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Abstract
Zoos and aquariums are culturally and historically important places where families enjoy their leisure time and scientists study exotic animals. Many contain buildings of great architectural merit. Some people consider zoos little more than animal prisons, while others believe they play an important role in conservation and education. Zoos have been the subject of a vast number of academic studies, whose results are scattered throughout the literature. This interdisciplinary volume brings together research on animal behaviour, visitor studies, zoo history, human-animal relationships, veterinary medicine, welfare, education, enclosure design, reproduction, legislation, and zoo management conducted at around 200 institutions located throughout the world. The book is neither 'pro-' nor 'anti-' zoo and attempts to strike a balance between praising zoos for the good work they have done in the conservation of some species, while recognising that they face many challenges in making themselves relevant in the modern world.
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Even if reintroduction is not the goal of a captive breeding programme, zoos can contribute to wildlife and habitat conservation in a number of ways, including public education, scientific research, development and transfer of relevant technologies, professional training, political action and involvement in field conservation. The AZA Elephant SSP is an example of a programme where captive breeding and exhibition programmes can be of great value to in situ conservation both directly and indirectly. Examples of the value of public education, scientific research into reproductive biology, the testing of relevant technology and the training of veterinarian and biological support staff area discuss. Zoos can and do raise funds for field conservation. The authors end the paper by outlining cooperative ventures and information exchange between AZA and IUCN/SSC.
Ex situ conservation is one of the major ways to strengthen biodiversity conservation. In China, ex situ conservation institutions mainly include zoos, aquariums, and breeding centers. In 1996, China began to import living animals duty-free for conservation purposes. Here, we built a dataset of nearly 300 vertebrate species (mammals, birds, fish and reptiles) imported into China over this past 20 years by interviewing all 123 institutions importing animals duty-free during 1996–2015. We then analyzed the annual variation of the species composition and individual numbers of these imported species, and quantified the relative population growth rate of each imported species for the first time. We found that the number of living animals imported into China decreased significantly year by year. The number of imported bird species and reptile individuals decreased the most, but the population growth rate was increasing for about half of the imported threatened species. We recommend that conservation institutions should enhance communication and promote cooperative breeding among them. Scientific research and sustainability assessments of threatened species should also be enhanced, which will allocate trade licenses and quotas more effectively. We hope that the data presented in this paper will contribute to the development of conservation policies, leading to stronger management of these imported species in China.
Simple Summary
Giraffe numbers have been plummeting over the last 30 years by 30–40%. As such, efforts to manage in situ and ex situ populations are increasing. Assisted reproduction techniques such as sperm cryopreservation can help preserve the genetic diversity of giraffe subspecies or enhance genetic exchange between populations. However, to date, the post-thaw motility of recovered sperm has been variable. In this study, spermatozoa were collected from the epididymides of seven giraffes to investigate whether an alternative cryoprotectant could improve sperm motility following conventional cryopreservation. For this, we compared the motility and viability of sperm prior to and after freezing in three different extenders: a commercial equine extender (BotuCrio®; Nidacon, Moedal, Schweden), a commercial bovine extender (Steridyl, Minitube, Tiefenbach, Germany), and an in-house “made” bovine egg yolk extender (TEY). Each was further supplemented with either glycerol or a mix of glycerol and methylformamide cryoprotectants. The results show that spermatozoa frozen with a mix of two cryoprotectants had significantly higher post-thaw motility compared to glycerol alone. Specifically, spermatozoa frozen in TEY and a mix of cryoprotectants achieved post-thaw sperm motility of 57 ± 3%. These results might serve as a blueprint for an improved protocol for giraffe sperm cryopreservation.
Abstract
Giraffe numbers have plummeted over the last 30 years by 30–40%. Thus, their conservation status has been raised from least concern to vulnerable. Efforts to manage in situ and ex situ populations are increasing. Assisted reproduction techniques (ART) such as sperm cryopreservation could help preserve the genetic diversity of giraffe subspecies and, when used for artificial inseminations, enhance genetic exchange between isolated populations. However, to date, the post-thaw motility of recovered sperm has been low and inconsistent. In this study, epididymal sperm collected from the testes of giraffes (n = 7) was frozen in three different extenders, namely, BotuCrio, Steridyl, and test egg yolk (TEY), each supplemented with one of two different cryoprotectants (5% glycerol or a mix of 1% glycerol and 4% methylformamide) and frozen over liquid nitrogen vapor. Across all three extenders, sperm showed significantly better post-thaw results when frozen with a mix of glycerol and methylformamide compared with glycerol alone. Sperm frozen with TEY and a mix of glycerol and methylformamide achieved superior post-thaw total and progressive sperm motility of 57 ± 3% and 45 ± 3%, respectively. These results show the benefit of using alternative cryoprotectants for freezing giraffe spermatozoa and could aid in the application of ARTs for giraffe subspecies or the closely related endangered Okapi.
Tapirs are endangered terrestrial mammals that inhabit several continents. They have anatomical
similarities to horses, sharing a common ancestral lineage. This article reports the case of a 14-yr-old female
lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) presented for intermittent lameness due to upward fixation of the patella causing
extension of the limb in the caudal phase of the stride. Medial patellar desmotomy was performed under general
anesthesia, correcting the problem. To date there are no reports of this condition or treatment recommendations
in tapirs. An anatomical study including stifle dissection, advanced MRI, and CT was performed in a separate
lowland tapir. According to the clinical case and the anatomical findings in the other lowland tapir, upward
fixation of the patella may occur in the tapir, although the anatomy varies slightly from that of the horse. Because
the lowland tapir does not have parapatellar cartilage or as large of a medial patellar ligament or medial trochlea
of the distal femur compared to the horse, more severe disease secondary to complete or persistent upward
fixation of the patella may not occur in tapirs. Rather, mild forms of the disease associated with intermittent
upward fixation of the patella or delayed patellar release appear more likely in the tapir.
Amphibians and reptiles are highly threatened vertebrate taxa with large numbers of species threatened with extinction. With so many species at risk, conservation requires the efficient and cost-effective application of all the tools available so that as many species as possible are assisted. Biobanking of genetic material in genetic resource banks (GRBs) in combination with assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to retrieve live animals from stored materials are two powerful, complementary tools in the conservation toolbox for arresting and reversing biodiversity decline for both amphibians and reptiles. However, the degree of development of the ARTs and cryopreservation technologies differ markedly between these two groups. These differences are explained in part by different perceptions of the taxa, but also to differing reproductive anatomy and biology between the amphibians and reptiles. Artificial fertilisation with cryopreserved sperm is becoming a more widely developed and utilised technology for amphibians. However, in contrast, artificial insemination with production of live progeny has been reported in few reptiles, and while sperm have been successfully cryopreserved, there are still no reports of the production of live offspring generated from cryopreserved sperm. In both amphibians and reptiles, a focus on sperm cryopreservation and artificial fertilisation or artificial insemination has been at the expense of the development and application of more advanced technologies such as cryopreservation of the female germline and embryonic genome, or the use of sophisticated stem cell/primordial germ cell cryopreservation and transplantation approaches. This review accompanies the publication of ten papers on amphibians and twelve papers on reptiles reporting advances in ARTs and biobanking for the herpetological taxa.
The good intentions of zoos to introduce enrichment practices that stimulate animals mentally and physically are not always achievable. Changes to the policies and procedures in organisations are difficult to fulfil for a range of reasons frequently investigated in change management literature. The implementation of these changes can be the source of ineffective attempts to generate positive interventions in organisations. In this study, we investigate whether interventions to improve animal management in zoos through enrichment are subject to implementation impediments. Qualitative data gathered from interviews with 23 keepers working with big cats across 12 zoos globally provided valuable insights into the barriers and enablers to the implementation of enrichment. Keepers participated voluntarily and worked in accredited zoos across Australia, New Zealand, Europe, south-east Asia, South Africa, and the United States of America. Thematic analysis of the data revealed five key themes that described some of the challenges zoos and keepers experience when implementing enrichment for big cats, in their words: “let’s just be cautious”, “purely surviving”, “struggle to understand the goal”, “can’t always provide what you should”, and “judge the effectiveness”. These themes provide additional insights into potential areas for improvement, including greater attention to the benefits of enrichment for animal mental health and increased transparency around enrichment objectives in zoos.
Background:
In this report, we describe the clinical, macro-, and microscopic findings of a newborn zebra victim of a fatal trauma and its possible causes are discussed in detail.
Case description:
A plains zebra (Equus quagga) born in a Portuguese zoo was found in hypothermia and unable to get up. The animal was admitted to the hospital 36 hours later and, after the first hour of treatment and no attempts to get up, it began to convulse and died. At necropsy, subdural hematoma and atlantoaxial dislocation were the main findings.
Conclusion:
The inability to pinpoint the exact moment of the lesions' onset determines the importance of a thorough surveillance of the periparturient period and parturition of captive animals. Furthermore, literature concerning zebras, their reproduction, and neonatal period is scarce, reinforcing the need to report these cases.
Large carnivores are frequently released for conservation purposes, but early efforts struggled with inadequate monitoring and reporting, resulting in poor understanding of success. Although managers have improved release practice and monitoring, the use of orphaned, captive-raised large carnivores for release remains controversial because of the potential influence of captivity and the possible lack of natural behaviours in such individuals. Yet, rehabilitating orphaned individuals for release could help mitigate pressures on vulnerable wild populations. We present a case study on the rearing, rehabilitation and release of wild-born cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus that were rescued as orphans in Namibia. Our aim was to develop a methodological framework for cheetah release planning and post-release management based on the outcome of release trials conducted during 2004–2018. Between 2001 and 2012, we rescued 86 orphaned cheetahs from the wild. Of these, 36 (42%) were selected as release candidates. We found high success rates (75–96%) of selected individuals in achieving independence post-release. Additionally, annual survival estimates for rehabilitated individuals that reached independence were comparable to those of wild counterparts described by other studies, and some rehabilitated individuals reproduced with wild conspecifics. Our findings demonstrate the ability of wild-born, captive-raised cheetahs to transition back into the wild with strategic pre- and post-release management directed towards optimizing survival. This includes selecting appropriate release candidates, forming artificial coalitions, balancing habituation levels during captivity, choosing appropriate release sites, and providing strategic support during post-release monitoring. We encourage scientists and managers to implement and refine our protocol for rehabilitation throughout the cheetah's current and historic range.
Assisted reproductive technologies can aid conservation efforts via support of ex situ population management and preservation of genetic material. Data from 38 sperm collection attempts from 17 polar bears (1–5 procedures/bear) were evaluated. Sample collections were attempted via elec-troejaculation (EEJ; n = 6), urethral catheterization (UC; n = 25), or sperm rescue (SR; n = 7) during the breeding season (Jan. 1-May 21; n = 27) and nonbreeding season (May 22-Dec. 31; n = 11). Sperm retrieval was successful in 1 EEJ (16.7%), 18 UC (72.0%) and 4 SR (57.1%) collections. Initial sperm motility and viability were 50.0% and 77.0% for EEJ, 64.3 ± 7.4% and 80.9 ± 3.8% for UC, and 56.7 ± 8.8% and 80.5 ± 0.5% for SR. UC and SR were more likely to be successful during the breeding season (84.2–100%) than the nonbreeding season (25.0–33.3%). Testicular tumors were observed in four males (57%) during SR. In total, 13 samples were cryopreserved (n = 1 EEJ, 9 UC, and 3 SR) with egg-yolk-based equine extender (EQ) or OptiXcell (OP). For both extenders, post-thaw motility and viability were reduced by 20–60% and 30–65%, respectively. Further efforts to optimize procedures are warranted, but this summary provides data useful for enhancing the success of polar bear sperm collection and cryopreservation.
Alliance formation plays a crucial part in male dolphins’ lives. These partnerships may last for decades or even for a lifetime; thus, partner choice and the maintenance of these relationships are both considered key components of alliance formation. In our previous investigations, pairs of adult male dolphins showed a high success rate in cooperative manipulation of a cognitive enrichment device. Here, we introduced two novel cognitive enrichment devices to the group of five dolphins, facilitating simultaneous actions for not only pairs, but for three or even four dolphins. The devices were made of PVC tubes, fittings and caps equipped with rope handles, creating a three-way (T-shape) and a four-way (TT-shape) device. The devices were filled with fish and ice and were designed to be opened by simultaneous pull of the handles. Both devices were tested in 12 trials (each lasted for 15 min), separately. Only one of the caps could be opened, the others were affixed with the position of the openable cap counter-balanced over the trials. Although the dolphins received no training regarding the manipulation of the devices, they were successful in cooperatively opening the three-way devices in 10/12 of trials (70% by two and 30% by three dolphins) and the four-way devices also in 10/12 trials (50% by two, 40% by three and 10% by four dolphins). The dolphins interacted with the devices during the entire testing time, and this was mostly spent in cooperative play (77% and 56% of the test duration with the three-way and four-way device, respectively). The majority of the cooperative play was observed between one particular pair of dolphins that was temporarily associated with a third or sometimes even with a fourth dolphin. These findings demonstrate the first successful use of multi-partner cooperative enrichment devices, providing information on the social organisation of a male dolphin group.
Background
Captive breeding of bonobos (Pan paniscus) has proven to be successful, but maintaining genetic diversity remains a challenge. Cryopreservation of semen is an important potential tool to maintain genetic diversity by preserving current genetic material for future use, as well as facilitating the transport and exchange of genetic material. This study aimed to develop a protocol for semen collection and cryopreservation in the bonobo. Semen was collected from four healthy adult bonobos under general anesthesia during management translocation procedures. Semen collection utilizing urethral catheterization was not successful (n = 1), however, all males (n = 4) responded well to rectal probe electro-ejaculation. Immediately after collection, ejaculates were evaluated for color and admixtures, volume, motility, and concentration. Eosin-Nigrosin staining was prepared to evaluate morphology and viability. Ejaculates were split into two equal volumes and cryopreserved in two different extenders, using a one-step and a two-step approach. Ejaculates were gradually cooled to 4 °C in two hours, subsequently stored in liquid nitrogen vapor for twenty minutes (0.25 ml straws), and finally dropped into liquid nitrogen.
Results
Pre-freeze evaluation showed thick, white samples with an average ejaculate volume of 450 µl (100-1000 µl), total motility of 59% (40–80%), viability of 69% (38–85%) and 58% (46–72%) normal spermatozoa. Mainly head (22%) and tail (19%) defects were detected on the Eosin-Nigrosin stain. Ejaculates were highly concentrated, nevertheless, due to the coagulum that caused high viscosity and non-homogenous fractions, only estimations of concentration could be made (1000 million/ml). After 24 h of storage, the post-thaw evaluation showed a loss of quality with an average post-thaw total motility of 15% (5–25%) using the one-step freezing medium, and 19% (5–30%) using the two-step medium. Average post-thaw viability was 15% (4–24%) and 21% (15–29%), respectively.
Conclusions
This report on ejaculates from bonobos obtained by rectal probe electro-ejaculation shows that semen parameters of this species are not completely similar to those of its sibling species, the chimpanzee. Further studies are necessary to develop an optimal protocol for the processing and cryopreservation of bonobo spermatozoa.
Haemorrhagic disease associated with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (Elephantid herpesvirus, EEHV) infections is the leading cause of death for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) calves. This study assessed the effect of captive herd management on EEHV shedding, as evidence of latent infection reactivation, focusing on: (1) the influence of social change on the odds of recrudescence; (2) the respective effects of between and within herd moves; and (3) characteristics of recrudescent viral shedding. Trunk and conjunctival swabs (n = 165) were obtained from six elephants at an EAZA-accredited zoo, collected during a period of social stability, and at times of social change. Longitudinal sampling took place at times of moving two bulls out of the collection and one new bull into an adjacent enclosure to the cow herd (between herd moves), and during a period of mixing this new bull with the cow herd to facilitate mating (within herd moves). Quantitative PCR was employed to detect EEHV 1a/b, 4a/b, and EF–1–α (housekeeping gene). Generalised estimating equations determined EEHV recrudescence odds ratios (OR) and relative viral DNA load. Sixteen EEHV 1a/b shedding events occurred, but no EEHV 4a/b was detected. All management-derived social changes promoted recrudescence (social change OR = 3.27, 95% CI = 0.412–26, p = 0.262; and between herd moves OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 0.178−14.4, p = 0.675), though within herd movements posed the most significant increase of EEHV reactivation odds (OR = 6.86, 95% CI = 0.823−57.1, p = 0.075) and demonstrated the strongest relative influence (post hoc Tukey test p = 0.0425). Shedding onset and magnitude ranged from six to 54 days and from 3.59 to 11.09 ΔCts. Differing challenges are associated with between and within herd movements, which can promote recrudescence and should be considered an exposure risk to naïve elephants.
The purpose of this study is to review how the asset measurement of zoo animals is undertaken. Zoo animals are a zoo's greatest asset, and from its stewardship perspective, its balance sheet should reflect the value of the animals. The asset measurement of zoo animals underpins the ability of zoos to account for the animals they hold via their annual financial reporting. At present, there is no definitive, internationally recognised accounting framework and guidance on asset measurement techniques for zoo animals. The research question of this paper is, therefore: (i) to provide a review of current reporting requirements for zoo animals; (ii) to investigate the types and extent of asset measurement and financial reporting of zoo animals; and (iii) to determine what the commonly used alternatives are. A descriptive survey of existing financial reporting practices is applied to this research to explore the asset measurement techniques of zoo animals by examining published annual reports.
Indian leopards kept in zoos are fed solely on carabeef on bone (CBB) diets. Carabeef contains lesser or no carotenoids. Hence, the captive Indian leopard diets are suspected to be deficient in carotenoids while their wild counterparts acquire these pigments from their natural prey. Lutein is a vital carotenoid that plays its role as an antioxidant and immunomodulator. This experiment investigates the effect of lutein supplementation on antioxidant status, immunity, and stress in captive Panthera fusca fed CBB diets. Nine leopards were used based on 3 × 3 replicated Latin square designs in the experiment. Groups CON, LUT20, and LUT40 were supplemented with 0, 20, and 40 ppm of lutein, respectively. Each experiment comprised of 10 days of wash-out period, 11 days of adaptation, and 4 days of collection. Digestibility of crude protein (CP) was higher (p < .01) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Serum concentration of protein, globulin, urea (p < .05), total carotenoids, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), catalase (CAT) activity, and lymphocyte transformation test (LTT) index were higher (p < .001) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and serum concentration of immunoglobulin were higher (p < .001) in group LUT20. Serum concentration of malonaldehyde (MDA) and fecal concentration of cortisol decreased (p < .001) in groups LUT20 and LUT40. Serum concentration of total immunoglobulin (µg/ml) and LTT were higher in group LUT20. Fecal concentration of cortisol (ng/g) was lower in LUT20 and LUT40. The study concludes that supplementation of lutein at 20 ppm would improve antioxidant status and immunity and alleviate stress in captive Indian leopards.
Biodiversity monitoring at the community scale is a critical element of assessing and studying species distributions, ecology, diversity, and movements, and it is key to understanding and tracking environmental and anthropogenic effects on natural ecosystems.1, 2, 3, 4 Vertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems are experiencing extinctions and declines in both population numbers and sizes due to increasing threats from human activities and environmental change.5, 6, 7, 8 Terrestrial vertebrate monitoring using existing methods is generally costly and laborious, and although environmental DNA (eDNA) is becoming the tool of choice to assess biodiversity, few sample types effectively capture terrestrial vertebrate diversity. We hypothesized that eDNA captured from air could allow straightforward collection and characterization of terrestrial vertebrate communities. We filtered air at three localities in the Copenhagen Zoo: a stable, outside between the outdoor enclosures, and in the Rainforest House. Through metabarcoding of airborne eDNA, we detected 49 vertebrate species spanning 26 orders and 37 families: 30 mammal, 13 bird, 4 fish, 1 amphibian, and 1 reptile species. These spanned animals kept at the zoo, species occurring in the zoo surroundings, and species used as feed in the zoo. The detected species comprise a range of taxonomic orders and families, sizes, behaviors, and abundances. We found shorter distance to the air sampling device and higher animal biomass to increase the probability of detection. We hereby show that airborne eDNA can offer a fundamentally new way of studying and monitoring terrestrial communities.
The crisis of declining biodiversity¹ exceeds our current ability to monitor changes in ecosystems. Rapid terrestrial biomonitoring approaches are essential to quantify the causes and consequences of global change. Environmental DNA² has revolutionized aquatic ecology,³ permitting population monitoring⁴ and remote diversity assessments matching or outperforming conventional methods of community sampling.3, 4, 5 Despite this model, similar methods have not been widely adopted in terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we demonstrate that DNA from terrestrial animals can be filtered, amplified, and then sequenced from air samples collected in natural settings representing a powerful tool for terrestrial ecology. We collected air samples at a zoological park, where spatially confined non-native species allowed us to track DNA sources. We show that DNA can be collected from air and used to identify species and their ecological interactions. Air samples contained DNA from 25 species of mammals and birds, including 17 known terrestrial resident zoo species. We also identified food items from air sampled in enclosures and detected taxa native to the local area, including the Eurasian hedgehog, endangered in the United Kingdom. Our data demonstrate that airborne eDNA concentrates around recently inhabited areas but disperses away from sources, suggesting an ecology to airborne eDNA and the potential for sampling at a distance. Our findings demonstrate the profound potential of air as a source of DNA for global terrestrial biomonitoring.
Behavioral monitoring is an essential tool for understanding how animal management decisions, including exhibit design choices, impact animal behavior and welfare. The purpose of this study was to use behavioral monitoring techniques to determine the interaction between 2 groups (bachelor and breeding groups) of western lowland gorillas that are housed in separate habitats that partially face one another. We performed simultaneous, 30-minute group observations on the breeding and bachelor groups and recorded all occurrences of agonistic and affiliative behavior, vocalizations, and visual monitoring of the adjacent group. At 5-minute intervals, we also recorded which gorillas in the observed group were potentially visible to the neighboring group. Our results indicated that there was considerable variation in the percentage of time each gorilla spent monitoring the neighboring group. We were also able to demonstrate that the visibility of individuals in the breeding group of gorillas was related to behavior of the gorillas in the bachelor group. Although non-contact aggression increased with the visual presence of the adult male of the breeding group, more severe aggression that could cause injury was not influenced by his presence. Results also showed an association between visual presence of a particular female in the breeding group and a decrease in contact aggression in the bachelor group. Since many zoological exhibits allow visual access to other animals, it is important to determine the impact that neighbors may have on each other. Our study investigating interactions between neighboring gorilla groups is an example of how behavioral monitoring can be used to assess the impact of a wide range of management decisions on animal behavior and welfare.
Conservation behavior assists the investigation of species endangerment associated with managing animals impacted by anthropogenic activities. It employs a theoretical framework that examines the mechanisms, development, function, and phylogeny of behavior variation in order to develop practical tools for preventing biodiversity loss and extinction. Developed from a symposium held at the International Congress on Conservation Biology in 2011, this is the first book to offer an in-depth, logical framework that identifies three vital areas for understanding conservation behavior: anthropogenic threats to wildlife, conservation and management protocols, and indicators of anthropogenic threats. Bridging the gap between behavioral ecology and conservation biology, this volume ascertains key links between the fields, explores the theoretical foundations of these linkages, and connects them to practical wildlife management tools and concise applicable advice. Adopting a clear and structured approach throughout, this book is a vital resource for graduate students, academic researchers, and wildlife managers.
Measuring Behaviour has established itself as a standard text. Largely rewritten, updated and reorganised, this third edition is, as before, a guide to the principles and methods of quantitative studies of behaviour, with an emphasis on techniques of observation, recording and analysis. It provides the basic knowledge needed to measure behaviour, doing so in a succinct and easily understood form. The sections on research design and the interpretation and presentation of data have been greatly expanded. Written with brevity and clarity, Measuring Behaviour is, above all, a practical guide book. Aimed primarily at undergraduate and graduate students in biology and psychology who are about to embark upon quantitative studies of animal and human behaviour, this book provides a concise review of methodology that will be of great value to scientists of all disciplines in which behaviour is measured, including biological anthropology, the social sciences and medicine.
Animal Rights: A Very Short Introduction explores the implications for how we should treat animals in connection with our diet, zoos, and research. Most people are opposed to cruelty and sense that animals have moral significance. At the same time, traditional views that sanction animal use with few constraints have heavily influenced beliefs and everyday practices. How should we understand the moral status of animals vis-à-vis human beings? Do animals have moral rights? If so, what does this mean? What kinds of beings are animals, what sorts of mental lives do they have, and how should we understand welfare?
The concept that visitors affect behaviour of captive animals has interested zookeepers since the 1960s. However, to date no studies on “visitor effects” have allowed for time of day and weather, which can affect behaviour directly and frequently co-vary with visitor numbers. Here, we examine visitor effects on captive ring-tailed lemurs Lemur catta in a walk-through enclosure, where potential for visitor effects is especially high, while specifically allowing for time/weather. Time, weather and visitor variables interacted in complex ways, but time and weather exerted the strongest effect on behaviour. Weather strongly affected resting (~80% of activity budget in rain versus 31% otherwise) as well as feeding/foraging and locomotion. Sunbathing was higher in mornings; locomotion increased in afternoons. Visitors numbers were negatively associated with feeding/foraging and sunbathing; visitor activity was positively associated with locomotion and alertness. Crucially, however, “visitor effects”, were very small both in absolute terms and in relation to underlying effects of time/weather. Univariate models suggested visitors accounted for ~20% of behavioural variation but after time/weather had been included, this dropped to ~6-8%. We conclude underlying visitor:time and visitor:weather correlations mean that visitor effects are very easy to overestimate and offer recommendations to ensure findings on other species are appropriate and robust.
Free‐choice learning in zoos is often linked to attention, though little is known about what objects undergraduates pay attention to during such experiences. Eye‐tracking equipment can provide measures of behavioral data that visitor observations are not able to capture. Thus, we asked: (1) What aspects of a zoo exhibit do biology undergraduates pay attention to? and (2) Does eye‐tracking behavior differ between introductory and advanced biology students at a single zoo exhibit? While freely exploring a Komodo dragon exhibit during a zoo trip, participating undergraduates wore a pair of eye‐tracking glasses, which recorded gaze and fixations on objects, among other variables. We conducted this qualitative case study with students in three biology courses at one institution at a single zoo exhibit, and thus do not attempt to generalize our findings to general zoo visitors. We found that interpretative signs were the primary focus of attention among our sample of biology undergraduates, and that novice and expert‐like undergraduates sometimes demonstrated different behavioral patterns in what they paid attention to at the zoo. Interestingly, neither novice nor expert‐like students focused more on the Komodo dragon in comparison to other areas of interest in the exhibit.
Following a case of mandibular fracture in a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) at the Budapest Zoo, a survey was conducted across European zoological institutions with the support of the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums Giraffe Ex situ Programme (EAZA Giraffe EEP) to help identify the incidence, potential causes, and management of such injuries. Two hundred sixteen zoos keeping giraffes were invited to participate in the survey. Eighty-six responses were received, 14 of which (16.3%) reported jaw fractures with various causes in their giraffes. Of these responses, hay racks, where the muzzle of the giraffe could fit between the grid of feeding contraptions, were associated with mandibular fractures in seven cases (50.0%). Most giraffes were managed surgically (10/14; 71.4%), two were managed medically (14.3%), one was euthanized because of the severity of the injury (7.1%), and one was only diagnosed with a mandibular fracture postmortem. One giraffe died owing to postanesthetic complications; all other individuals had a full recovery. Most mandible fractures occurred in relatively young giraffes (between 5 wk and 8 yr with an average of 3.4 yr). Based on these findings, facilities with giraffe should evaluate their hay feeders for mandible entrapment risk, especially if they house young individuals.
Science‐based management confers a variety of benefits to wildlife populations that are cooperatively managed by zoos and aquariums, including those managed through the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Briefly, when management strategies are successful, they result in reproductively robust populations that better retain genetic diversity and limit inbreeding than unmanaged populations. Although the benefits of demographic and genetic management have been well documented throughout both the scientific and popular literature, it has also been established that the majority of managed populations in zoos and aquariums are not meeting the minimum criteria believed to convey long‐term biological viability. For most of these populations, an inability to meet viability criteria is not an inherent failure of how cooperative management is implemented. Furthermore, in recent years, we have perceived that the need to meet specific viability goals sometimes has obscured the benefits that these populations receive from rigorous, science‐based management. To better clarify the conversation surrounding population viability in zoos and aquariums, we seek to decouple viability measures and how they predict population persistence from the benefits conferred to populations through science‐based management. A primary goal of population management is to facilitate the persistence of priority species for longer than would be expected if no such management were implemented. Although current viability measures and future projections of viability are important tools for assessing the likelihood of population persistence, they are not indicators of which populations may most benefit from science‐based management. Here, we review the history and purpose of applying science‐based management to zoo and aquarium populations, describe measures of population viability and caution against confusing those measures of viability with population management goals or long‐term population sustainability, and clearly articulate the benefits conferred to zoo and aquarium populations by science‐based management. Slow rates of gene diversity loss in Association of Zoos and Aquariums Waldrapp ibis (Geronticus eremita) population highlight the benefits science‐based management confers to a population's viability beyond meeting specific genetic and demographic targets set by zoo associations.
The moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) is a scyphozoan frequently maintained in public and private aquaria. Little research has been conducted to investigate the effects of various drugs, such as anesthetics, in this species. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222), a common immersion anesthetic for fish and amphibians, was evaluated in a managed population of moon jellyfish. Twenty-four clinically healthy jellyfish were assigned into three groups of eight for trials of 0.3 g/L MS-222 (low concentration [LC]), 0.6 g/L MS-222 (high concentration [HC]), and a saltwater control. The goal was to evaluate the effects of MS-222 administration on moon jellyfish movement and response to stimuli. Movement and response to stimuli were measured via rocking and probe stimulus tests and observations of bell contraction quality and body tone. These tests were performed at baseline and throughout both drug exposure and recovery periods. A threshold drug effect was defined based on systematic scoring criteria. Additionally, elastomer tags were administered to four of eight animals in each MS-222 group to evaluate response to tag placement after drug exposure. Threshold drug effect was achieved in six of eight individuals in the LC group and eight of eight individuals in the HC group. The LC group had median threshold and recovery times of 12.2 and 10.1 min, respectively, while the HC group had median threshold and recovery times of 4.0 and 19.9 min, respectively. The HC group had significantly faster time to threshold drug effect (P < 0.001) and longer recovery times (P= 0.005) than the LC group. In both the LC and HC tagged group, three of four jellyfish had no reaction to tag placement. All animals recovered uneventfully, and there were no mortalities. MS-222 at 0.3 and 0.6 g/L decreased movement and response to stimuli in moon jellyfish.
Tufted puffins (Fratercula cirrhata) are commonly exhibited in zoologic institutions across the world, yet there is a paucity of information on causes of mortality in managed populations. This retrospective review reports the pathologic findings associated with 91 tufted puffins at a single institution over 35 years from 1982 to 2017. Common pathologic findings were evaluated by age at death, sex, year, and season. With the exception of neonates, the leading pathologic finding across all age classes was aspergillosis, particularly in adults. Hemoparasitism, predation, and trauma were also frequent causes of mortality. Neonatal mortality was common and primarily caused by omphalitis, yolk sac disease, and bacterial septicemia, with most cultures revealing Escherichia coli. This study also provides documentation of mortality in tufted puffins secondary to avian pox and suspected toxoplasmosis. Understanding morbidity and mortality trends within a population allows institutions to form management plans and implement practices to improve outcomes and survival.
This retrospective study evaluated whether six methods (glutamyltransferase, glutaraldehyde coagulation test, sodium sulfite precipitation test, total serum protein, glucose, and fibrinogen) used to assess passive transfer status in ruminants were predictive of survival of nondomestic Caprinae neonates in a zoological collection. A total of 184 neonates from 10 nondomestic Caprinae species had one or more testing methods performed within 7 d of birth. Results of each test were compared with the clinical condition (alive or dead) at 7, 30, and 90 d of age. Total protein (TP) results were not considered for statistical significance in this study. No statistical correlations between results of the serum gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), glutaraldehyde coagulation test, or sodium sulfite precipitation test (BOVA-S) and survival at any age were found. A higher glucose level within 7 d of birth was associated with a greater probability of survival. Fibrinogen levels were found to have a strong negative association with survival at 30 and 90 d. Increased glucose concentration was negatively associated with the probability of an infectious cause of mortality and the need for medical intervention. In contrast, increased fibrinogen levels were associated with higher probabilities of infectious death and the need for major medical care. Neonates who were confirmed to have nursed had a lower likelihood of requiring major medical intervention. These findings suggest that glucose and fibrinogen levels are better predictors of neonatal survival in nondomestic Caprinae when compared to the other three tests reviewed in this study. Using survival as an indicator of adequate passive transfer in this group of neonates failed to identify a gold standard of diagnosis of failure of passive transfer, so more than one diagnostic test should be utilized.
Obstructive and incidental urolithiasis cases were evaluated in 5 Asian colobine monkey species (n= 21 individuals) that included 12 silvery langurs (Trachypithecus cristatus), 6 spectacled langurs (Trachypithecus obscurus), 1 Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus auratus), 1 François' langur (Trachypithecus francoisi), and 1 red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus) from eight zoologic institutions. All institutions that responded were Association of Zoos and Aquariums, European Association of Zoos and Aquaria, or World Association of Zoos and Aquariums accredited. Males were more commonly represented in the total number of cases (86%), and all cases of obstructive urolithiasis occurred in males. The most common clinical signs observed in obstructive cases included stranguria (58.8%), lethargy (41.2%), anorexia (29.4%), depression (17.6%), and penile manipulation (11.8%). Clinicopathologic abnormalities revealed azotemia (76.5%), anemia (35.3%), and hyperkalemia (23.5%). Eleven of the 21 cases included urinalysis results, and crystalluria was reported in all 11. Obstructive cases were more commonly managed surgically, with medical management following. Instances of individual obstruction ranged from 0 (incidental finding) to 18, with a median of 8 (mean of 4.3) recurrent obstructions. A total of 39 urolith analyses were available from 17 of 21 cases, with calcium carbonate being the most common type isolated (37 of 39, 94.9%). Calcium oxalate was observed in the remaining 5.1% of cases (2 of 39). No cases exhibited a consistent match of crystalluria and urolith type. Death or euthanasia secondary to obstructive urolithiasis occurred in 52.4% of cases. Urinary obstruction secondary to urolithiasis appears to be a relevant cause of morbidity and mortality in Asian colobine species, and further study into etiology and preventive medicine should be undertaken.
Elasmobranchs are popular display animals in public aquaria and zoos, but medical management gaps remain in the understanding of the pharmacokinetics of analgesics and pain management in these species. Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that has been evaluated intravenously and intramuscularly in teleosts, but has yet to be studied in any elasmobranch species. The pharmacokinetics of meloxicam were determined in 17 yellow stingrays (Urobatis jamaicensis). All stingrays were determined to be healthy from complete physical examinations and baseline bloodwork performed prior to study inclusion. A single dose of 1 mg/kg meloxicam intramuscularly was administered to all rays, followed by a 2 mg/kg oral dose after an 8 wk washout period. Blood samples were collected from the mesopterygial vein at baseline and nine time points up to 96 h after administration of meloxicam. Plasma concentrations were determined using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using a noncompartmental technique. The mean peak plasma concentrations for intramuscular and oral meloxicam were 1.29 and 0.42 µg/ml, respectively. The mean terminal half-lives of meloxicam after intramuscular and oral administration were 5.75 and 15.46 h, respectively. Based on these findings, the recommended meloxicam dosage and frequency for yellow stingrays is 2 mg/kg orally once daily. Due to rapid elimination with the intramuscular administration, maintaining clinically relevant plasma concentrations may be difficult using this route. Further studies are needed to determine multidose pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in yellow stingrays, as well as single-dose and multidose pharmacokinetics in other elasmobranch species.
Objective disease markers in the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) are in high demand. In the field, such markers are typically needed to decide whether a captured white rhinoceros is fit to cope with quarantine, transport, or both. Captive white rhinoceros have a need for unbiased biomarkers for early detection of disease. Acute phase proteins, including haptoglobin, are proteins that significantly change their plasma concentration in response to tissue perturbation or inflammation, such as that occurring during infection or neoplastic disease. Acute phase proteins are well known diagnostic tools in both human and veterinary medicine. In this study, an ELISA with commercially available anti-human haptoglobin antibodies for quantification of haptoglobin in white rhinoceros serum was developed. The validity of the haptoglobin assay and haptoglobin as a biomarker of disease was investigated with the use of serum samples from both captive and free-ranging animals with a well-described health status. The assay was precise (intra-assay and interassay reproducibility were 5.0% and 13.1%, respectively) and reliably quantified white rhinoceros haptoglobin serum concentrations consuming low volumes of sample. The assay was sensitive to the presence of free hemoglobin in the sample at levels corresponding to a visibly hemolyzed sample. Haptoglobin was readily measurable, baseline levels (in white rhinoceros with no clinical signs of disease) did not differ between genders, and a significant increase was seen in captive as well as in free-ranging white rhinoceros with inflammatory disease. Thus, haptoglobin is a positive acute phase protein in southern white rhinoceros with potential for use as an objective marker of disease.
The mountain chicken frog (Leptodactylus fallax) is a critically endangered species highly reliant on ex situ conservation programs. In captivity, cholelithiasis has been reported during clinical examinations using diagnostic imaging and observed during postmortem examinations. Some individuals have presented with nonspecific clinical signs potentially associated with this condition, but little is known about its clinical relevance. A retrospective evaluation of ultrasonographic (n ¼ 139) and radiographic (n ¼ 156) images and histopathology samples (n ¼ 32) obtained between 2014 and 2020 from 133 individuals was performed. An ultrasound scoring system was developed to evaluate changes in the gallbladder, with 38% (53/139) of the images showing abnormal contents. Gallbladder distension appeared associated with these findings (generalized estimating equation model, P , 0.001). In contrast, radiography proved to have low overall sensitivity (48%) when compared to ultrasonography for identifying abnormal gallbladder contents. A weak level of agreement (Cohen's kappa ¼ 0.535) was observed between the imaging modalities. Histologically, cholecystitis was present in 86% (12/14) of the individuals, thickening of the gallbladder wall in 71% (10/14), and intrahepatic cholangitis in 90% (18/20). There was no evidence of cholestasis in any of the affected individuals. A significant difference was observed in the hepatic melanomacrophage density between animals with and without cholelithiasis (Welch two-sample t test, P , 0.001). This study provides an overview on the use of diagnostic imaging modalities to evaluate cholelithiasis and proposes a convenient ultrasound score to standardize monitoring of the condition in L. fallax. It is also the first systematic review of histopathological changes associated with cholelithiasis in this species.
Although the evaluation of hematologic and biochemical parameters is a well-established diagnostic tool in vertebrate medicine, comprehensive understanding of these parameters in invertebrate species is lacking. This study provides baseline hemocyte concentrations and biochemistry values for a population of managed Japanese spider crabs (JSC; Macrocheira kaempferi) housed at six different public aquariums. The methodology for
obtaining diagnostic hemolymph samples is described. Distinct hemocyte types were identified, including hyaline cells, semigranulocytes, and granulocytes, with hyaline cells as the predominant type. Correlates to exam findings and environmental parameters were evaluated and included higher absolute semigranulocyte counts (r=0.65, P=0.020) and triglyceride levels (r=0.44, P=0.014) in JSC with exoskeletal lesions; higher total protein (mean= 5.93 g/dl, P = 0.028), cholesterol (median = 18.5 mg/dl, P = 0.018), triglyceride (median = 15.5 mg/dl, P = 0.002), and amylase (median = 243 U/L, P = 0.013) in nonmolting JSC compared with JSC that have previously molted since acquisition (total protein mean = 4.83 g/dl, cholesterol median = 14 mg/dl, triglyceride median = 6.4 mg/dl, and amylase median = 131 U/L); and lower relative and absolute granulocyte counts (mean = 8.83% P = 0.030, median = 1,162 cells/ul P = 0.006, respectively) and higher albumin (median = 1.35 g/dl, P = 0.031) in JSC housed at facilities that used ozone sterilization. The data presented serve as a foundation for understanding basic clinical
parameters in JSC hemolymph, as well as the potential influence of environmental stressors on those parameters.
Protozoal and bacterial vector-borne infections are frequently diagnosed in domestic felids. However, with the exception of Mycoplasma haemofelis and Cytauxzoon felis, their occurrence in managed nondomestic felids housed in the United States is largely unknown. Following a case in February 2020 of fulminant cytauxzoonosis in an African lion (Panthera leo), EDTA–whole blood samples were collected opportunistically from February 2020 through June 2020 from 34 adult tigers (Panthera tigris) and eight adult African lions from the same sanctuary in eastern Tennessee as well as 14 adult tigers from a zoo in southern Oklahoma. Samples were analyzed for Cytauxzoon felis, Bartonella spp., hemotropic Mycoplasma, Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Babesia spp., and Hepatozoon spp. DNA by PCR amplification. All animals were asymptomatic at the time of collection. None of the Oklahoma animals were positive for vector-borne organisms, but these pathogens were detected in tigers at the Tennessee facility, including Cytauxzoon felis (11.8%), ‘‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’’ (5.9%), and Ehrlichia ewingii (2.9%). During the study period, two animals developed clinical signs of cytauxzoonosis and were assessed for vector-borne infections as part of their diagnostic evaluation. This study documents the presence of tick-borne diseases in managed nondomestic felids in the southeastern United States and underscores that ectoparasite control measures should be practiced to minimize exposure of carnivores in managed care.
Four female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) from the same group as well as Wolf's guenon (Cercopithecus wolfi) and a Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) from a second institution presented with vaginal foreign bodies in parallel with diseases of the urogenital tract or with endocrine disorders. These foreign bodies were associated with a mild to marked, diffuse vaginitis in all cases. Underlying pathological conditions consisted of a cavernous uterine hemangioma in a 20-year-old macaque, diffuse endometritis in a 21-year-old macaque, an in situ endometrial carcinoma in a 24-year-old macaque, endometritis and an ovarian cyst-like structure in the 27-year-old Western lowland gorilla, chronic cystitis and chronic renal disease in a 24-year-old macaque, and a history of hypothyroidism with irregular reproductive cycles in the 12-year-old Wolf's guenon. Vaginal foreign bodies have been reported in nonhuman primates used in biomedical research, but their concurrence with underlying conditions has not been explored. In women, vaginal foreign bodies have been linked to serious underlying medical conditions. This case series emphasizes the recommendation to investigate this abnormal behavior for underlying medical or adverse psychosocial conditions in primates under human care.
Artificial insemination (AI) is a valuable tool for conservation breeding programs as it can promote reproductive success and genetic diversity in species with decreasing populations. However, females that undergo AI do not experience natural mating events, which we term, “nescient mating.” Thus, these females would not be able to assess the quality of their mate through physical, olfactory, or visual cues. Previous research has found that AI can lead to diminished breeding outcomes when compared to natural mating. In this study, we investigated whether fertilization method (natural mating versus AI) affects postpartum behaviors, such as cub rejection and maternal care in female giant pandas. We analyzed data from 202 cubs and 43 mother-cub dyads between 1996 to 2018. We did not find a difference in gestation length, cub weight, or cub survivorship between naturally mated and artificially inseminated females. Compared to naturally inseminated females, artificially mated females were significantly more likely to reject cubs (p = 0.039). Contrary to what we had predicted, maternal care and infant behaviors during the first month did not differ between natural mating and AI groups. Taken together, our results indicate that female giant pandas who experienced nescient mating may have reduced offspring investment, manifest in increased cub rejection. However, the lack of behavioral differences between AI and natural mating groups was encouraging, indicating that once a female accepted a cub to rear, maternal care was adequate to ensure cub survival. Nonetheless, we recommend that conservation breeding programs prioritize natural mating as higher rates of maternal rejection increase the facility and human time cost of cub rearing and also the chances of detrimental downstream effects on offspring adult behaviors in the giant panda.
Data availability
Data used in this paper are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.
Black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) are classified as endangered, and the populations of gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) are rapidly decreasing. The optimization of semen cryopreservation in these species, for preserving their genetic diversity in genome resource banks, is essential for the success of captive breeding programs. This study compares the effectiveness of two permeating cryoprotectants, dimethylacetamide (DMA) and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), on frozen–thawed sperm characteristics. Semen samples were collected during each breeding season once a week during two consecutive years. Semen samples were packaged in 0.25 ml straws and frozen by placing them in nitrogen vapors. After thawing, sperm motility characteristics were examined by computer-assisted sperm analysis. Propidium iodide and SYBR-14 were used as fluorochromes for the examination of membrane integrity. DNA integrity was evaluated by TUNEL assay. Gentoo sperm characteristics after freeze-thawing did not show any differences when using DMSO or DMA. In black-footed samples, progressive motility, curvilinear velocity (VCL), straight-line velocity (VSL), average path velocity (VAP), linearity (LIN), and straightness (STR) were greater using 8% DMSO (P < 0.05) than 6% DMA. The cryoresistance ratio (CR) using 8% DMSO was greater (P < 0.05) in gentoo than black-footed samples for CR-VCL and CR-VAP, and 6% DMA returned greater CR values (P < 0.05) than in black-footed samples for all characteristics evaluated. No differences were found in DNA fragmentation. In conclusion, the present results highlight the benefits of using 8% DMSO compared to 6% DMA in penguins. Sperm from black-footed showed a higher sensitivity to freezing-thawing process than gentoo sperm.
In January 2017, a Nile hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) was born approximately six weeks premature at the Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden. Due to the calf's weakened condition and lack of interest from the dam, management at the zoo made the decision to hand-rear the calf. Limited published information was available on hand-rearing this species of hippopotamus (hippo). To devise a nutritionally appropriate recipe, milk samples were acquired from the dam on Days 1, 3, 8, and 9 postpartum, and assayed for sugar, protein, fat, mineral, and water content using standard methods validated for multiple species of mammals at the Smithsonian National Zoo's Nutrition Science Laboratory. The sugar content stayed relatively constant (mean = 4.5%; range: 4.3%-4.7%). The fat consistently increased from 0.48% to 4.24% (mean = 2%). Excluding Day 9, the protein content gradually decreased from 9.56% to 6.39% (mean = 8%). The dry matter (DM) ranged from 14.38% to 16.72% (i.e., water content of 85.62%-83.28%), with the sum of the solids (sugar, protein, fat, and ash) averaging 98.5% of measured DM. Fat content was lower than expected but within the range of other artiodactyls. Between Days 1 and 8, the trend of decreasing protein and increasing fat was consistent with a change from colostrum to mature milk. The sharp increase in fat and protein with a decrease in sugar on Day 9 may indicate the beginning of the involution of the mammary gland due to lack of nursing stimulus. Utilizing this information, the Cincinnati Zoo was able to formulate a successful milk replacement recipe that allowed the calf to be raised through weaning to maturity.
The current study set out to examine the perceptions of felid welfare in zoos and elucidate the factors that influence an individual animal care professional's acceptance and recognition of welfare. A total of 121 felid keepers employed in an Association of Zoos & Aquariums facility were included in analysis. Results demonstrate job satisfaction is directly linked to access to training on welfare topics. The relationship between job satisfaction and the fulfillment of the Five Freedoms is positively correlated. Additionally, overall job satisfaction does not appear to influence the bond with felids, but it does with other zoo animals. Those with lower reported job satisfaction demonstrate an overall lower bond with nonfelids, where this not observed in felids. Participants in this study demonstrate the direct connection between job satisfaction and perceived fulfillment of the Five Freedoms. Participants who were provided access to training and information on animal welfare often demonstrated a higher job satisfaction, more positive perception of their employer, and overall view of zoos meeting the Five Freedoms with captive felids.
Research Highlights
• Results demonstrate job satisfaction is directly linked to access to training on welfare topics. The relationship between job satisfaction and the fulfillment of the Five Freedoms is positively correlated, r(116) = .217, p = .001.
• Overall job satisfaction does not appear to influence the bond with felids, but it does with other zoo animals. Those with lower reported job satisfaction demonstrate an overall lower bond with nonfelids, where this not observed in felids.
• Participants in this study demonstrate the direct connection between job satisfaction and perceived fulfillment of the Five Freedoms.
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has impacted virtually all aspects of a global society. By using a transdisciplinary team and methodology, our study highlights the importance of utilizing a One Health approach to address global health and conservation challenges in tandem. We examined how conservation conducted by an accredited zoological institution was altered by the pandemic. In July 2020, we surveyed a select subset of Saint Louis Zoo employees to understand how these staff members perceived their conservation work to be affected during this time. Additionally, in November and December 2020, seven survey respondents were interviewed virtually for qualitative data. Our hypothesis was that lack of funding, reduced ability to travel, and shifting priorities among conservation professionals, as well as their respective institutions, would be significant barriers to conservation efforts. Our survey results revealed that the top three perceived challenges to conservation projects at the Saint Louis Zoo due to the COVID-19 pandemic were lack of funding (83.9%), reductions in Zoo visitors (56.3%), and inability/lack of ability to access field sites and laboratories (55.2%). Respondents also indicated that the top three most important Zoo conservation activities before the COVID-19 pandemic were (1) local/national/global wildlife management and recovery programs, (tie 2) caring for animals in the Zoo's collection, and (tie 2) genetic breeding programs. At least half of respondents indicated that the pandemic had significantly or slightly decreased the ability of staff to perform all three activities. Results supported our hypothesis that reduced funding, limited travel, and shifting priorities were challenges to zoological conservation at this institution. Although travel restrictions will likely persist, continual funding will be critical for maintaining conservation. Our results also indicate that reductions in Zoo visitors were another perceived barrier to conservation and that staff needed to find novel ways to connect with the public. Results from this study may help zoos and aquariums better understand the unique pandemic-associated challenges that threaten conservation at their institutions and may be helpful in designing programs and projects in a post-pandemic world.
Research Highlights
The top perceived challenges of staff to zoological conservation due to the COVID-19 pandemic were lack of funding, inability to travel/work in field sites, and changes in the ability to communicate with the public. Many survey respondents believed the COVID-19 provided an opportunity to create resonant One Health messaging for a likely receptive public.