![Categorization of the assessed geosites according to the evaluation criteria of [7], on Lemnos Island.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370747679/figure/fig4/AS:11431281158045806@1683992287267/Categorization-of-the-assessed-geosites-according-to-the-evaluation-criteria-of-7-on_Q320.jpg)
![Designed hiking georoutes for Lemnos Island. 4.2.1. Hiking "Geo-Archaeo-Route" 1: Myrina-Thanos-Evgati Beach This hiking route involves four cultural sites, one volcanic geological site and two geomorphosites (Figure 5). The starting point refers to the Archaeological Museum of Lemnos (C03; Table 4, Figures 3, 4 and 6a) in the center of Myrina, the capital of the island, where the visitors can admire stunning archaeological findings from all over the island as well as donations from private collections. The two-story neoclassical building that now houses the museum was built in the 19th century to accommodate the Turkish command post. In 1939, the building was sold by the community of Kastro to the Panlimniakos School Fund, on the condition that it would be donated to the public, in order to host the Archaeological Museum of Lemnos. During World War II, the archaeological treasures of Lemnos were transported to the Museum of Mytilene and to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, and were returned back in 1961, after the restoration of the building. In the early 1990s a renovated exhibition was launched, mostly including findings from the excavations of the Italian Archaeological School and the Ephorate Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in Hephaistia, Kaveirio, Poliochni and Myrina [73].](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370747679/figure/fig5/AS:11431281158063309@1683992288823/Designed-hiking-georoutes-for-Lemnos-Island-421-Hiking-Geo-Archaeo-Route-1_Q320.jpg)
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Geosciences 2023, 13, 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13050143 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences
Article
“Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on the Island of Lemnos: The “Nalture”
Experience as a Holistic Geotouristic Approach within the
Geoethical Perspective
Maria V. Triantaphyllou 1,*, Nikolaos Firkasis 1, Theodora Tsourou 1, Emmanuel Vassilakis 1, Evangelos Spyrou 1,
Olga Koukousioura 2, Argyro Oikonomou 1 and Athanasios Skentos 1
1 Department of Historical Geology and Palaeontology, Faculty of Geology and Geo-Environment, National
and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupolis, 15784 Athens, Greece;
nfirkasis@gmail.com (N.F.); ttsourou@geol.uoa.gr (T.T.); evasilak@geol.uoa.gr (E.V.);
evspyrou@geol.uoa.gr (E.S.); aoikon@geol.uoa.gr (A.O.); thanasis.skentos@aecom.com (A.S.)
2 School of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; okoukous@geo.auth.gr
* Correspondence: mtriant@geol.uoa.gr; Tel.: +30-210-727-4893
Abstract: The geosites of Lemnos represent local touristic products that, beyond their high aesthetic
value, display significant scientific links to the geological past as well as prehistory and history,
archaeology, mythology and religious heritage of the island. The unique wealth of Lemnos geosites
in combination with the abundance of archaeological sites, cultural monuments and museums com-
poses the basis of what we define here as “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”: certain routes that can be geograph-
ically defined, offered, guided and finally followed by the touristic masses. The outcome of the per-
formed quantitative Lemnos geosite assessment enables decision making, thus providing a toolbox
useful for sustainable Geo-Archaeo-tourism development at a local level and forms the basis for
designing “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”. “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” are particularly favorable of environmentally
friendly alternative types of tourism, attracting naturalists, hikers, fans of cultural or religious tour-
ism and many others who represent a major part of the touristic needs of the 21st century. The
established hiking and road “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on Lemnos Island may represent a distinctive
touristic product as they offer a high level of “nalture” entertainment, blending “nature with cul-
ture” in the framework of a holistic geotouristic approach.
Keywords: “nalture”; geotourism; geoethics; Geo-Archaeo-Routes; Lemnos Island
1. Introduction
Nowadays, the tourist visit is not a simple period for physical rest but is much more
an attempt at spiritual release and elimination of daily stress. Thus, this time interval is
often planned in the context of visiting areas with natural beauty profoundly linked to
geological processes that have left their traces in the morphology of the Earth's surface
(e.g., [1]).
The tectonic, paleogeographical and geomorphological evolution of the Greek land-
mass during the last 10 million years not only curved the morphological relief, but also
resulted in the genesis of geological sites with unique characteristics; e.g., interesting sed-
imentary structures, rare or characteristic fossils, tectonic structures, significant miner-
alogical–petrological occurrences, ongoing geomorphological and geological processes,
caves, etc. [2], comprising geotopes and geosites. Geotopes are defined as the smallest
geographical unit with such prominent geological features [3,4], while geosites combine
natural geoscientific monuments with aesthetic, naturalistic, cultural, historical, touristic
and educational values (e.g., [4,5]). Apparently, geotopes consist of attractive touristic
sites, thus being the heart of geotourism, a recently developed alternative form of tourism
Citation:
Triantaphyllou, M.V.;
Firkasis, N.; Tsourou, T.;
Vassilakis, E.; Spyrou, E.;
Koukousioura, O.; Oikonomou, A.;
Skentos, A.
“Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on
the Island of Lemnos: The
“Nalture”
Experience
as a Holistic Geotouristic
Approach within the Geoethical
Perspective
. Geosciences 2023, 13, 143.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
geosciences13050143
Academic Editors: Jesus
Martinez
-Frias and Deodato Tapete
Received:
4 April 2023
Revised:
2 May 2023
Accepted:
8 May 2023
Published:
12 May 2023
Copyright:
© 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 2 of 36
[1,6–11] that contributes to the local economy of an area and to its sustainable develop-
ment [12–14] through environmental management that integrates geodiversity awareness
and promotes sustainable economic growth and employment (e.g., [15]).
Geosites can therefore be considered as natural capital that should be preserved to
be available for the preferences of the future generations in the sense of sustainable devel-
opment [16]; namely, the intergenerational welfare that can be maximized by guarantee-
ing their enjoyability for the future [16,17]. However, a series of geoethical issues may be
raised, when geotopes are incorporated in the line of geotouristic development. The mas-
sive touristic exploitation and malpractices unavoidably leave negative marks on the nat-
ural environment as many anthropogenic impacts on geosites may lead to their irreversi-
ble degradation [17]. The responsible management of geosites and their protection can be
achieved only by applying the values of geoethics that raise awareness and responsibility
on geological heritage conservation, and stress out the important link with geoenviron-
mental education activities [18,19], towards a holistic geotouristic approach. As pointed
out by [20], it is only through a geoethical perspective that geotourism can contribute to
our understanding of the Earth as a system, through the relationships that bind the parts
to the whole, thus linking people with their land [18,19].
The environmentally friendly anthropogenic imprint on the geoenvironment, associ-
ated with archaeological sites and monuments, museums and religious sites, as well as
the sustainable production of local goods of agriculture and wine-growing, plays a major
role in fostering the cultural education of tourist masses together with the respect for the
natural capital of geotopes in a geoethical perspective, which is actually linked to the ra-
tional use of nonrenewable resources. Apparently, geotourism activities minimize their
environmental impacts and avoid the risk of exceeding the threshold of ecological and
social sustainability only when guided by the geoethical principles that, besides increas-
ing awareness for sustainable geoheritage management, also foster the public’s under-
standing of natural hazards, such as climate change, sea level rise and flooding [18,19,21].
With the values of geoethics, the integration between geodiversity and cultural resources
is able to develop the needed sense of responsibility for preserving geoheritage, not only
for the enjoyability of the present communities but also for assuring its existence for the
future generations [15,22].
Greece denotes an exceptional example of a geotope ensemble with solid geotouristic
potential [2,7,8,23–26]. In particular [6,7], after evaluating more than 500 geotopes of the
Hellenic territory, concluded that Greece holds high geotouristic perspectives that can
further support the vital tourism sector and the regional development of the Greek econ-
omy via the management of the geotopes as attractive local tourism products.
Lemnos Island in the northeastern Aegean Sea represents an interesting case study
for geotouristic development. The island is featured by both rich natural and cultural cap-
ital, which is why it has been designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty [27]
and traditional settlements [28]. It displays a smooth landscape, carved within millions of
years by the volcanic activity, the water runoff, the sea and the wind, which resulted in a
spectacular agro-pastoral environment hosting numerous geosites and some of the largest
and most important Mediterranean wetlands [29]. The land of Lemnos exhibits among
others, some of the oldest human settlements of hunters and fishermen in the Aegean Sea
dating back to the 11th millennium BC [30]. Furthermore, the island is widely known for
its distinguished household economy and traditional high-quality local wines, meats,
cheeses, fruits, vegetables, herbs and handmade pasta. Concerning the status of geotour-
ism development on the island, there has recently been an important detailed effort to
identify, visualize and present on the Web the numerous Lemnos geosites, geomorpho-
sites and cultural sites in order to promote to the public the island’s geological and geo-
morphological heritage [31,32].
The scope of the present study is to highlight specific geological locations together
with the natural environment and biodiversity of Lemnos Island. This is achieved in the
context of a geotouristic approach that combines the natural capital represented by local
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 3 of 36
geosites with important archaeological sites, as well as local food and wine tasting expe-
riences, comprising a “nalture” geotouristic experience. The term “nalture” is introduced
in this study to describe the geotouristic bind of nature with culture in terms of symbiosis
[28], also described by [15,33,34], and not under the traditional dualistic opposition that
regards the concept of nature as something separated from human beings (e.g., [35]). We
consider the “nalture” geotouristic experience to be realized in the framework of environ-
mental ethics (e.g., [36]), concerning humans in their culture but also residing in nature,
therefore involving sustainable use of the environmental resources (i.e., geosites).
As a result, alternative dynamic “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” are proposed to build and for-
mulate a touristic product in the geoethical perspective of regional sustainable develop-
ment. The rationale behind establishing “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” is that according to [37],
“the biophysical landscape itself loads throughout history a series of interwoven human
traces”, therefore it is more than evident that the geoheritage interacts with the cultural
assets, forming geocultural sites [38]. The concept is enriched with the involvement of
gastronomical and wine tasting experiences that can evolve the “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” tour-
istic product to a focal point for regional touristic development. Thus, “Geo-Archaeo-
Routes” can represent a distinctive touristic product for numerous tourist groups as they
offer a high level of “nalture” entertainment, hence enjoying the natural beauty of geosites
in relation to the marks of human influence on the geoenvironment.
In the context of the geoethical values, we consider the proposed “Geo-Archaeo-
Routes” to offer to the public awareness not only a brief description of their elements, but
a considerable geoscientific documentation that will enable the recognition of the heritage
value of geosites for audiences outside the specialists [38]. Therefore, besides the infor-
mation provided for the study area and the applied methodology (Section 2 and 3), the
following Section 3 includes not only a description but an extensive documentation of the
described geosites and also their assessment based on the scientific literature and evalua-
tion criteria. As a result, nine hiking and road “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” are defined for a ho-
listic geotouristic development of Lemnos Island. Finally, in the synthesis Section 5, po-
tential future steps for the realistic realization of the proposed “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” are
described in relation to the opportunities and limitations concerning the geotouristic de-
velopment of the island.
2. Study Area
2.1. Physicogeographical and Geomorphological Setting
Lemnos Island located in the North Aegean region (Figure 1) is the eighth largest
island of Greece with an area of 475.6 km2. The highlights of the Lemnos landscape
comprise the presence of coastal and inland sand dunes, interesting geological formations,
extensive coastal wetlands and agropastoral land [39]. The island displays smooth mor-
phology, being almost flat with the highest elevation of Mount Skopia (Vigla) at 470 m
a.s.l., located at the northwestern part of the island. The island’s terrain is mostly volcanic
with low relief formations and medium inclines. Throughout the coastal zone there are
low hills, 250–350 m high, except for the eastern part of the island as well as the bay of
Moudros where there are extended plains. The faults of the island are well exposed in the
central and western part forming narrow and shallow basins. Thus, the western part is
steeper and hilly, also displaying semi-mountainous parts, as thick pyroclastic deposits
cover the underlying sedimentary sequences, producing characteristic morphological
cliffs due to erosional processes. The central and eastern part presents a flat relief and
fertile soils, dominated by a lowland farmland mosaic, around soft hills. The hydro-
graphic drainage network consists of streams of seasonal flow, having a very poor drain-
age that, combined with the small amount of rainfall, is not favorable for the creation of
prominent alluvial fans. The most important coastal landforms are the sand dunes in the
area of the Aliki lagoon, and in the northern part of the island, in the area of Katalakos
and Gomati beach. Tombolo formations have been identified at the NE part of Lemnos, at
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 4 of 36
the Fakos peninsula as well as at the bay of Plaka in the NW part of the island. Lemnos is
characterized by an extended and rich-in-sandy-beaches coastaline of 259.3 km, with the
Gulf of Moudros being the most prominent feature of the coastline. The slope of the coasts
in Lemnos varies. There are coasts with a small slope (0°–30°) found mainly in the NW
part, with a medium slope (30°–40°) in the northern and southeastern parts and with a
large slope (>40°) that appear in the western and part of the northern area of the island as
well as on the southern coastline of the Fakos peninsula. The landforms of the hinterland
are characterized by tafoni and volcanic structures [40].
The climate is temperate with mild winters, prevailing blowing northeastern winds
and a dry season lasting from March to October, while the annual precipitation is about
500 mm [41,42]. In the winter, the average monthly temperature is below 10 °C, while the
average annual maximum temperature is 27.3 °C. Fog is present throughout the year with
a higher frequency in between September and April. Interestingly, the sunshine level in
the North Aegean is of the highest in Greece, reaching 2734 h yearly, with a monthly av-
erage of 227.8 h [43].
Figure 1. Map of the study area and location of the considered Aegean island of Lemnos.
Lemnos is characterized by poor vegetation, nonetheless it exhibits an extraordinary
flora that consists of about 681 plant taxa [41]. Particularly, the combination of halophytic
and sand dune habitats is unique for the island area, hosting plants such as thyme, olean-
der and numerous species of wildflowers followed by the outstanding appearance of the
sea lily on the sandy beaches, as well as remnants of Quercus ithaburensis subsp. macrolepis
forest and extended phryganic vegetation all over the island (e.g., [41]). Due to the pres-
ence of extended wetlands and the island’s location in the routes of migratory birds, Lem-
nos is featured by significant bird fauna, which includes at least 64 species. The island's
fauna includes numerous reptiles and 12 rare or protected mammal species, including the
Mediterranean seal Monachus monachus, the sea turtle Caretta caretta and the protected
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 5 of 36
turtle species Mauremys capsica (e.g., [44]). The fish fauna is also rich, including at least 40
species of fish and shellfish and a large number of dolphin species. Due to its clean sandy
beaches, the Posidonia meadows and the stunning reefal formations, Lemnos Island is con-
sidered one of the best preserved marine ecosystems of the Aegean Sea [43].
2.2. Geological Setting
The geology of the area (Figure 2) consists mainly of a clastic sedimentary sequence
of the Oligocene and extensive volcanic rocks of the Early Miocene age [45,46]. The avail-
able geological maps [46,47] present a description of the dominant lithology. Previous
stratigraphic and sedimentological studies (e.g., [48–50]) refer to a late Eocene–Oligocene
stratigraphic range with a total thickness of less than 800 m. In particular, [46] have rec-
ognized three units within the sedimentary sequence: the Fissini-Sardes Unit that is the
most extensive sequence and is characterized at its lower parts by sandstones, with green-
ish siltstones and shales, isolated flat blocks of cobblestone and gray nummulitic lime-
stones and a layer of tuffs, while in its middle and upper part, thick layers of sandstone
prevail over the silty clay; the Ifestia Unit consisting mainly of coarse-grained sandstones
and conglomerates with its upper part mostly displaying silty clays, siltstones and marls,
covered by an eroded surface associated with the volcanic activity; and the Therma Unit
that consists of conglomerates restricted in the eastern and southeastern part of the island,
presenting an abrupt change from the marine to continental environment, which corre-
sponds to the beginning of the main volcanic cycle. [46] provided a rough age of middle
Eocene to Early Miocene for the associated depositional intervals with the youngest age
in accordance with [51] based on the plant fossils.
More recently, [52] have shown that the Lemnos volcano-sedimentary sequence ex-
ceeds 2200 m in thickness, extending from the late Eocene to the Oligocene/Miocene
boundary, based on detailed calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphic analyses. The overall
stratigraphic sequence of Lemnos, together with its equivalent sequence of Thrace, shows
a deep marine environment of molassic type within a back-arc basin [53–55]. A blocky
formation with olistolites of nummulitic neritic limestones is observed above the lower-
most rhythmic alternations of turbiditic sandstones and pelites of the late Eocene, fol-
lowed by several interlayering volcanic tuffs within a cyclical sedimentary sequence. Late
Oligocene thick sandstones-conglomerates feature the middle part of the sequence, while
impressive volcanic dikes and lava flows become frequent towards the upper horizons.
The Early Miocene age has been documented at the sedimentary deposits of the north-
western part of the island [52]. The most extensive volcanic extrusions occur at the central–
southern part of Lemnos and they are dated as Early Miocene (e.g., [56]). Plio-Pleistocene
fluvial deposits are uncomfortably overlaying the pyroclastic succession, while aeolian
sand deposits are recorded in the central–eastern part of the island [46]. Quaternary shal-
low marine limestones and calcarenites overlay the Eocene–Oligocene molasse-type sed-
iments [47]. The Holocene coastal deposits at the archaeological settlement of Hephaistia
and the Alyki Lagoon reveal a constant sea level rise during the last 7000 cal BP with
fluctuations between temporary lagoon to shallow bay paleoenviroments; in particular,
the determined shallow bay in the area of Hephaistia could have been used as a natural
harbor before 4000 cal BP [57].
Innocenti et al. [46] recognized three units of volcanic rocks: the Romanou Unit py-
roclastic sequence including a well-welded ignimbrite with gray and reddish pumice
dated by radiometric K/Ar as 19.8 Ma [58] or 22.3 ± 0.7 Ma [59], and intercalations of con-
tinental sediments containing plant remains and silicified trunks; the Katalakkon Unit
consisting mainly of lava domes that, according to the K/Ar radiometric dating by [58]
and [45], formed after the pyroclastics of the Romano Unit (20–21 Ma); and the Myrina
Unit, which represents the younger volcanics of the island aged between 19.3 and 18.2 Ma
[45,58], mostly associated with lava domes.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 6 of 36
Figure 2. Geological map of Lemnos Island and legend of the geological formations (modified from
IGME map). The map shows the distribution of the main geological formations and faults.
Faulting is more intense in the SE of Moudros (Fanos-Agia Sofia fault) and in the NW
part of the island with the Kondias/Kotsinas fault affecting the coastal zone close to the
Hephaistia archeological site [60–62]. According to [63], all faults along the northern parts
of the island are characterized by a dextral strike–slip component, while the faults on the
southern parts of Lemnos, except for the Kaspakas and Moudros faults, are featured by
an ENE–WSW strike. One of the most important faults on the island is that of Mourt-
zouflos, a strike-slip fault in the NE–SW direction defined as active by [64]. It belongs to
an offshore fault zone and intersects with the mainland at Cape Mourtzouflos in the
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 7 of 36
northwestern part of the island [63]. The Kaspakas fault is a normal NW–SE fault, which
forms several fault scarps at the west side of the island, and the Kondias–Kotsinas fault
zone represents a complex structure of multiple horizontal slip faults in a NE–SW direc-
tion, which crosses the island, affecting the coastline. Finally, the Moudros and Fanos-
Agia Sofia faults are normal faults of the WSW–ENE direction that dip to the N–NW, lo-
cated in the east and south of the island, respectively.
2.3. Socioeconomic Setting and Archaeological Values
Since 2011, the Municipality of Lemnos (capital city: Myrina) belongs to the regional
unit of Lesbos, which in turn belongs to the region of the North Aegean. The Hellenic
Statistical Authority keeps population data for the island of Lemnos beginning in 1920.
The last census was made in 2011, while the next one was performed very recently (end
of 2021). Despite the fact that the most recent census (Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2011)
data available are relatively outdated, they are the only widely available and reliable pop-
ulation data so far.
The population evolution data (Table 1) show that there was a continual population
increase until 1951, when the residents were about 24,000. Lemnos faced a significant pop-
ulation decline in the post-World War II period, when many residents migrated to the
mainland Greece and abroad (Australia, Canada and USA). As a result, there was a
gradual reduction until 2011, when the permanent residents of the island were about
17,000, while a decade later (2022), the current population has remained more or less
stable (16,458). Lemnos is a relatively sparcely populated island with a population density
of 35.7 residents per km2.
According to the 2011 census, the island of Lemnos has a total of 5915 employed cit-
izens, out of whom 11.6% were employed in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry and
fishery), 12.8% were occupied in the secondary sector, while a total of 4268 citizens
(72.16%) were engaged in the tertiary sector (transport and storage, information and com-
munication, public sector, administration and services, hotels and restaurants etc.). The
sector with the highest employment is that of public administration and defense (24.6%).
In accordance, wholesale and retail trade considerably contribute to the total employment
(11.4%). Hotels and restaurants uptake a 7.4% of the total employment, implying that
there is significant potential for the development of this sector. In 2019, more than 97% of
the 34,914 tourists who visited Lemnos have stayed at a hotel, while this was reduced to
93% in 2020. In that year, the total number of visitors was restricted to 13,645, reflecting
the COVID19 negative effect on the touristic activity of the island.
Table 1. Population evolution of Lemnos for the last 100 yr and distribution of economic sectors,
census 2011 (Source: Hellenic Statistical Authority).
Census Year
Population
Economic Sectors
1920
19,642
1928
23,611
1940
23,842
1951
24,018
1961
21,812
1971
17,367
1981
15,721
1991
17,645
2001
18,104
2011
16,992
2022
16,458
Overall, the socioeconomic features of the Lemnos local economy reveal a well-es-
tablished development of both the primary and tertiary sector on the island (Table 1).
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 8 of 36
Interestingly, the 19th century administrative division of the island resulted to a rather
equal proportion of farmland and grassland for all villages, therefore offering sufficient
space for agricultural production for all the communities of Lemnos, enhancing the activ-
ities of the primary sector [65].
The local economy is still based on the primary sector, although tourism is increas-
ingly becoming an important activity. Lemnos hosts many local varieties of grapevines,
among them are ancient ones such as “Lemnio” including the red variety of “kalambaki”,
and imported ones such as “Muscat of Alexandria”, which adapted very well to the is-
land’s microclimate [42], as they are rich in monoterpene content [66]. The roads of wine
on Lemnos pass throughout the island from Myrina to Kaminia and Moudros, while in
the area of Aghios Dimitrios Atsikis there exists over 45% of the Lemnos vineyards [67].
Cheese, meat and honey also compose the highlights of the Lemnos gastronomy. In par-
ticular, the famous “Katsikaki Limnou” (Lemnian goat) is delivered from local kids that
graze mostly freely in the rich herbaceous vegetation of the island with its varieties of
aromatic plants and scrub.
Lemnos exhibits a wealth of archaeological monuments. Among the most important
ones, the Castle of Myrina dates back to the 4th millennium BC. Several sanctuaries dis-
tributed all over the island, such as that of Artemis in the area of Avlonas and the Sanctu-
ary of Kaveirion dedicated to the Kaveirians, mystery male deities linked to Hephaestus,
the ancient Greek god of fire, provide evidence of diachronous religiosity on the island.
The Poliochni settlement is considered the oldest city in Europe that has existed since 5000
BC up to 1600 BC, when it was probably destroyed by an earthquake. The archaeological
site of Hephaestia dates back to the Bronze era, while findings suggest that it was contin-
uously inhabited until the Byzantine years. The exceptional findings coming from the ex-
cavations in Poliochni, Hephaestia and Kaveirion are exhibited in the Archaeological Mu-
seum of the island. Additionally, the Museum of Maritime Tradition and sponge-fishing
and the Portianou Folklore Museum host pieces of evidence of the modern socioeconomic
history of the island, such as traditional costumes and various objects from the daily life
of the islanders.
3. Methodology
3.1. Evaluation Criteria of Geosites
A protocol to collect the most important information about the involved prominent
geosites and archaeological sites was applied based on the calibration of a series of criteria
for each location and the quantitative assessment of their scientific and touristic values.
The criteria primarily covered the topics of geology in terms of its scientific and educa-
tional value, as well as ecology, culture and aesthetics; also, location, accessibility, ser-
vices, territorial, morphological, socio-demographic characteristics and tourism infra-
structure were considered. The outcome of the quantitative assessment was expected to
enable decision making, thus providing a toolbox useful for sustainable Geo-Archaeo-
tourism development at a local or regional level and form the basis for designing exciting
“Geo-Archaeo-Routes”.
Despite the fact that there exists no single type of criteria for all geotopes [68], in the
present study we adopted the evaluation method of [7,8], who proposed a series of 13
criteria (Table 2) covering 5 topics (geology, culture, aesthetics, tourism, ecology), incor-
porating the outcomes of [6,68–72]. Hence, the criteria used for the quantitative evaluation
of Lemnos geosites in the topic of geology were defined as geological history, representa-
tiveness, geodiversity, rarity, (geo)conservation and education. In particular, the partici-
pation of the geosite in the geological history of the wider area, its representativeness,
geodiversity, rarity and state of preservation were evaluated. Any educational value of
the terrain belonged to the same category. By the term geodiversity we refer to the set of
geological (rocks, minerals, fossils) and geomorphological (landscapes, natural processes)
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 9 of 36
forms, while rarity quantifies the number of geosites on the island featured by analogous
geological features.
The topic of culture included the sub-criteria of history–archaeology and religion. In
this group, the human presence over the years was evaluated, particularly the association
and connection of a geosite with regard to archaeological–historical findings, places of
religious worship and other cultural monuments. The topic of aesthetics applied to the
sub-criteria of visibility and relief differentiation, quantified as the number of locations on
the island from which the geosite was visible; this is how the public recognizes a geosite
according to its distinct visual characteristics. Finally, the topic of tourism was evaluated
on the basis of the geosite accessibility and the tourist infrastructure of the wider area,
whereas the topic of ecology was assessed by the sub-criterion of ecological value; namely,
the contribution and integration of a geosite in the development of the surrounding eco-
systems.
In order to use all criteria on a rational basis, a quantitative approach was required,
therefore each sub-criterion was evaluated on a scale ranging 1 (low significance) to 5
(high significance).
Table 2. Evaluation criteria for geosite assessment according to [7]. Quantifications in geodiversity
refer to the number of different geological characteristics of each site; quantifications in rarity refer
to the number of geosites on Lemnos Island featured by analogous geological features and quanti-
fications in visibility refer to the number of locations on the island from which the geosite is visible.
1
2
3
4
5
Geological History
Small
participation at lo-
cal level
Moderate
participation at
local level
Great
participation at lo-
cal level
Moderate
participation
at regional
level
Great
participation at re-
gional level
Representativeness
Not at all
Low
Medium
High
Unique
Geodiversity
1
<3
<5
<10
>10
Rarity
>20
>10
>5
>2
Unique
Conservation
Totally damaged
Low
Medium
High
Intact
Education
Not at all
-
Medium
-
High
History–Archaeology Not at all
Existing—Low
importance
Minor importance
Moderate im-
portance
Great importance—
Geohistoric site
Religion Not at all
Existing—Low
importance
Minor importance
Moderate im-
portance
Great importance—
Geohistoric site
Visibility
1
2
3
4
>4
Landscape
Differentiation
Not at all Low Medium High Very high
Accessibility
Not accessible
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Tourist Infrastructure
Not at all
Low
Medium
-
High
Ecological Value
Not at all
-
Medium
-
High
The quantitative data produced when applying all the criteria set for the assessment
of the geosites of Lemnos, led to an average value (Total Score = Sum of rating crite-
ria/Number of used criteria), which determined their final classification as geosites at a
global, national or regional/local level. More specifically, if Total Score > 3.5, the geosite
was of global interest, Total Score values between 3.5 and 3.0 featured geosites at a na-
tional level, while values of Total Score < 3.0 marked geotopes of regional/local interest. A
geodatabase was constructed in order to manage and analyze information with statistical
and georeference tools.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 10 of 36
3.2. Designing “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”
Specific geosites representative for the individual disciplines of geology (e.g., geo-
morphology, tectonics, stratigraphy, palaeontology, volcanology, etc.) blended with ar-
chaeological sites and other sites of cultural interest were selected for the creation of in-
dicative “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”. The most important scientific information per site was
compiled in the framework of each “Geo-Archaeo-Route” in a way such that anyone inter-
ested can follow them and enjoy natural beauty combined with cultural heritage. All data
were imported in the G.I.S. ArcMap 10.4 software, and several maps were created, includ-
ing the assessed geosites and the designed “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”. Additionally, satellite
images from Google Earth Pro were auxiliary used for the determination of the “Geo-Ar-
chaeo-Routes”.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Distribution, Documentation and Assessment of the Geosites
Situated in an area of intense geological activity, the island of Lemnos hosts numer-
ous geomorphosites (e.g., fluvial sites/rivers and waterfalls, gorges, small lakes, coastal
plains and waterfalls, coastal landforms, karstic elements) and also volcanic and tectonic
structures, fossiliferous sites and sites of mineral resources (e.g., [31]). In the present study,
a total of 64 locations of high interest, including geosites (Table 3) and cultural sites (Table
3), were selected to construct specific “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” case studies. The involved ge-
osites comprise volcanic, fossiliferous, fluvial, coastal karstic, hydrothermic and tectonic
geological sites, as well as wetlands that were assessed based on the criteria proposed by
[7] and, depending on the score they achieved, they were categorized into a local (54),
national (6) and global (4) level of reference (Table 3, Figure 3).
Figure 3. Location of selected geosites on Lemnos Island.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 11 of 36
Table 3. Lemnos Island geosites assessment, following the evaluation criteria of Table 2.
Location Type Fossil Sites Natural Wetlands Artificial Wetlands
Name
Petrified Trunk of
Profitis Ilias
Petrified Trunk of Pa-
ranisia
Petrified Forest of
Lemnos (Tsimandria
–
Portiano)
Petrified Forest of
Lemnos (Moudros
-
Roussopouli
- Ka-
minia)
Petrified Forest of
Lemnos (Romano
–Va-
ros)
Petrified Trunk of Va-
ros
Petradi Lakes
Diapori Swamp
Koukonisi islet
Chortarolimni
Asprolimni
Alyki Lake
Sourladika
Thanos Reservoir
Kontias
Artificial
Lake
Code Name
G13
G16
G20
G23, G24
G26
G36
W01
W03
W05
W06
W07
W08
W09
W02
W04
Latitude
39°53′20″N
39°50′47′′N
39°52′11′′N
39°52′09′′N
39°55′22′′N
39°55′48″N
39°50′21′′N
39°51′36″N
39°53′00″N
39°54′05″N
39°55′08″N
39°56′43″N
39°57′30″N
39°51′35″N
39°53′19″N
Longitude
25°07′13″E
25°08′40″E
25°11′15″E
25°18′05″E
25°16′40″E
25°15′24″E
25°04′57″E
25°10′15″E
25°16′08″E
25°20′04″E
25°22′34″E
25°22′21″E
25°16′04″E
25°07′00″E
25°09′00″E
Geological History
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
1
1
2
2
3
2
1
2
Representativeness
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
2
2
Geodiversity
1
1
5
5
5
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
1
2
Rarity
2
2
4
4
4
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
3
3
Conservation
5
5
4
4
4
5
3
4
4
5
4
4
4
3
4
Education
3
3
3
5
3
3
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
History–Archaeology
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Religion
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Visibility
2
2
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Landscape Differentiation
1
1
3
3
3
1
4
4
5
5
4
5
3
5
5
Accessibility
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Tourist Infrastructure
1
1
3
5
3
2
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
Ecological Value
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Total Score
2.69
2.69
3.54
3.92
3.54
3.00
2.62
2.62
2.77
3.00
3.08
3.54
2.85
2.62
2.85
Location Type
Volcanic Structures
Tectonic Structures
Name
Lava Dome of
Mourtzouflo
Metal
-Bearing
Zone of Sardes
Lava Domes at
Avlonas Beach
Lava Dome of
Myrina Castle
Therma
Springs
Lava Dome of
Profitis Ilias
Lava Domes at
Evgatis Beach
Lava Dome of
Kakkavo
Lava Dome of
Skopos
Metal
-Bearing
Zones of Fakos
Lava Dome of
Kontias
Volcanic Vein
of Portianou
“ Terra Lem-
nia”
Volcanic Crater
of Mosychlos
Kaspakas Wa-
terfall
Active Fault of
Kaspakas
Code Name
G01
G08
G09
G10
G11
G12
G14
G15
G17
G18
G19
G21
G32
G35
G05
G06
Latitude
39°59′07″N
39°55′47″N
39°53′45″N
39°52′35″N
39°54′19″N
39°53′58″N
39°50′42″N
39°52′04″N
39°49′32″N
39°48′46″N
39°52′00″N
39°52′58″N
39°55′58″N
39°55′44″N
39°56′16″N
39°55′59″N
Longitude
25°02′23″E
25°08′58″E
25°03′40″E
25°03′20″E
25°07′18″E
25°07′51″E
25°06′14″E
25°06′28″E
25°10′59″E
25°11′28″E
25°08′21″E
25°12′20″E
25°16′37″E
25°16′13″E
25°03′58″E
25°04′19″E
Geological History
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
3
4
Representativeness
3
2
3
4
3
3
3
5
3
2
3
3
5
4
2
3
Geodiversity
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
4
1
2
1
Rarity
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
5
1
3
1
3
5
4
1
3
Conservation
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
3
4
5
Education
1
1
1
5
3
1
1
5
1
1
1
3
5
3
1
1
History–Archaeology
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
4
5
4
1
1
Religion
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 12 of 36
Visibility
5
1
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
1
5
1
5
4
5
5
Landscape Differentiation
5
2
5
5
3
5
5
5
5
2
5
2
5
4
4
5
Accessibility
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
3
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
Tourist Infrastructure
1
1
2
5
5
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
Ecological Value
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
5
1
Total Score
2.38
2.23
2.69
3.62
3.00
2.54
2.54
4.15
2.38
2.31
2.62
2.62
4.00
3.15
2.77
2.69
Location Type
Geomorphological and Sedimentary Structures
Name
Tombolo of
Mourtzouflos
Neroviglia Gorge
Agios Ioannis Gorge
Coastal Geoforms in
Agios Ioannis
Cave of the Seal
Tafoni Forms in Ka-
valaris
Coastal Sand Dunes of
Alyki
Sandy Arm of Alyki
Honeycomb Weather-
ing in Plaka
Hydrographic Net-
work of Neftina
Cave of Philoctetes
Surficial Rectangular
Forms in Trigies
Sedimentary Rocks of
Faraklo
Inland Sand Dunes of
Gomati
Code Name
G02
G03
G04
G07
G22
G25
G28
G29
G29
G30
G31
G33
G34
G37
Latitude
39°59′04″N
39°58′27″N
39°56′42″N
39°55′27″N
39°51′11″N
39°53′22″N
39°56′27″N
39°55′51″N
40°00′28″N
39°58′48″N
39°58′46″N
39°59′19″N
39°59′38″N
39°59′28″N
Longitude
25°02′45″E
25°03′29″E
25°04′40″E
25°04′09″E
25°14′27″E
25°22′09″E
25°23′05″E
25°22′31″E
25°24′16″E
25°21′14″E
25°20′26″E
25°16′18″E
25°14′28″E
25°07′47″E
Geological History
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
Representativeness
3
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
5
5
Geodiversity
2
2
2
4
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
4
Rarity
4
2
2
3
2
3
1
4
4
4
2
4
5
5
Conservation
5
5
4
4
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
4
4
Education
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
1
History–Archaeology
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Religion
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Visibility
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
3
5
5
5
4
5
5
Landscape Differentiation
5
4
4
5
5
3
3
4
4
3
5
3
4
4
Accessibility
3
3
5
5
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
Tourist Infrastructure
1
1
2
5
3
1
2
2
1
1
3
1
3
3
Ecological Value
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
5
3
3
3
3
3
5
Total Score
2.85
2.54
2.85
3.31
2.92
2.54
2.54
2.92
2.92
2.69
3.08
2.69
3.54
3.62
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 13 of 36
4.2. Selected “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on Lemnos Island: A Spectacular “Nalture” Experience
The profound wealth of Lemnos is characterized by a variety of locations of geologi-
cal, environmental and historical interest in its limited insular area (Figure 4), making it
an ideal case study for developing and testing various types of “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” as a
“nalture” experience in a geoethical perspective.
Figure 4. Categorization of the assessed geosites according to the evaluation criteria of [7], on Lem-
nos Island.
Through these “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”, visitors will be able to get to know the natural
and cultural monuments of the area, the settlements, the traditional agricultural activities
as well as the local products. The proposed routes are environmentally friendly, as either
hiking trails or road trips using any means of transport (car, bike, local transport bus, etc.).
A key element for the proper design of the route type is to serve the visitors in the best
way covering a wide range of topics and to also be associated with good accessibility,
safety and adequate available information. Thus, the hiking routes (Figure 5) were pro-
posed to follow the already existing dirt roads network, the starting points being large
villages and/or sites of ample interest. By establishing the Geo-Archaeo-touristic experience,
we introduced a holistic geotouristic approach combining natural beauty, past civiliza-
tions and the history of the Earth in the unique geoenvironment of Lemnos Island.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 14 of 36
Figure 5. Designed hiking georoutes for Lemnos Island.
4.2.1. Hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1: Myrina–Thanos–Evgati Beach
This hiking route involves four cultural sites, one volcanic geological site and two
geomorphosites (Figure 5). The starting point refers to the Archaeological Museum of Lemnos
(C03; Table 4, Figures 3, 4 and 6a) in the center of Myrina, the capital of the island, where
the visitors can admire stunning archaeological findings from all over the island as well
as donations from private collections. The two-story neoclassical building that now
houses the museum was built in the 19th century to accommodate the Turkish command
post. In 1939, the building was sold by the community of Kastro to the Panlimniakos
School Fund, on the condition that it would be donated to the public, in order to host the
Archaeological Museum of Lemnos. During World War II, the archaeological treasures of
Lemnos were transported to the Museum of Mytilene and to the National Archaeological
Museum in Athens, and were returned back in 1961, after the restoration of the building.
In the early 1990s a renovated exhibition was launched, mostly including findings from
the excavations of the Italian Archaeological School and the Ephorate Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities in Hephaistia, Kaveirio, Poliochni and Myrina [73].
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 15 of 36
Figure 6. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) Archaeological Museum
(C03); (b,c) Lava Dome of Myrina Castle (G10); (d) Lava Domes at Evgatis Beach (G14).
Table 4. Lemnos Island cultural sites.
Name
Code Name
Type
Sanctuary of Artemis
C01
Archaeological sites
Myrina Prehistoric Settlement
C02
Archaeological sites
Archaeological Museum of Limnos
C03
Museums
Myrina Castle
C04
Castles and fortresses
Portianou Folklore Museum
C05
Museums
Panagia Kakkaviotissa Church
C06
Churches
Museum of Maritime Tradition and Sponge-Fishing of Nea
Koutali
C07 Museums
Koukonisi Prehistoric Settlement
C08
Archaeological sites
St. George’s Church
C09
Churches
Kaveirion Archaeological Site
C10
Archaeological sites
Hephaestia Archaeological Site
C11
Archaeological sites
Kotsinas Fortress
C12
Castles and fortresses
Hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1 continues with a visit to the Prehistoric Settlement of
Myrina (C02; Table 4, Figures 3 and 4), which is located only a few meters away from the
Archaeological Museum and is considered an important residential center of the early
Bronze Age. The Prehistoric Settlement of Myrina is located on the coastal site “Richa Nera”,
on a volcanic geological basement (Figure 2). It was developed slightly earlier than the
Poliochni settlement in the eastern part of the island, with its earliest phases being as-
signed to the first half of the 4th millennium BC [30]. Together with the rest of the prehis-
toric settlements on the island, the site reflects the importance of Lemnos during the
Bronze Age associated with its strategic location in the vicinity of Dardanelles [74]. The
residential remains and the fortifications mostly built by the volcanic rocks of the Myrina
Unit [45] denote the dense and regular habitation of the settlement, with urban planning
proved by the existence of roads between the houses, sometimes paved, and sewage sys-
tems with stone pipes, which occupied an area of 80,000 m2, and the area had a population
of 3000–4000 inhabitants during its heyday [75]. Three building phases have been rec-
orded with a total thickness of 5.10 m, reflecting a settlement with dynamic evolution in
between the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze age [76]. The Prehistoric Settlement of
Myrina was destroyed many times potentially by fire or earthquakes, with the inhabitants
rebuilding or repairing their houses according to their needs, as evidenced by the aban-
doned older buildings and the traces on the walls of all phases. The similarities in
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 16 of 36
architecture and ceramic styles with the Poliochni settlement suggest the presence of a
homogenous cultural group all over the island [76].
Afterwards, the route reaches the Lava Dome of Myrina Castle (G10) through the pic-
turesque alleys of the city of Myrina. The impressive Myrina Castle, a geosite of national
significance (Table 3, Figure 3, 4 and 6b,c), is located on the top of a lava dome of the
volcanic Myrina Unit [45]. Lava domes are isolated hills of volcanic origin, formed mostly
when the magma lost the dissolved gases while exiting the volcanic pore, resulting in an
increase in its viscosity and thickness. Thus, the lava accumulated in the crater and cooled
immediately, creating domes. The Myrina Unit consists of the youngest lava domes and
occasional flows on Lemnos (21–18 Ma; [59]), suggesting a general evolution from sho-
shonitic to high-K calc-alkaline magmatism with time [45]. The Myrina Castle consists of
both inner and outer surrounding walls, while it displays battlements, ramparts and 14
towers. The history of the castle dates back to the 13th century BC, when the Thessalians
Minyans settled in Lemnos and fortified the hill with “Cyclopean” walls that are partially
preserved outside the current fortress [77]. These were further enhanced by the Pelasgi-
ans, who conquered the island until the 6th century BC. The castle began to take the form
in which it survives today during the 12th century AD, during the reign of the Byzantine
emperor Andronikos I Komnenos. Over the years, the Byzantine castle experienced many
conquerors, e.g., the great admiral of Romania, Philocalo Navigagioso, who built in 1207
a new castle on the middle plateau of the peninsula, and the Venetians who built the for-
tress to the north of the ancient castle and constructed the moat that surrounded the castle.
In the 15th century the island was ceded by Ioannis VII Palaiologos to the Genoese Gateil-
lusio family, who made repairs and some additions, giving the castle the form it has today.
In 1479 and until 1912, the castle was under Ottoman occupation. Most of the buildings
inside the castle date back to this period, which indicates the existence of a settlement [77].
Surprisingly, a restricted population of European fallow deer (Dama dama dama L.) lives
in the fortress peninsula, as a result of a transferring of few individuals from the island of
Rhodos in the early 1970s. The ground cover and forage availability is uneven throughout
the peninsula, with the animals adapting their diet or searching for food outside the castle
hill, therefore the principles of deer farming should be performed in order to maintain a
healthy population [78].
The “Geo-Archaeo-route” 1 (Figure 5) then heads towards the village of Thanos, where
the “twin” Petradi lakes are located. The water bodies on Lemnos include eighteen natural
and three artificial wetlands [79], covering about 2.6% of the island’s area. Out of them,
Petradi Lakes (W01; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), two neighboring seasonal wetland systems
with rich succulent vegetation, are located south of the settlement of Thanos at Cape
Asprokavos, being part of the protected insular small wetlands of Greece (Presidential
Decree 2012, Government Gazette AAP 229/19.06.2012). Water is retained in them only
during wet periods, while the natural continuation to the coastal zone is no longer existent
[80]. Among the artificial water bodies, Thanos Reservoir (W02), 2.6 km from the homony-
mous settlement, was built in 1997 as an off-stream reservoir mostly fed by the Thanos
torrent.
The route ends on the impressive Lava Domes at Evgatis Beach (G14; Table 3, Figures
3, 4 and 6d) that are composed by high-K rocks associated with the massive subduction
of sedimentary material at the time of magmatic activity on Lemnos [81].
4.2.2. Hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2: Kakkavo–Therma–Profitis Ilias
Lava domes crop out in many areas on the island of Lemnos, as remnants of the in-
tense volcanic activity that has shaped the island’s morphology. Most of them are located
in the southwestern part of the island with the characteristic Lava Dome of Kakkavo (G15;
Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 7a), which consists of medium-K rocks [81]. This dome, a geosite
of global significance (Figure 4), is selected as the starting point of “Geo-Archaeo-route” 2
(Figure 5). The site, beyond the impressive dome, hosts the Panagia Kakkaviotissa Church
(C06; Table 4, Figures 3, 4 and 7b,c), a unique construction, having the roof of a cave as a
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 17 of 36
natural cover. The Church of Panagia Kakkaviotissa is a chapel near the now-deserted village
of Zematas, at the top of Kakkavo hill, from which it took its name. It became the property
of the monastery of Megisti Lavra in 1305, when monks settled in the cave to protect them-
selves from the raids of the Ottomans, to practice asceticism and to praise the Virgin Mary.
Nowadays, stairs have been built to make the access to the temple easier and the chapel
is open to the public. Traditionally, the church hosts a celebration every year on the first
Tuesday after the Greek Orthodox Easter [82]. The cave is not of karstic origin, as it was
formed by the intense weathering caused by the wind and the rainwater that infiltrates
the discontinuities of the volcanic rocks. It can also be described as a very large tafoni
form.
Afterwards, the route leads to the Therma Springs (G11; Figures 3, 4 and 7d), which
represent a geological hydrothermic–metallogenic site. They are thermal springs located
on the western part of the island, near the village of Kondias. The water of Therma gushes
from two springs, coming from a depth of about 1200 m. It has a temperature of 42.3 °C,
it is odorless, transparent, palatable and slightly alkaline with a pH of 8.55. It has a high
content of sodium (83.9 mg/L), chlorine (75.1 mg/L) and bicarbonate (84.6 mg/L) and is
characterized as “meteoric, low in minerals, hypotonic and slightly radioactive thermal
water” [83,84]. Thermal baths in the area of Therma have been functioning since 1548.
Finally, the hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2 ends at the volcanic site of the Profitis Ilias
Lava Dome (G12; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 7e) and the outlying area where the Petrified
Truck of Profitis Ilias is located (G13). Velitzelos et al. (2019) stated that Lemnos Island was
covered during Late Eocene–Early Miocene by extended forests of conifers, of arboreal
dicotyledons as Laurales, Fabales and Myrtales, and monocotyledons, especially Arecales.
Few fossil plant but numerous fossil wood remains have been identified in Lemnos, with
only two conifers described, Glyptostrobus europaeus (Brongniart) Unger and Sequoia abiet-
ina (Brongniart) Erw. Knobloch [85].
Figure 7. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) Lava Dome of Kakkavo (G15);
(b,c) Panagia Kakkaviotissa Church (C06); (d) Therma Springs (G11); (e) Profitis Ilias Lava Dome (G12).
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 18 of 36
4.2.3. Hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 3: Varos–Repanidi
The Petrified trunk of Varos (G36; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 8a) is the starting point of
the hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 3 (Figure 5). In 2020, in the area of Varos, a huge, petrified
tree trunk was discovered by members of the Natural History Museum of the Petrified
Forest of Lesvos. It is a trunk of an angiosperm, probably a giant sequoia, more than eight
meters high. As can be seen from the first phase of the excavations, the characteristics of
the wood as well as the ends of its branches are preserved in excellent condition. Overall,
the Petrified Forest of Lemnos, a geosite of national significance (Table 3, Figures 3 and 4),
consists of three areas of about 45,000 acres. The main area of 24,400 acres is located be-
tween Moudros, Roussopouli (G23) and Kaminia (G24), while the other two are located in
Varos (G26), with an area of 14,350 acres and in Tsimandria–Portianou (G20), with an area
of 7000 acres. Moreover, besides the Petrified trunk of Varos, there are also isolated occur-
rences of petrified trunks in Profitis Ilias (G13) and Paranisia (G16), while it is considered
that there are hundreds of trunks on the island that have not yet been discovered. There
are some lignotaxa previously described from the Petrified Forest of Lemnos, such as Lauri-
noxylon ehrendorferi, Cornoxylon pappi and a problematic conifer, initially described as Pi-
noxylon parenchymatosum, later revised as a species of Lesbosoxylon [86]. More recently,
some palm fossil taxa were described [87] and a series taxa of fossilized wood have been
further identified [88], such as Cupressinoxylon akdiki, Juniperoxylon acarcae, Tetraclinoxylon
velitzelosii, Taxodioxylon gypsaceum, Taxodioxylon taxodii, Glyptostroboxylon rudolphii, Glyp-
tostroboxylon tenerum, Pinuxylon pineoides and Pinuxylon halepensoides.
The next highlight of the route is the Volcanic Crater of Moschylos (G35; Figures 3, 4
and 8b). To the east of the village of Varos, the main morphological feature of the area is
an inactive volcanic crater, where several hills surround a small plateau with fertile vol-
canic soils covered by crops. According to mythology, the Greek god of fire Hephaestus,
a characteristic example of the personification of fires and volcanoes, established his work-
shop in this area [89].
Figure 8. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) Petrified trunk of Varos
(G36); (b) Volcanic Crater of Moschylos (G35); (c) Church of Agios Georgios (C09).
Later on, the route passes from a global significance geosite (Table 3; Figures 3 and
4), the hill where “Terra Lemnia” (G32) was mined. “Terra Lemnia” is a type of siliceous
clayey mud derived from weathered volcanic tuffs [90] that outcrops only in Lemnos.
From the Hellenistic Period until the beginning of the 20th century, “Terra Lemnia” was a
widespread medicine throughout Europe, used as an "antidote" to poisons while also pro-
tecting against the plague. It was mined on Despotis hill between Repanidi, Kotsinas and
Varos, which is located almost at the center of the island. “Terra Lemnia” comes in three
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 19 of 36
different shades, which differ depending on their mineralogical composition. The red
“Terra Lemnia” has a high content of illite (41%) and kaolinite (37.6%), while it also con-
tains quartz (17.7%) and hematite (3.8%). The yellow–gray “Terra Lemnia” consists mainly
of montmorillonite (66%), while it also contains illite (18.1%), albite (9%) and quartz
(6.9%). Finally, the white “Terra Lemnia” consists mainly of dolomite (65.2%), while it also
contains kaolinite (17.3%), illite (9.9%) and quartz (7.6%) [91].
The route ends at the village of Repanidi where the historical old Church of Aghios
Georgios (C09; Table 4, Figure 8c) is located. This is a cemetery church declared as a histor-
ical monument, most probably founded in 1860. It is a typical example of the ecclesiastical
architecture in Lemnos, a three-aisled basilica with neoclassical influences. The highly aes-
thetic wood-carved altarpiece of the church and the bright colors of the portable icons
represent a unique art developed during the post-Byzantine era [92].
4.2.4. Hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 4: Kontopouli–Kavalaris
This hiking route (Figure 5), starting from the picturesque village of Kontopouli with
the traditional stone houses and churches, reaches the southern edge of the national sig-
nificance geosite Alyki Lake (W08; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 9a,b), a natural salt pan, which
is the largest seasonal water surface on an Aegean island, with annual salinity ranging
between 3.5 and 25‰ and indigenous flora comprising of Arthrocnemum glaucum, Α. fru-
ticosum, Chenopodium sp., Cynodon dactylon, Phragmites australis, Plantago sp., Salsola kali,
Scirpus holoschoenus, Suaeda maritima, Trachomitum venetum, Allium bourgeaui and Phyla
nodiflora [79], and important avifauna, e.g., Tadorna ferruginea and Burhinus oedicnemus
[93]. At its southeastern edge, a sand spit can be seen, inhabited by rich avifauna. The
neighboring Asprolimni Lake (W07; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) is a similar lake to Alyki but
is much smaller in size and between them the area is covered by sand dunes. Then, the
route follows the coastal road of the impressive beach of Keros, reaching the lake of Chor-
tarolimni (W06; Table 3, Figure 9c), the largest seasonal swamp in the Aegean, with slightly
brackish waters (annual salinity of around 0.5‰), surrounded by halophytic vegetation
consisting of Arthrocnemum glaucum, Salsola soda and Scirpus lacustris, and extended sand
dunes that protect the lake from the waves and the inflow of sea water [79].
Figure 9. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a,b) Alyki Lake (W08); (c)
Chortarolimni (W06).
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 20 of 36
Alyki (W08), Asprolimni (W07), the smallest out of the three lakes, and Chortarolimni
(W06) represent a complex dynamic hydrogeological system of three lakes, developed on
the eastern coast of the island. Due to the rare species it hosts (e.g., porpoise, bottlenose
dolphin), as well as the habitats (Mediterranean grasslands with Juncus, saline steppes
with shifting coastal dunes), the area is under the protection of the Natura 2000 network
[94]. The wetland is featured by the development of sand dunes along the coast and the
impressive presence of thousands of flamingos during the winter [79]. The paleoenviron-
mental evolution of the coastal plain has been studied by [57] and [95], who proved that
a shallow marine environment with significant freshwater input was prevailing in be-
tween 5100 and 1040 BC, the paleo-shoreline being located 500 m in front of the present
day shoreline. Later on, a mesohaline lagoon to shallow bay developed in the period be-
tween 1040 BC and 760 AD [95]. Overall, the paleoenvironmental evolution in this area
has also been affected by the Black Sea outflow, starting at approx. 7500 cal. BP [96].
A special morphological feature of the area is the development of the Coastal sand
dunes of Alyki (G28) along the Alyki coast. Their formation requires a large supply of sand
and strong winds that blow for a long time, as well as the appropriate orientation of the
coast in relation to the wind conditions [97]. Coastal sand dunes are the dominant land-
form on the eastern coasts, creating the barrier between the sea and Alyki lagoon [95]. The
Sandy Arm of Alyki (G29; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) represents a sand barrier that has been
gradually created probably later than 820 AD [95].
Towards the southern tip of the gulf of Keros, the route ends at the spectacular Tafoni
forms in Kavalaris (G25; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), found in the volcanic rocks on the east of
the island at cape Kavalaris. These weathering formations resembling small caves are of-
ten characterized as “aeolian erosion formations”, however, their development is partly
due to wind action, but is mainly due to chemical weathering by the salt contained in the
sea water, which is transported by the wind [98,99]. They are developed especially in me-
dium to coarse-grained silicate rocks with granular fabric, such as granites and granodio-
rites or even sandstones [99].
4.2.5. Road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1: Kotsinas–Faraklo–Gomati
The starting point of the road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1 (Figure 10) is the Kotsinas Fortress
(C12; Table 4, Figures 3, 4 and 11a,b), located in the village of Kotsinas, in the bay of
Bournias. It was built in the 13th century probably by the Venetian Navigaiosi family who
ruled the island. The fortress was built on an artificial hill and had a rectangular shape. Its
three sides were surrounded by a fortification moat, while towards the sea there were
four-sided defensive towers. Inside there was a chapel built in 1415 and dedicated to Vir-
gin Mary [100]. Nowadays, only a few relics of the fortress remain, as the Venetians them-
selves destroyed it when they left Lemnos in 1657. The chapel has been replaced by the
church of Zoodochos Pigi. Τhe statue of Maroula of Lemnos in the church yard was made
in honor of the heroine Maroula, who fought bravely in 1478 during the siege of the Ko-
tsinas fortress by the Ottomans.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 21 of 36
Figure 10. Designed road georoutes for Lemnos Island.
Northwest of the Kotsinas settlement, the route leads to Sourladika (W09; Table 3,
Figures 3 and 4), which denotes a rare wetland system, consisting of several seasonal small
brackish to fresh water lakes formed in cavities between the coastal sand dunes [93,101].
The area hosts rich vegetation, and among other faunal elements, a large number of wild
rabbits.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 22 of 36
Figure 11. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) The church of Zoodochos
Pigi on the remnants of the Kotsinas Fortress (C12); (b) the statue of Maroula of Lemnos in the church
yard (Kotsinas Fortress); (c–e) Sedimentary Rocks of Faraklo (G34); (f,g,h) Inland Sand Dunes of Gomati
(G37); (i) detail of the sand from the dunes under a stereomicroscope: benthic foraminifera and a
fragment of an echinoid spicule.
Towards northeast the route reveals the Surficial Rectangular Forms in Trygies (G33),
impressive erosional forms [102] similar to the Sedimentary Rocks of Faraklo (G34) that are
unique outcrops with yellow spherical landforms (Figure 11c–e), a geosite assessed to be
of national significance (Table 3; Figures 3 and 4). It has been erroneously believed that
these landforms formed when volcanic lava came in contact with the sea water, but they
most likely are the product of coastal erosion. In the area of Trygies and Faraklo, the geo-
logical background consists of clay–sandstone alternations, which constitute the majority
of the outcropping sedimentary turbiditic rocks. Particularly in the area of Faraklo there
is an increase in the thickness and frequency of sandstone benches, which indicates dep-
osition in submarine fans. The sandstones are fine-grained to medium-grained, containing
quartz, feldspars, lithic fragments of various rocks (schists, volcanics, limestones, etc.),
titanite, chlorite, chromite grains and iron oxides–hydroxides [47,103]. In Cape Trygies,
thick-stratified sandstones and cobbles are observed with flow structures and evidence of
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 23 of 36
submarine sliding [47]. On the upper surface of the sandstone beds, spectacular forms are
observed, such as sandstone spheres and surficial rectangular and honeycomb cavity fea-
tures as the result of coastal erosion.
Finally, the route ends at the Inland Sand Dunes of Gomati (G37) or “Pachies Ammoud-
ies”, which are located at the northern part of the island [104]. With an area of about 70
acres, this ecosystem is characterized as a unique desert environment in the whole of Eu-
rope (Figure 11f–h) and a geosite of national significance (Table 3; Figures 3 and 4). These
inland sand dunes, being important but also sensitive habitats, certainly comprise a phe-
nomenon rare for an insular area, thus they are habitats protected by the Directive
92/43/EEC. They have been created by the strong NE winds that transport the sand from
the nearby beaches as evidenced by the scarce presence of shallow marine environment
benthic foraminifera (e.g., Elphidium crispum and fragments of echinoid spicules; Figure
11i), as well as by the aeolian erosion of the outcropping Oligocene sandstones. The local
vegetation consists mostly of Pancratium maritimum (white lillies), Ammophilala arenusus
agnaria, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Thymus vulgaris, Nerium oleander and Olea europea var. ole-
aster, etc.
4.2.6. Road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2: Hephaistia–Kaveirion–Plaka
This route (Figure 10) begins at the Archaeological Site of Hephaistia (C11; Table 4, Fig-
ures 3 and 4), built north of the Pournias gulf, which was in historical times the second
most important city of Lemnos after Myrina. Excavations carried out by the Italian School
of Archeology and the Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities revealed antiqui-
ties that prove the habitation of the area from the Late Bronze Age to the Byzantine times.
There are ancient ruins in almost 10 layers of a complex city displaying buildings, palaces,
baths, Christian churches, a Hellenistic Roman theatre and an 8th to 6th century BC sanc-
tuary, dedicated to the Great Goddess Lemnos, who corresponds to Goddess Artemis.
The Late Bronze Age settlement is marked by Mycenean pottery and includes the so-
called “walls of the isthmus” between the gulf of Pournias and the lagoon to the east, as
also a small paved road running in a north–south direction [105]. The Mycenean village
was abandoned abruptly, reflecting a time of new populations arriving in the area. The
next chapter in the history of the settlement from the second half of the eighth to seventh
century BC was featured by the Archaic Lemnian society with strong social stratification,
the presence of an acropolis, a sanctuary and the imprint of the Mediterranean economy
based on grain, wine and metal [105]. The sanctuary remains are preserved at two levels,
while the central space had desks on both sides, on which votive offerings and parts of a
cult statue of an ancient deity, the Great Goddess Lemnos, were found [106]. The ancient
theater is the most important monument of the Archaeological Site of Hephaistia (C11; Figure
12a) and is associated with an Athenian settlement on the island. Its caveat was built on
the semi-rocky slope of a hill, and on earlier sanctuaries of the 7th–6th century BC [107]
stated that it is the most ancient Greek theatre, although [105] questions this. Other im-
portant findings within the archeological site are a cemetery dating from the mid-8th to
the 5th century BC, two ceramic laboratory incinerators of the Hellenistic period (2nd–1st
century BC) discovered near the sanctuary, while southeast of the city near the sea, bath
facilities and remains of houses of the Hellenistic and Byzantine times have been discov-
ered. Hephaistia was set on fire by the Persians in 511 BC but it was built again by the
Athenians, being capital or co-capital of the island and the economic center until the Mid-
dle Ages, when its harbor was gradually embanked [108]. In the same location, the out-
door Ancient Quarry of Hephaistia (Figure 12b) at the northeastern part of the Paleopolis
peninsula represents a site where porous limestone was mined during Classical to Hel-
lenistic times and was widely used in the ancient city of Hephaistia [109]. Nowadays, a
large part of the quarry is covered by the sea.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 24 of 36
Figure 12. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) The Archaeological Site of
Hephaistia (C11); (b) the Ancient Quarry of Hephaistia; (c,d) Rejuvenated Drainage of Neftina (G30); (e)
Sanctuary of Kaveirion (C10); (f) Cave of Philoctetes (G31); (g) Honeycomb Weathering formations in Plaka
(G29).
The road Geo-Archaeo-Route 2 is continuous with the Rejuvenated Drainage of Neftina
(G30) that represents the spectacular case of the final stage of the erosion cycle of a fully
evolved hydrographic network (Figure 12c,d), indicating a local neotectonic uplift of a
fault-bounded block in the area affected by the Kondias–Kotsinas fault zone [63]. Shallow
riverbeds are furrowing the smooth morphological relief during the current stage of geo-
morphological relief rejuvenation.
Nearby at Cape Chloe, the Sanctuary of Kaveirion (C10; Figures 3, 4 and 12e) represents
one of the oldest sanctuaries in the Aegean from the second half of the 7th century BC
[110]; three telesteria have been discovered during the archeological excavations of the
Italian Archaeological School, dating back to Archaic, Hellenistic and late-Roman times
[111]. The religious ceremonies performed to honor the Kaveirians, mystery male deities
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 25 of 36
sometimes called Hephaistoi, indicating their association with Hephaestus, the god of fire
and blacksmiths and a secret cult, the so called Kaveirian Mysteries [112]. The oldest Ar-
chaic building consists of an irregular rectangular monument similar to the Acropolis of
Hephaistia that was also abruptly abandoned at the end of the 6th century BC [105], fea-
tured by a circular protrusion used as an altar or a podium. The Hellenistic telesterion
(200 BC) is a prostyle building with twelve Doric columns. It consists of a large central
space, divided vertically into three parts by two rows of Ionic columns, with an opening
to the north. Several items of the Classical and Hellenistic phase have been found in the
buildings, including many offerings, small lamps, compasses, ceramics and pieces of
sculptures, clay and copper statues, inscriptions, etc. During the years of the Roman Em-
pire, between the 2nd and 3rd century AD, the telesterion was looted and burned and
when the area was abandoned the site was used as a “quarry” for the construction of
younger buildings. The late-Roman telesterion is built over the Archaic one clearly remi-
niscent of the destroyed Hellenistic temple, being a 17-m-long room, divided into three
parts by two rows of five columns and a main hall separated from the sanctuaries by a
corridor [111].
In the same area, the Cave of Philoctetes (G31; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 12f), a coastal
cave located below the Kaveirion Archaeological Site, has been created by the effect of sea
waves on the rocky coastal cliff consisting of sedimentary rocks, mostly sandstones, and
has two entrances, the main one by the sea and a small one on the land side [95]. It took
its name from the king of Thessaly Philoctetes, who according to mythology, resorted to
it, when on the way to the Trojan War he was left on the island by the Achaeans because
he had been attacked on the leg by a poisonous snake. He remained in the cave for about
ten years and was healed with the help of “Terra Lemnia” [107].
The route ends towards the northwest coast with the Honeycomb Weathering for-
mations in Plaka (G29; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 12g) that are developed on the exposed
sandstones and tuffs. The phenomenon is intense, due to the wind action and the chemical
weathering caused by the salty sea water that enters the rocks through the discontinuities.
4.2.7. Road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 3: Diapori–Portianou–Sardes
The starting point at the metal-bearing Zone of Fakos (G18; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) is
a highlight of Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 3 (Figure 10), developed in the periphery of a sub-
volcanic body of quartz monzonitic composition that intrudes the shoshonitic andesites,
trachyandesites and trachytes volcanic rocks and the quartz-rich medium-grained sand-
stone sediments in the southern part of the Fakos peninsula, featured by intense hydro-
thermal alteration and quartz veining [113,114]. The area stands out due to the volcanic
penetrations within the sedimentary rocks and the gold ores; i.e., the Fakos Cu–Mo–Au
prospect, comprises the first occurrence of porphyry-related tourmaline in Greece [115].
The faults in the Fakos peninsula follow the general NE–SW and ENE–WSW directions
featuring the whole Lemnos island, significantly contributing to the deposition of sub-
volcanic bodies and facilitating the flow of the hydrothermal magmatic liquids responsi-
ble for metallic mineralization [116]. Three metal-bearing zones are exposed on the pen-
insula. The first is located in the southern part, in the quartz veins within the sandstones
and quartz monzonite. The second zone is located in the western part, while the third and
largest is located in the eastern part, displaying a length of 1 km and a thickness of 10 m
and is characterized by a high concentration of gold as an indication of a magmatic-hy-
drothermal contribution to the vein system [117].
To the north, the impressive Lava Domes of Skopos (G19; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) and
Kondias (G17; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 13a) are associated with the depression caused by
the Kornos–Kondias fault that hosts the intensive magmatic activity of the Katalakkon
and Myrina volcanic units, involving balloon-shaped domes of calc-alkaline shoshonitic
affinity, emplaced between 22 and 18 Ma in the Early Miocene [45][81].
In between the Lava Domes, the route meets the Diapori Swamp (W03) and the Petri-
fied Trunk of Paranisia (G16). The Diapori Swamp (Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) is a Natura 2000
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 26 of 36
Network protected wetland system consisting of shallow freshwater swamps, scattered
small seasonal lakes, salt marshes and extended sand dunes located in the area of Kondias
bay [80]. The area hosts numerous amphibians and reptiles [44] and supports considerable
amounts of threatened avifauna species (e.g., Tadorna ferruginea, Burhinus oedicnemus) on
an annual basis [29]. The nearby Kondias Artificial Lake (W04; Figures 3 and 4) covering an
area of 1,100,000 m2 in the southeastern part of the island represents together with the
Thanos reservoir the largest artificial water bodies on Lemnos [29], formed after the build-
ing of a soil dam in 1976.
Figure 13. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a) Lava Dome of Kondias
(G17); (b) the Pyramid of Lemnos (G21) at the edge of the cape Punta.
Moving northwards, Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 3 reaches the village of Sardes, where
the Metal-Bearing Zone of Sardes (G08; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), a system of quartz, has
been developed in zones within the volcanic rocks and sandstones, in the same direction
as that of the Fakos zones [118]. This interesting metal-bearing zone includes pyrite, mar-
casite and veinlets of silica [114].
The route continues to the southeast with a stop at the Museum of Maritime Tradition
and Sponge-Fishing of Nea Koutali (C07; Table 4, Figure 3). This cultural site is blending
nicely within Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 3, highlighting the history of the people of Koutali,
by presenting the craft of sponge-fishing and also archeological findings brought up by
the Koutalians during the sponge dives [119].
In the area of Portianou, the Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 3 encounters several fossiliferous
localities of in situ silicified wood hosted within pyroclastic rocks of the Romanou vol-
canic Unit [45], with the most important ones being the Petrified Forest of Tsimandria–Por-
tianou (G20; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4). The Romanou Unit that outcrops in the area is the
main host of the petrified woods on Lemnos island, consisting of up to 160 m thick pyro-
clastic flow deposits, classified as K-rich dacites to latites and are radiometrically dated as
19.8 Ma old [45]. The petrified trunks found could have been formed partly by devitrifi-
cation processes by near neutral-pH fluids in swamp depressions, which were flooded by
the upwelling hydrothermal fluids in the periphery of the magmatic-hydrothermal center
of the Fakos peninsula [120].
After passing through the Petrified Forest of Tsimandria–Portianou (G20), the route
heads towards the Volcanic Vein of Portianou (G21; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), located at the
cape of Punta. At the edge of the cape, the mysterious Pyramid of Lemnos (G21) represents
according to a non-proven point of view, a 1920’s Cossacks cenotaph, in honor of those
who lost their lives in exile on the island during the Russian Civil War [121]. Another
interpretation links this building with military constructions, potentially made by Aus-
tralian mechanics during March of 1915 in the first world war [122].
Finally, a visit to the Portianou Folklore Museum (C05; Table 4, Figure 3) is a cultural
must of Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 3. The Folklore Museum located in the Portianou village
was founded in 1995 and is housed in a two-story traditional building, exhibiting the life-
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 27 of 36
mode of the Lemnos inhabitants of the previous centuries, e.g., traditional costumes, var-
ious knitting tools, fireplace and cooking utensils, handmade wedding dresses and laces,
agricultural tools, etc.
4.2.8. Road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 4: Myrina–Avlona–Mourtzouflos
Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 4 (Figure 10) starts from the Sanctuary of Artemis (C01; Table
4, Figure 3) located in the area of Avlonas of Myrina at the Porto Myrina Hotel. The site
was functioning as a temple of the goddess Artemis for more than eight centuries during
the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic Periods [123]. The temple complex included a large
central paved yard and a sanctuary. Three wells were providing the sanctuary with water
and a rectangular room at the northwest end of the enclosure was most probably acting
as a gathering place for the initiation of the ceremonies. The worship of the Tauric God-
dess was implanted at an early time in Lemnos, and also in Vravron (Attica) and Crimea.
The legend of the Tauric Artemis was associated with human sacrifice, related to a blood-
thirsty bull-devourer goddess, featuring the Attic-Lemnian worship [124]. The site exca-
vations revealed many artefacts and relics, including pottery, figurines, perfume contain-
ers, jewelry, etc., all of which are on display at the Archaeological Museum of Myrina.
Interestingly, several figurines of a bull, found together with the remains of a sacrificed
bull, further indicate the relation to the worship of the Tauric Goddess Artemis in Vravron
Attica.
Following the route to the north, the visitor encounters the impressive Lava Dome at
Avlonas Beach (G09; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), which belongs to the Myrina Unit consisting
of the youngest lava domes and occasional flows with mainly dacitic composition and an
age of 19.3 to 18.2 Ma [45].
Along the coastal road in the northwestern part of the island, the route comes across
some unique Coastal Landforms in Aghios Ioannis (G07; Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 14a,b) at
the sandy beach of Aghios Ioannis near Kaspakas village. The outcropping landforms in-
clude spectacular sea stacks and tafoni forms of honeycomb weathering in volcanic rocks
in the coastal zone of the Myrina volcanic Unit [46].
Nearby, the well-defined scarp of the important Active Fault of Kaspakas (G06; Table
3, Figures 3, 4 and 14c) marks the landscape, being one of the most famous faults on the
island, as well as in the entire Aegean. It is a normal fault of about 11 km in length with a
WNW–ESE strike and respective maximum expected earthquake magnitude of M6.4 [61].
It stands out for its well-defined fault scarp and polished fault mirrors, located at its west-
ernmost tip, affecting mainly the volcanic basement during the Early Miocene [46,63]. In
the area of Kaspakas, Aghios Ioannis Gorge (G04; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4), the most im-
portant gorge of the island bearing a length of about 3 km is associated with the tectonic
activity of the Kaspakas fault combined with the continuous water erosion. The Katsaitis
stream flows within the Aghios Ioannis Gorge, creating at its end the Kaspakas Waterfall
(G05) near the beach of Aghios Ioannis; the fast-flowing waters fall from a height of about
15 m forming cavities and small lakes on the rocky substrate that provide shelter for the
local fauna of frogs, turtles, eels and crabs [79].
Further to the north, the Neroviglia Gorge (G03; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4) with a length
of about 1 km is located at the northwestern tip of the island, ending at a picturesque small
sandy beach. Towards its end, the Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 4 roams to reach its final desti-
nation at the cape of Mourtzouflos. The cape forms the Lava Dome of Mourtzouflos (G01;
Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 14d), which belongs to the Katalakkon volcanic Unit, intruded in
the sediments of the Fissini-Sardes Unit [46]. The Katalakkon volcanics are exposed along
a NW–SE trending zone that extends to the south extremity of Cape Fakos and has been
radiometrically dated at 20–21 Ma [45]. The Lava Dome of Mourtzouflos is connected to the
rest of the island with a sandy isthmus, the impressive Tombolo of Mourtzouflos (G02; Table
3, Figures 3, 4 and 14d).
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 28 of 36
Figure 14. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a,b) Coastal Landforms in
Agios Ioannis (G07); (c) the active Fault of Kaspakas (G06) (photo courtesy of A. Chatzipetros); (d) the
impressive Tombolo of Mourtzouflos (G02).
4.2.9. Road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 5: Koukonisi–Poliochni
The route starts (Figure 10) from the Koukonisi islet wetland (W05; Table 3, Figures 3,
4 and 15a,b) that is part of the Natura 2000 network and includes extended salt flats de-
veloping between the islet and the coastal zone at the northeastern part of the Moudros
Gulf [80]. The Prehistoric Settlement of Koukonisi (C08; Table 4, Figure 3) located in the area,
was first discovered in 1992 during exploratory excavations and together with the other
prehistoric sites on the island pinpoints the importance of Lemnos during the Bronze Age
associated with its strategic location in the Aegean at the vicinity of the Dardanelles en-
trance and opposite Troy. Human presence is testified in Lemnos from around 12,000 BC,
with signs of communities of fruit pickers, fishermen and hunters located at Ouriakos, on
the eastern outer coast of the gulf of Moudros [30]. Early Bronze Age (3200–2000 BC) evi-
dence with signs of early urbanization appear in the northeastern part of the Koukonisi
islet, in the settlement area on the Koukonos plateau [125–127]. Τhe highest plateau on the
islet had been artificially formed by continuous habitation for almost 2000 years, exhibit-
ing Middle Helladic, Minoan and Mycenaean finds, with habitation lasting at least up to
the Geometric and Archaic period. The Early Bronze Age figurines of human form made
either of clay or of bone are thought to have been used in rituals and other ceremonies.
The following Middle Bronze Age (2000–1650 BC) was marked by a hiatus detected in the
habitation of the islet, being a period of prosperity for Koukonisi that was linked to the
established trade activities with several Aegean regions [127]. During the Late Bronze Age
(1650–1200 BC) early stages, the presence of Minoan civilization elements and culture
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 29 of 36
coming from the southern Aegean strongly characterizes the southern part of the settle-
ment. Later on, around the 14th century BC the Mycenaeans prevailed in Koukonisi in an
attempt to maintain a balance of power in the Aegean area. Their installation was perma-
nent, a fact that is attributed to the abundant appearance of Mycenaean pottery in the
Koukonisi excavation site [127]; Mycenaean pottery has also been found in Hephaistia and
other Lemnian sites, testifying the widespread Mycenaean presence on the island that
proves commercial ties with Asia Minor.
Towards southeast, the Road Geo-Archaeo-Route 5 heads to the Cave of the Seal (G22;
Table 3, Figures 3, 4 and 15c), east of the bay of Moudros, at Mikro Fanaraki beach. The
cave is a result of coastal erosion mainly of pyroclastic rocks such as tuffs of the Romanou
volcanic Unit [46] and took its name from the Monachus monachus seals.
Turning back to the west, the route passes through the area of the natural monument
of the Petrified Forest of Moudros–Roussopouli–Kaminia (G23, 24; Table 3, Figures 3 and 4)
with silicified wood remains. The magmatic-hydrothermal systems that developed in the
area about 20 million years ago provided the silica-enriched fluids that affected the tree
trunks and plant remains, thus beginning the process of fossilization, the molecular re-
placement of organic plant matter by silica. The fossils that have been found in the area
are: Cedroxylon sp., Cornoxylon pappi, Daphnogene polymorpha, Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Glyp-
tostrobus europaeus, Laurinoxylon ehrendorferi, Phragmites sp., Pronephrium stiriacum, Pinoxy-
lon parenchymatosum, Sabal sp., Sequoia abietina, as well as the roots, seeds and leaves of
palm trees [85]. Most of the findings are exhibited in the old town hall of Moudros.
Figure 15. Selected geosites on Lemnos Island, for coding see Figure 3. (a,b) Koukonisi islet wetland
(W05); (c) The Cave of the Seal (G22); (d) Prehistoric Settlement of Poliochni (C13).
The route ends at the famous Prehistoric Settlement of Poliochni (C13; Table 4, Figures
3 and 15d), which was discovered in the early 1930s by the Italian School of Archeology.
The settlement is built on the east coast of Lemnos, in the area of Kaminia and was
founded on a coastal terrace, in a coastal environment progressively flooded by the rising
sea level [128]. Dated since the end of the Neolithic era and continuously developing
mainly during the Early Bronze Age, Poliochni is considered to be one of the most ancient
towns in Europe, preceding Troy I. Its development was due to the leading role it played
in the transit trade with the islands of the northeastern Aegean, the coasts of Asia Minor,
mainland Greece and the Cyclades islands. The evolution of the settlement is divided into
seven periods, which are symbolized by colors [129,130]. The small settlement of circular
huts of the “black period” (3700–3200 BC) has evolved into a larger and partially fortified
settlement of rectangular elongated houses during the “cyan period” (3200–2700 BC). The
“green period” (2700–2400 BC) is marked by population increases and a developed road
network in contrast to the settlement shrink of the “red period” (2400–2200 BC) that nev-
ertheless displayed the first monumental palaces. During the “yellow period” (2200–2100
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 30 of 36
BC), the settlement is associated with the Troy II [129] and is featured by important build-
ings. The irreversible destruction of the settlement took place in 2100 BC, when an earth-
quake struck Lemnos [131]. The following “brown” and “violet” (2000–1200 BC) periods
are decline periods for the settlement associated with the rivalry with Troy.
5. Synthesis and Conclusions
Οverall, Lemnos Island displays an authentic natural environment also rich in reli-
gious, archaeological, historical and cultural heritage, offering the opportunity for new,
alternative forms of tourism that favor authentic experiences and a connection to local
communities, thus setting the foundations for sustainable rural development in a geoeth-
ical perspective.
The final result of the quantitative assessment of the selected geosites combined with
the distribution of the cultural sites on the island reveals the potential perspectives of the
island for the development of “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” on Lemnos Island, towards a holistic
geotouristic approach. In this way, the identification of even small-scale areas of interest
is made possible, which can now be implemented in a broader network of touristic sites
of the island to demonstrate in the most efficient way the linkages between local cultural
context, archaeological monuments, biodiversity hotspots, landscapes and geological her-
itage.
In the present study, we propose “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” as authentic paths, a kind of
time-capsules that integrate the geological features of the deep past of Lemnos Island to-
gether with the cultural archaeological and historical elements of the human societal im-
prints of the recent past, both being embodied in the modern natural geomorphological
landscape. The involved sites are examples of mixed cultural–natural heritage providing
cases where either geoheritage acts as an added value to the cultural heritage or vice versa
[132].
Under this concept, the hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1 takes the geotourists from 19
million years ago when the volcanic rocks of the Myrina Unit were formed, to the Late
Neolithic–Early Bronze age when these rocks were used as building stones for the Prehis-
toric Settlement of Myrina and later on, at the 13th century BC, for the “Cyclopean” walls
of Myrina Castle, constructed by the Thessalians Minyans on the Lava Dome of Myrina.
Out of the highlights of hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2, Panagia Kakkaviotissa Church of the
14th century AD, built in a large cavity shaped on the Lava Dome of Kakkavo volcanic rocks
of 19 million years in age, further verifies the concept that natural rock formations and
landforms often represent locations of religious or spiritual significance [15,132]. The Pet-
rified Forest of Lemnos, with floristic evidence of about 20 million years in age, is scattered
over a large part of Lemnos Island, comprising an important element of several “Geo-Ar-
chaeo-Routes”, enabling the geotourists to realize a totally different landscape for that time
interval, with extended forests of coniferous trees petrified after extended volcanic erup-
tions. This experience has an apparent geoethical value as it provides the public with the
opportunity to understand the consequences of potential natural hazards and also to raise
awareness about the need for fossil preservation. The inactive Volcanic Crater of Moschylos,
linked to the Greek god of fire and volcanoes God Hephaestus, in the hiking “Geo-Archaeo-
Route” 3 and the Cave of Philoctetes in road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2 are typical cases of ge-
omythology, a type of intangible heritage [132]. The hiking “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 3 offers
one more travel in time at the geosite of Terra Lemnia, a weathered volcanic tuff clay of 20
million years in age that has been widely used as a medicine, particularly against the
plague in medieval Europe. The modern landscape of Alyki Lake within hiking “Geo-Ar-
chaeo-Route” 4 keeps well hidden a rather complicated paleoenvironmental evolution of
the coastal plain, providing evidence of the ancient shoreline (5100–1040 BC) to be located
500 m in front of the present-day shoreline, thus enabling geo-education about the hazard
of sea level rise. In the same line, the Inland Sand Dunes of Gomati, a unique desert envi-
ronment in the whole of Europe, along the road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 1, present a perfect
geo-educational example for the hazard of aridification and desertification in the current
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 31 of 36
times of global warming. The Ancient Quarry of Hephaistia in road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 2
represents an interface of geoheritage and cultural heritage [132], while the Pyramid of
Lemnos in road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 3 declares the early 20th century historical imprint on
the natural environment. On the other hand, the temple of the Tauric Goddess and the
road paved with volcanic stones from the 19-million-year-old yard of the Sanctuary of Ar-
temis in road “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 4, imply the link between Lemnos and Crimea in the
Black Sea, from the Archaic period. The prominent scarp of the Active Fault of Kaspakas not
only marks the landscape of western Lemnos, but provides an excellent geoethical oppor-
tunity to contribute to the history of science and offer the public the scientific knowledge
concerning the geology of the whole North Aegean to also raise awareness about the seis-
mic hazards (e.g., [132]). The Prehistoric Settlement of Koukonisi at the vicinity of the ho-
monymous wetland within “Geo-Archaeo-Route” 5 further verifies the development of
Lemnos during the Bronze Age, while increasing the public awareness for sustainable en-
vironmental management. Finally, the Poliochni settlement, considered as one of the old-
est towns in Europe, takes the visitors back not only to the late Neolithic age, but even as
old as more than 20 million years ago, when the area was experiencing intense volcanic
activity, as the building stones of the site mostly come from the surrounding Romanou
volcanic Unit.
This study resulted in the extensive documentation and assessment based on the sci-
entific literature and evaluation criteria of 46 geosites on Lemnos Island. All of them have
been integrated with 12 cultural sites in 9 hiking and road “Geo-Archaeo-Routes” designed
to serve the visitors in the best way, covering a wide range of topics also associated with
good accessibility, safety and adequately available information. The proposed “Geo-Ar-
chaeo-Routes” have been followed and mapped in the field. Afterwards, all data were im-
ported in the G.I.S. ArcMap 10.4 software to produce the relevant maps. Both hiking and
road routes are proposed to follow the already existing dirt and paved roads network, the
starting points being large villages and/or sites of ample interest so that besides hiking
where feasible, they can be realized by any means of transport (car, bike, local transport,
bus, etc.) in a holistic geotouristic approach.
As a next step, there will be an effort to make the touristic operators, local authorities
and society of the island interested in the promotion of the proposed “Geo-Archaeo-Routes”
to the touristic audience. In parallel, technology and innovation and a bridging approach
between the cultural and creative sectors will be applied for the construction of story maps
and 3D models that will be used as inputs for Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality (AR/VR)
applications or even for the production of 3D prints at various scales. By transforming the
natural and cultural touristic experience into an AR/VR product, we may transfer natural
beauty, past civilizations and the history of Lemnos to people from all over the world,
providing an opportunity to take part in socially, historically and culturally immersive
virtual tours.
In all cases, there will be a particular effort concerning the geo-educational part;
namely, coaching the touristic masses to behave according to the geoethical values and to
be conscious about the preservation of the unique Lemnos geoenvironment.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.V.T., N.F. and A.S.; methodology, M.V.T., N.F. and
A.S.; software, E.V., Τ.T. and E.S.; validation, M.V.T., N.F., A.O. and A.S.; formal analysis, M.V.T.,
N.F. and A.O.; investigation, M.V.T., N.F., O.K. and A.O.; resources, M.V.T., N.F. and A.O.; data
curation, N.F.; writing—original draft preparation, M.V.T. and N.F.; writing—review and editing,
M.V.T., T.T. and E.S.; visualization, T.T., E.V., E.S. and O.K.; supervision, M.V.T.; project admin-
istration, M.V.T. and N.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manu-
script.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Geosciences 2023, 13, 143 32 of 36
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