construction; and social constructions, by definition, can be disassembled. Whiteness is also wholly constituted by and inseparable from white supremacy, and thus exists purely as racial injustice. These are historical facts. Consequently, racial justice demands that whiteness be dismantled and abolished. Social work, as a profession committed to racial justice, is directly implicated in this imperative. Yet, due to misunderstanding and unawareness, the above facts register with most social workers as exaggerated claims, baseless untruths, or ideological propaganda. Social work requires a historically accountable critical whiteness curriculum in order to correct this pervasive misunderstanding and to facilitate informed participation in the pursuit of racial justice in a way that accurately apprehends the nature of whiteness. This curriculum, introduced here, explores the history and invention of whiteness in global, U.S., and social work contexts; examines the integral role of education in deploying and maintaining whiteness; and considers reconstruction and abolition as alternative modes of responding to whiteness as a social problem. The curriculum ultimately shows abolition to be the only historically and theoretically consistent response to whiteness, leading to a call for abolition as praxis and for further curricular development.

“We Sort of Dance Around the Race Thing”: Race-Evasiveness in Teacher Education

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Chris K. Chang-Bacon

The racial and linguistic diversity of U.S. classrooms has drawn attention to the intersecting dynamics of race, racism, and language learning in teacher education. While most studies in this vein focus on teachers, almost no research has focused on teacher educators themselves. Therefore, this study draws on interviews with teacher educators to document how they addressed—or more often, evaded—the topics of race and racism. Participants (n = 33) were instructors for state-mandated courses on teaching emergent bilinguals for general educators across the state of Massachusetts. Through the lens of poststructural discourse analysis, the findings of this study demonstrate that race-evasiveness is not a byproduct of passive omission, but instead involves active, discursive effort. These findings underscore the importance of individual and collective efforts to disrupt race-evasiveness, but also illustrate the limits of surface-level race-intentionality for advancing antiracism in teacher education.

Resisting the Movement to Ban Critical Race Theory from Schools

Article

Feb 2022

Hani Morgan

Critical race theory has recently been blamed for causing harmful outcomes. Conservative activists are believed to be distorting this theory in order to ban it. The campaign to ban critical race theory has affected many schools across the United States. In some cases, school personnel have resigned because of the way some groups have responded to the debate over banning this theory. New laws that restrict teachers from teaching content that may make students uncomfortable have been passed. Banning critical race theory from K-12 schools is a controversial topic because public school personnel usually do not teach it. The controversy involves the programs that may have to be dropped if this theory is banned. This paper focuses on the origins of critical race theory, the misconceptions about this theory, the campaign to ban it, and the negative outcomes resulting from the movement to ban it. It also includes a description of how some groups are resisting this movement.

The Peculiar Journey: Race, Racism, and Imprisonment in American History

Article

Oct 2022
CRIME JUSTICE

Robert D Crutchfield

Cultural Care and Inviting Practices: Teacher perspectives on the influence of care and equity in an urban elementary school

Article

Dec 2021

The study investigates the perspectives of five educators on the influence of cultural care and invitational education (IE) through qualitative participatory action research (PAR). Invitational education is a theoretical framework that facilitates a positive learning environment and encourages individuals to reach their unlimited potential. Like IE, cultural care is a theory of practice that uses a social-emotional approach for school improvement. However, cultural care considers race and culture as fundamental to promoting outcomes for all students. In connection to IE, cultural care is a strengths-based approach to encourage and produce positive outcomes and promotes a strong consideration to race and culture. The study examined teacher practices and perceptions to evaluate the influence of invitational practices and cultural care. Data were analyzed through two theoretical frameworks, invitational education and culturally responsive pedagogy. Themes were derived from analyses of data collected through interviews pre- and postintervention implementation, recorded observation notes, and artifacts. Findings indicated that inviting practices and cultural care positively influenced the climate of the learning environment, affirmed the importance of teachers listening to students with intentionality, and highlighted the need for educators to recognize students’ basic and academic needs. These needs acknowledged student presence, behavior, and growth from a strengths-based approach. The participant educators reported a shift towards a positive learning environment. Recommendations for practice include establishing site-based equity teams and implementing professional learning communities to enhance teachers’ professional development. Keywords: invitational education, culturally responsive pedagogy, cultural care, school climate

From critical whiteness studies to a critical study of whiteness: restoring criticality in critical whiteness studies

Article

Nov 2021

This theoretical article critically reflects on critical whiteness studies (CWS), particularly addressing the critique that CWS does not have racial theory and therefore cannot be considered a theoretical framework in which to analyse race. Reflecting on existing literature that interrogates whiteness in teacher education; we contend that to centre racial justice in education research a critical study of whiteness must be employed, drawing from the work of scholars of Colour. Therefore, we provide a variety of transdisciplinary theories from critical scholars and scholars of Colour – from conflict theory to racial psychoanalysis – to undergird the analytic framework of CWS. We also offer implications of a critical study of whiteness approach to education research, hoping that it not only combats whiteness in society and education but changes the way we conduct research.

The Need for Shared Nomenclature on Racism and Related Terminology in Psychology

Article

Sep 2021

With the increased desire to engage in antiracist clinical research, there is a need for shared nomenclature on racism and related constructs to help move the science forward. This article breaks down the factors that contributed to the development and maintenance of racism (including racial microaggressions), provides examples of the many forms of racism, and describes the impact of racism for all. Specifically, in the United States, racism is based on race, a social construct that has been used to categorize people on the basis of shared physical and social features with the assumption of a racial hierarchy presumed to delineate inherent differences between groups. Racism is a system of beliefs, practices, and policies that operate to advantage those at the top of the racial hierarchy. Individual factors that contribute to racism include racial prejudices and racial discrimination. Racism can be manifested in multiple forms (e.g., cultural, scientific, social) and is both explicit and implicit. Because of the negative impact of racism on health, understanding racism informs effective approaches for eliminating racial health disparities, including a focus on the social determinants of health. Providing shared nomenclature on racism and related terminology will strengthen clinical research and practice and contribute to building a cumulative science.

The Adult Learner

Book

Apr 2005

Learning to Decenter Whiteness in Schools Through Teacher Professional Development: A Systematic Review

Abstract and Figures

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