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Organizational Culture During the Era of a Black Swan:
A Phenomenological Examination of New Hire Sales Training Within a Medical Diagnostic
Company
by
Maelyn Zweben Lessard
A dissertation submitted to the Nathan M. Bisk College of Business at
Florida Institute of Technology
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Melbourne, Florida
May 2023
We, the undersigned committee, hereby recommend that the attached document be
accepted as fulfilling in part of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Business
Administration “Organizational Culture During the Era of a Black Swan: A Phenomenological
Examination of New Hire Sales Training Within a Medical Diagnostic Company,” a dissertation
by Maelyn Zweben Lessard.
Robert R. Schaller Sr., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Nathan M. Bisk College of Business
Major Advisor
________________________________________________
Edward Haberek Jr., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Nathan M. Bisk College of Business
________________________________________________
James Glenn, DBA
Graduate Faculty
Nathan M. Bisk College of Business
________________________________________________
Radhika Krishnamurthy, Psy.D., ABAP
Professor
School of Psychology
________________________________________________
Theodore Richardson. Ed.D.
Professor and Dean
Nathan M. Bisk College of Business
iii
Abstract
Title: Organizational Culture During the Era of a Black Swan: A Phenomenological
Examination of New Hire Sales Training Within a Medical Diagnostic
Company
Author: Maelyn Zweben Lessard
Advisor: Robert Schaller, Ph.D.
Keywords: COVID-19, black swan, culture, culture change, sales training, new hire sales
training, mentor, cohort, leadership, communications, virtual work, virtual
sales training
Traditional sales training in a medical diagnostic organization takes place in multiple locations
over the period of many months. New hires attend classes with a set group of other new hire
employees establishing a cohort. It is the responsibility of the sales training department and the
new hire’s direct supervisor to incorporate training into the organizations culture. This is done by
bringing the new hire into the corporate office and, through the months of training, exposing the
new hire to leadership, support functions, manufacturing, and multiple departments that will
support their job moving forward. COVID-19 created a rapid market increase in the medical
diagnostic manufacturing community. The organizations were strained through the high demand
from this exogenous improbable (black swan) event. This study explored the lived experiences of
the employees responsible for teaching new hire sales professionals the organization's culture
during the era of a black swan. The training professionals identified for the phenomenological
interviews for this research were members of the sales training department, direct sales
supervisors, and mentors to new hires that had responsibility for new hire training during the
period designated as COVID-19. Additional supportive data using a quantitative survey provided
iv
the new hires’ perspective of their fit into the organization's culture. The findings indicate that
COVID-19 influenced the organization’s culture which, in turn, may affect the organization’s
strategic advantage. The participants’ discussions represent their lived experiences.
This research presents models that illustrate the establishment of organizational culture
within a medical diagnostic company. The research models demonstrate the sudden impact of a
black swan on the organization’s culture though the lived experiences with tenured employees.
The participants emphasis on their heightened emotions may have implications and application
on the characteristics of a black swan classification. The researcher discusses implications of this
research, study limitations, and possible future areas for investigation and practice.
v
Table of Contents
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................... xiii
Dedication ......................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Overview ..................................................................................................................... 1
The Background and Rationale of the Study ............................................................... 2
Statement of Problem .................................................................................................. 4
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 6
Questions / Hypothesis That Guided the Research ..................................................... 7
Qualitative Questions .................................................................................................. 7
Quantitative Hypothesis .............................................................................................. 8
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................... 8
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 9
Organization of the Remainder of the Research Study ............................................. 11
Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 12
Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 12
Overview ................................................................................................................... 12
Organization of the Remainder of the Chapter ......................................................... 12
Questions and Hypothesis That Guided the Research ............................................... 13
Organizational Culture .............................................................................................. 14
vi
Schools of Cultural Study .......................................................................................... 14
Types of Organizational Culture ............................................................................... 16
Robert Cooke – Constructive and Destructive Culture Predilection ......................... 16
Charles Handy – Employee Behavior Correlates Power Distributions ..................... 19
Competing Values Framework .................................................................................. 20
Importance of Organizational Culture ....................................................................... 22
Factors Affecting Organizational Culture ................................................................. 22
Models of Organizational Culture ............................................................................. 22
Edgar Schein – Dynamic and Adapting Organization Cultures ................................ 23
Geert Hofstede – Culture an Aggregate of Historical Components .......................... 26
Yvan Allaire and Mihaela Firsirotu – Interrelated Systems Culture ......................... 29
Organizational Climate .............................................................................................. 30
Organizational Values ............................................................................................... 32
Organizational Processes, Change Management, and Change Theory ..................... 33
Changes in Organizational Culture ........................................................................... 35
Social Exchange Theory ............................................................................................ 35
Communication and Organizational Culture ............................................................. 36
Culture and the New Hire Success ............................................................................ 36
Outside Sales Professional/New Hires/Trainees ....................................................... 37
Sales Trainees ............................................................................................................ 37
Trainers/Training Program ........................................................................................ 38
Theories on Rituals .................................................................................................... 40
Black Swan Theory ................................................................................................... 41
vii
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 45
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 45
Overview ................................................................................................................... 45
Organization of the Chapter ...................................................................................... 45
Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................... 46
Philosophical Worldview .......................................................................................... 46
Questions That Guided the Research ........................................................................ 49
Qualitative Questions ................................................................................................ 49
Quantitative Hypothesis ............................................................................................ 50
Research Design Rationale ........................................................................................ 52
Research Design ........................................................................................................ 56
Research Approach .................................................................................................... 57
Research Site ............................................................................................................. 57
Recruitment ............................................................................................................... 58
Sample ....................................................................................................................... 58
Qualitative Data ......................................................................................................... 59
Quantitative Data ....................................................................................................... 61
Triangulated Data ...................................................................................................... 62
Selection of Participants ............................................................................................ 63
Qualitative ................................................................................................................. 63
Quantitative ............................................................................................................... 64
Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 64
Instrument Development ........................................................................................... 64
viii
Interview Process....................................................................................................... 68
Survey Process........................................................................................................... 68
Qualitative ................................................................................................................. 70
Quantitative ............................................................................................................... 72
Researcher Positionality ............................................................................................ 75
Reliability .................................................................................................................. 76
Qualitative ................................................................................................................. 76
Quantitative ............................................................................................................... 77
Validity ...................................................................................................................... 78
Qualitative ................................................................................................................. 78
Quantitative ............................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 82
Results ....................................................................................................................... 82
Questions / Hypothesis That Guided the Research ................................................... 82
Qualitative Questions ................................................................................................ 82
Quantitative Hypothesis ............................................................................................ 83
Qualitative Interviews ............................................................................................... 83
Coding ....................................................................................................................... 86
Communications ........................................................................................................ 89
Building Relationships – Networking ....................................................................... 89
Permanent Change in Culture .................................................................................... 90
Leadership ................................................................................................................. 91
Virtual Sales Training................................................................................................ 92
ix
Rapid Hiring of Sales Professionals .......................................................................... 93
Organizational Culture Before COVID-19 ............................................................... 94
Categorical Framework ............................................................................................. 94
Category 1: How an Organizational Culture is Manifested ...................................... 95
Category 2: Importance of Organizational Culture to Strategy ................................. 96
Category 3: How an Organizational Culture Adjusts ................................................ 97
Category 4: How did the Organizational Culture Shift During COVID-19 .............. 97
Category 5: How the Organization’s Culture Adapted During COVID-19 .............. 99
Category 6: Impact of New Hire Sales Training of the Organizational Culture ..... 100
Category 7: New Hires Understanding of Espoused Values ................................... 101
Category 8: How the New Hires Established a Cohort ........................................... 102
Theme 1: COVID-19, as a black swan, had an impact on the organizational culture.
................................................................................................................................. 104
Theme 2: The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the
organization’s culture itself were changed from previous new hire trainings. ....... 104
Quantitative Hypothesis – Survey Results .............................................................. 105
Sentiment ................................................................................................................. 111
Additional Information Sources .............................................................................. 113
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................... 115
Discussion, Implications, Recommendations ................................................................. 115
Overview ................................................................................................................. 115
Organization of the Chapter .................................................................................... 116
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 116
x
Implications ............................................................................................................. 118
Discussion ............................................................................................................... 119
Theme 1: COVID-19, as a black swan, impacted the organization’s culture. ........ 120
Theme 2: The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the
organization’s culture itself were changed from previous new hire trainings. ....... 127
Recommendations ................................................................................................... 132
Academic ................................................................................................................. 132
Practitioner .............................................................................................................. 133
Limitations ............................................................................................................... 134
Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 135
References ....................................................................................................................... 137
Appendix A ..................................................................................................................... 161
Appendix B ..................................................................................................................... 167
Appendix C ..................................................................................................................... 171
Appendix D ..................................................................................................................... 174
Appendix E ..................................................................................................................... 176
Appendix F...................................................................................................................... 178
Appendix G ..................................................................................................................... 179
Appendix H ..................................................................................................................... 180
Appendix I ...................................................................................................................... 187
Appendix J ...................................................................................................................... 188
Appendix K ..................................................................................................................... 190
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework……………………………………………….…………….….3
Figure 2: The Conceptual Model…………………………………………………………..……..7
Figure 3. Cooke’s Descriptive Model for Organizational Culture Types………………….….....16
Figure 4: Charles Handy Model……………….……………………………………................…19
Figure 5: Competing Values Framework……………………………………………….…….…..20
Figure 6: Schein’s Components of Organizational Culture……………………………................23
Figure 7: Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Model…………………………………………….…...27
Figure 8: The Conceptual Framework…………………………………………….……………...43
Figure 9: Descriptive Summary Notation…………………………………………………….…..52
Figure 10: Research Model……………………………………………………………….………57
Figure 11: Procedural Model…………………………………...………………………….…….59
Figure 12: Streamlined Codes to Theory Model………………………………………….………61
Figure 13: Implementation Flow Chart….……………...………………………………….…….62
Figure 14: Visual flow of coding using real data………………………...…………...…………72
Figure 15: Example of Chi Square Analysis……………………………………………………..75
Figure 16: Method Map…………………………………………………………………….…….80
Figure 17: Close Up of the Comparison of Two Interview Questions Coding……………………86
Figure 18: NVivo Code Depiction…………………………………..…………………………....88
Figure 19: Final coding method including the themes…………………………………………..103
Figure 20: New Sales Organizational Model with Organizational Culture Localized to Sales
Region and the Absence of Broader Organizational Culture…………………...……………...125
xii
List of Tables
Table 1: Research Question/Hypothesis and Research Instrument…………………...….…....…67
Table 2: Data Analysis Procedure……………………………………………………..….….…..69
Table 3: Example of Inductive and Deductive Coding……………………………………………71
Table 4: Cronbach’s Alpha…………………………………………………………………….…78
Table 5: Interview Participant Demographic Information ............................................................85
Table 6: Categorical Framework………………………………………………………………...95
Table 7: Thematic Framework………………………………………………………………….103
Table 8: Survey Results with Chi Test Significance (p,0.05) ……………………..……………..107
Table 9: Excerpt of Combined Interview Coded Data with Survey Analyzed Data……………108
Table 10: One Word Description Combined Comparison………………………………….…..112
Table 11: One Word Description Combined Comparison………………….....……...….……..131
xiii
Acknowledgement
This dissertation comes from a place of passion through the researcher’s experiences,
knowledge, and observations. It would not be possible without the support and guidance from
many people.
There are no words that can express the thanks I have for Dr. Robert Schaller who spent
hundreds of hours helping guide my passion into this academic work. “Just keep going.”
Dr. Edward Haberek, thank you for pushing me to move forward from my master’s in
management to this dissertation. Thank you to committee members, Dr. James Glenn and Dr.
Radhika Krishnamurthy, who gave me the time, knowledge, and feedback that have guided me
to create this work.
Thank you, Taylor Weaver for always being a sounding board and helping guide me
through this process and to my amazing cohort classmates, especially Dr. Pawel Kazanowski,
Dr. James Crooke, and Dr. Torin Malone.
My husband, Douglas Leroy Lessard, thank you for always encouraging me to keep
moving forward and never give up. To my children Eric Betz, Megan Lessard, Shaina
Dolgowicz, and Joseph Dolgowicz, you are each a gift and light in this world and supported and
pushed me forward to complete this work.
My parents Dolores Bailey, Ron Bailey, and Ronald Zweben, when things seemed
impossible, you reminded me that nothing is impossible. This is a sentiment you have gifted me
with my entire life.
Thank you to all the participants in the research from the pilot studies through the
interviews and surveys. I hope your voices in this research help others. Tom Jennings, who has
xiv
been an amazing friend and a source of insights into the training of sales representatives and
adult learning helped guide my research.
I wish to thank the Doctor Geert Jan Hofstede for consulting with me during this project
and acknowledge the contributions he is making in the fields of Sociology and Culture.
Condolences for the loss of his father, Doctor Geert Hofstede. In addition, I wish to thank Peter
Schein for consulting with me during this project. Thank you for providing insights from your
expertise. Condolences for the passing of his father, Doctor Edgar Schein.
xv
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my family, Doug, Shaina & Joe, Megan, Eric, Dolores &
Ron, and Ron who have all consistently pushed me forward. I could not have gone through this
doctorate program without your support. I also dedicate this to my friends who have passed
away. In their loving memory, Martha Lisa Baker and Dennis Autry Williams. You both would
have been so proud of me. Tom Jennings, my best friend. Lynne Purvis, my adoptive sister.
Thank you for being who you are.
I also dedicate this to the amazing managers I have had throughout my career - Mark
Schmitt, Gregg Schlechta, & Scott Stiles. I pursued this passion for understanding to help others
be authentic leaders, enhance organizational culture, and focus on organizational
communications because of you. My team during COVID-19, your tireless work helping
hospitals and patients was amazing. I am incredibly honored to have worked with you.
Look Mom, I did it!
….it’s never too late.
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Overview
Organizational climate and culture are part of every organization. Researchers recognize
that culture is the heart and soul of an organization (Ployhart et al., 2014). Focus on
organizational culture enables greater insight and understanding of professional practices (Deal
& Kennedy, 1982; Peters & Waterman, 1982). Cultural expression is grounded in an
organization's history and becomes seated over successive years of employee participation
(Denison, 1996; Pettigrew, 1979).
Nassim Taleb’s (2007) Black Swan Theory offers a philosophical point of view, noting
that in terms of forecasting the future, large impactful, large scale, rare events, and their effects
cannot be foreshadowed. The literature review demonstrates the dynamic nature of
organizational culture. Communication and trust are vital components of value systems in
organizations. Therefore, organizations continue to evolve to maintain a competitive advantage.
Organizational culture has been extensively studied (Schein, 2010). Following an
introduction in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 provides an understanding of the previous significant
contributions to organizational culture. The literature review also includes a background of Black
Swan Theory; a review of a sales organization, including sales professions, new hire sales
professionals, and training for new hire sales professionals, is provided. This research study
provides a unique opportunity to observe the sudden change in an organization, using new hire
sales professionals, management, mentors, and trainers to understand the pandemic's possible
perceived impact on an organization's established culture. Chapter 3 describes the method used
2
in the research study, Chapter 4 reviews the findings, and Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the
findings, including recommendations and limitations.
The Background and Rationale of the Study
Dating back to the Hawthorne studies and Lewin's research in the 1930s, researchers
have studied leadership and the social norms that affect their organizations' productivity and
effectiveness. Lewin (1936) described his field theory, or what is known now as Lewin’s
equation on behavior. In this equation B=ƒ(P, E), (B) behavior is defined as a (ƒ) function of (P)
personal traits and (E) environmental influences. This equation quantifies the relationship
between the environment and personal traits resulting in altered behavior. The equation can be
used for an individual or, in this research, applied to an organization. Personal traits represent
organizational culture, and the behavior is the organization's behavior. Adapting Lewin’s
equation, a theoretical framework for this study (Figure 1), shows organizational behavior as a
function of organizational culture and the combination of exogenous and endogenous influences.
The left box, the exogenous influences, is of particular interest in this study.
In the 1960s, McGregor and Likert researched leadership and management supporting
learning and empowerment for employees in organizations. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the
research around these themes in organizations became more defined as organizational culture.
This focus on leadership or organizational behavior research demonstrated the need for
improving corporate culture to enable innovation and work ethic during or after a recession.
3
Figure 1
Theoretical Framework
When leadership and employees analyze and review their culture, they can see how it
represents the goals and missions of the organization (Schein, 1985, 1992). The components that
make up organizational culture are norms, which include standard behaviors within the social
system of the organization as unwritten rules of shared beliefs and appropriate behavior, and
assumptions that are the foundation of all aspects of the culture, including ideas and beliefs that
are taken for granted, and behaviors within an organization that are unconscious (Frost et al.,
4
1991; Schein, 1985, 1992). The types and models of organizational culture are described in the
literature review to give a firm understanding of the components of organizational culture.
Comparatively, the research on black swan events is minimal. Finance unpredictability is
the focus of most black swan research. Avishai (2020) contended that COVID-19 is not a black
swan because a pandemic was predictable but stated the overwhelming observed impact on
everyday lives and business leaves labeling a black swan up to interpretation. More studies are
being conducted on the perceived effects of black swans on organizations, including
organizational culture. The researcher accepts the black swan label for COVID-19 based on the
following criteria. The COVID-19 pandemic was an impactful, large-scale, rare event, and the
perceived effects are beyond probability.
Statement of Problem
The world changed in March 2020 when COVID-19 spread across the globe (Van Kessel
et al., 2021). Sales professionals in a medical diagnostic company , including those who received
training around January 1, 2020, or were hired during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced an
exogenous shift in business activities. This shift complicated the training by the increased need
for the product these sales professionals were supplying, a COVID-19 PCR test. Many
businesses across the globe scrambled to provide supplies in processes to allow people and
organizations to continue to function safely (Berzon et al., 2020). Millions of people lost their
jobs, thrusting the world economy into a downward spiral (Gould & Kassa, 2020). Suddenly,
healthcare workers, truck drivers, sanitation workers, and grocery store employees became vital
workers and were declared heroes (Booth et al., 2020; Vinoski, 2020).
Sales organizations hire professional salespeople and train them on products, sales
techniques, and the organization's culture. The new salespeople attend training in many ways,
5
including virtual training, mentoring, management coaching, and a sales training curriculum
conducted by sales trainers, including classroom and field training activities. This training is
carried out over several months to over a year with groups of trainees working as a cohort. The
training assimilates the new salesperson to the organization while teaching them the
organizational knowledge and skills to represent the organization to customers successfully. In
addition, sales training experiences offer a unique look into the organizational culture from the
perspective of those responsible for teaching the newest organizational members the
organization's artifacts, values, and rituals. Supplemental frequency data from the sales trainees
offers the confirmation necessary for a full view of the organizational culture.
No managerial guidebook tells organizations how to manage work that is suddenly
changed on a massive scale (Wyld, 2021). Taleb (2007) noted that people rely too heavily on
mathematical models and forecasting, creating a “fragility of our knowledge.” The immediate
need for organizational adaptation and employee flexibility became essential to the successful
training of these new hires. New hires received an abbreviated onboarding that lacked social
exchange. In addition, these new hires were required to work in a virtual environment isolated
from exposure to the organizational culture. These new hires entered the organization during a
high-stress, rapid, and volatile industry change. The communication difficulties caused a
dramatic shift in the organization's culture. A gap exists because past research has not included
this population in an organization to observe the culture or the influence of a black swan on the
dissemination of culture to new hire salespeople.
This research generated understanding of this phenomenon by incorporating both
qualitative and quantitative research methods. The ability to study an organization’s culture
during this black swan event from the sales training perspective with the supplemental sales
6
trainees’ data will add to the existing literature on organizational culture. Understanding the lived
experiences during exogenous events on organizational culture will aid leadership in
organizations to better prepare themselves for future severe exogenous events across the whole
organization.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to observe the lived experiences of an organization’s members during
an exogenous, improbable, and high impact event on organizational culture. The research
reviewed training new hire sales professionals from the point of view of the trainers’ lived
experiences and new hires’ supported data. Behavior changes in organizations are potent
influences on the culture of an organization. To date, research has not been found on the black
swan's perceived impact on organizational culture. No research was found that used sales
training from the trainers’ lived experiences, qualitative method, trainee's receipt perspective, or
quantitative supplement to understand organizational culture. Gaining knowledge about the
perceived effects of a black swan on culture provided insight into how an organization could
prepare to support itself in the event of another black swan. The research included types of
cultures as well as the levels of organizational culture from a historical perspective to evaluate
the possible observed experiences of interest. Figure 2 provides a conceptual framework for this
study. Note the emphasis placed on exogenous influences.
Organizational leaders can benefit from this study by preparing for future exogenous
events and improving communications among all levels of an organization. In addition, training
and development leadership can use this research to understand the organization’s culture while
observing the organizational culture from the new hires’ perspective.
7
Figure 2
The Conceptual Model
Questions / Hypothesis That Guided the Research
Four qualitative questions and one quantitative hypothesis guided this research study.
Qualitative Questions
Research qualitative questions centered around first, understanding the organizational
culture, and was followed by the culture adjusted and adapted during COVID-19, as observed
8
through new hire sales training efforts. The fourth research question asked how the company
could continue to monitor the culture in anticipation of future exogenous events.
RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ1a: What is the importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic
organization's strategy?
RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to change in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ2a: How did the company’s organizational culture change during COVID-19?
RQ3: How has the company’s organizational culture adapted during COVID-19 as
observed through new hire sales training?
RQ3a: What affected the company’s new hire sales training of organizational culture
during COVID-19?
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's understanding of the organization’s espoused
beliefs and values during COVID-19?
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19?
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational
culture in anticipation of future exogenous events?
Quantitative Hypothesis
The quantitative hypothesis stated: There is not a statistically significant relationship
between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
Definition of Terms
Several terms are used throughout this research study.
9
Black Swan – a rare event that is exogenous and improbable with extreme consequences
(Taleb, 2007).
Climate – the shared view of organizational practices, policies, and procedures, both
informal and formal (Schneider, 1990).
Culture – a blueprint of shared assumptions devised, discovered, or developed by group
members as the group develops, creating artifacts, values, and rituals (Schein, 1985).
Espoused Values – values that are supported by an organization's leadership (Siehl &
Martin, 1990).
Leader – A leader has or exercises authority over a person, group, or people (Eagly &
Carli, 2007).
Power – Liu et al. (2010) defined power “as the degree of discretion that individuals
possess in deciding the allocation and usage of personal or organizational resources in their
work” (p. 1438).
Rituals – the behaviors expected of each employee that is programmed systematically in
day-to-day life within the organization (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
Training – the process through which new hires receive knowledge about their work to
perform their jobs (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Goldstein, 1986).
Significance of the Study
An organizational culture is manifested by each member of the organization. The culture
is more than the vision and mission. The culture is the language, the unspoken rules of
engagement, the pride and drive that brings each employee a connection with all the other
employees. Culture is a vital component of corporate strategy, the “secret sauce” that
distinguishes an organization from all other organizations, especially its competitors. Whether
10
the culture is driven from the leadership in a top-down dynamic, driven by individuals in a
bottom-up dynamic, or vested across all levels of hierarchy, the culture is an individual social
component, often indescribable to the members, that binds people together. The culture is always
evolving as people leave an organization and people enter the organization. These changes are
normally small in scale, having a maturation effect on the organization’s culture.
A black swan is a sudden, unexpected, unprecedented event (Taleb, 2007). In the case of
COVID-19, this black swan had a rippling impact on the organization’s structures, routines, and
culture. Additionally, the impact affected the total market with rapid demand that could not be
met by any one organization. The massive scale of supply was sudden and lasted more than two
years. This pandemic has since moved into an endemic stage. This endemic stage continues to
create high demand on supplies.
This research aims to identify the perceived impact of a black swan event, COVID-19, on
organizational culture by examining the lived experiences of the sales training people, mentors,
and the managers who hired salespeople during the era of the pandemic. This population was not
the sole source of evidence to research organizational culture. Corroborative data, in the form of
a qualitative frequency survey of training recipients completed the observation necessary for a
full picture of the subject.
Finally, this examination represents a unique study of the topic. The researcher conducted
a thorough search but could not find academic research of a black swan's impact on
organizational culture. Further, the literature search did not reflect studies using sales training to
observe the organization’s culture.
11
Organization of the Remainder of the Research Study
Chapter 2 includes a review of literature encompassing the research topic and embraces
the history of the topic and relevant theoretical developments, including frameworks that defined
the study's vision and grew as the study developed. The organization of the literature review is
based on a topic broken into segments for functionality and development through the research
process as the study progressed. Several studies, types, and models will be discussed relating to
organizational culture. Research methodology is presented in Chapter 3, including the
philosophical worldview, research approach, research design, research methods, sample, data
collection, analysis, and reporting procedures. Chapter 4 presents the research findings and
Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the findings and recommendations for future research and
practice.
12
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Overview
This chapter synthesizes the primary research studies that have been done related to the
dissertation topic. The research studies presented will introduce or remind readers of the most
relevant studies in the discussion area. This literature review provides knowledge of the topic's
background and presents evidence of what kind of studies have been done and where the limits
and gaps justify further exploration and research.
The literature will contribute to the framework development that supported this
dissertation's research questions and hypothesis. The literature reviewed will emphasize the
topic's importance to organizational culture research and understanding the perception of
exogenous events.
Organization of the Remainder of the Chapter
Chapter 2 includes a literature review surrounding the topic and covers the history and
relevant theoretical developments. The chapter starts with a review of questions that guided the
research, followed by organizational culture, schools of cultural study, types of organizational
culture described by Robert Cooke and Charles Handy, the importance of organizational culture,
factors affecting organizational culture, models of organizational culture including Edgar Schein,
Geert Hofstede, Yvan Allaire, and Mihaela Firsirotu, organizational climate, organizational
values, organizational processes, and change management, change theory, changing
organizational culture, culture and the new hire success, social exchange theory, communication,
and organizational culture, outside sales professional and new hires, trainees, trainers/training
programs, theories on rituals, black swan, COVID-19-specific influences on new hires. Topics
13
relevant to the research that lay the groundwork for the study are labeled and broken out from
each other to allow for easy access and introduce dialectic terms recognized by the participants
but not common knowledge to researchers.
Questions and Hypothesis That Guided the Research
Four qualitative questions related to organizational culture guided this research:
RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ1a: What is the importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic
organization's strategy?
RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to change in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ2a: How did the company’s organizational culture change during COVID-19?
RQ3: How has the company’s organizational culture adapted during COVID-19 as observed
through new hire sales training?
RQ3a: What was affect the company’s new hire sales training of organizational culture
during COVID-19?
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's understanding of the organization’s espoused
beliefs and values during COVID-19?
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19?
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational culture in
anticipation of future exogenous events?
The quantitative hypothesis for this study stated: There is not a statistically significant
relationship between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
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Organizational Culture
An organization is a platform where individuals come together from different
backgrounds and interests to achieve goals (Cooke, 1997). Organizational culture is defined as
the artifacts, values, norms, and observed behavior patterns (Homburg & Pflesser, 2000; Schein,
1996a). These observed behaviors guide individual behavior within organizations (Janssen &
Bacq, 2010). Barney (1986) observed the impact of cultural assumptions manifesting in the
engagement of an organization in the way the business is conducted. Leadership is held
responsible for an organization’s culture, focusing on the strengths of leadership theory and
organizational theory (Selznick, 1957; Simosi & Xenikou, 2010). Organizational culture can
impact the development of leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Schein, 1992). Cultivating and
managing the culture affects the organization's overall success (Baker, 1980). Leadership uses
the influence of the organizational culture on employees, customers, suppliers, and competition
to influence employee attitudes (Anning & Dorson, 2020). An organization's culture cannot be
separated from that organization or divided within it, as it is more of an umbrella encompassing
it (Alvesson & Berg, 1992). Barney (1986) described culture as a source of competitive
advantage; sometimes, it can be dysfunctional, as described by Balthazard et al. (2006).
Schools of Cultural Study
Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) described three schools of study of culture. The synchronic
school is described as a functional and functional-structuralist study of culture from a specific
point in time and space. The other two are diachronic schools and focus specifically on time and
are described as historical-diffusionist and ecological-adaptationist.
The functionalist school of cultural theory is also called the need-grounded theory of
culture, where culture is a device that aids employees in coping with problems faced as they
15
work through their job (Malinowski, 1944). The structural-functionalist school recognizes the
value and belief characteristics that contribute to the social structure and are essential to adapting
to the physical environment to maintain an equilibrium (Radcliff-Brown, 1952). The
organization recognizes the contribution of values from a lower level of the hierarchy to the
larger organizational structure. The ecological-adaptationist school (White, 2016) describes
culture as transmitted behavior patterns within an ecological setting involving dialectic interplay,
feedback, and reciprocity. Organizations are in a state of dynamic change to meet the needs of
society within a real, present, or future environment through social intercommunications (Allaire
& Firsirotu, 1984).
Boas (1937) stated that culture comprises superorganic, temporal, autonomous, and
interactive shapes that result from past circumstances and processes. The continuous phases of an
organization's evolution cause an ebb and flow from organizational experiences that create
organizational patterns or structure (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984). The cognitive school states that
culture consists of knowledge individuals must know to assimilate as a product of learning how
people have unionized experiences (Goodenough, 1971). The structuralist school elaborates on
cognitive, adding unconscious principles of mind and symbolic systems to the cultural artifact
that establishes formal structures and processes (Levi-Strauss, 1963).
Partial inclusion is the ebb and flow of social interaction within the organization and is
associated with the cultural school known as mutual-equivalence structure, focusing on
standardized cognitive processes that lead to interlocking behavior (Wallace, 1995). The
symbolic school is a collective that recognizes that values, myths, sagas, emotional structures,
and character contribute to the meaning of human beings' interactions (Gertz, 2011). Finally,
culture is a system of symbols and processes that give direction within an organization and
16
include the organization's history, the definitions used, and how people interpret ongoing
situations (Schneider, 1990).
Types of Organizational Culture
Over the years several researchers have defined various types of organizational cultures.
Two of the most well-known include Robert Cooke and Charles Handy.
Robert Cooke – Constructive and Destructive Culture Predilection
Figure 3
Cooke’s Descriptive Model for Organizational Culture Types
Note: Cooke, R. A., & Lafferty, J. C. (1987). Organizational culture inventory. Human
Synergistics.
Organizations reconcile to their external environments by creating responsive structures
and systems, adopting technologies, and budding and harvesting organizational members' skills
(Cooke & Szumal, 2000). The concept of organizational culture by Cooke and Rousseau (1988)
discerns between constructive and destructive culture predilection (Simosi & Xenikou, 2010).
17
The descriptive model for organizational culture types (Figure 3) describes three types of culture:
constructive, passive/defensive, and aggressive/defensive (Cooke & Lafferty, 1987).
Norms identify constructive type cultures such as achievement, humanistic/encouraging,
self-actualizing, and affiliative behaviors (Chaudhry et al., 2016). These norms inspire
organizational members to collaborate with people and help them approach tasks to meet the
organizational needs (Simosi & Xenikou, 2010). In addition, constructive organizations
encourage healthy collaborations between employees where individuals can share ideas and
information discussing innovative solutions to the organization's problems (Cooke & Rousseau,
1988). Motivating employees is key to constructive cultures.
The key features of constructive cultures are achievement, self-actuating, encouragement,
and affiliative (Simosi & Xenikou, 2010) that are associated with each other (Cooke &
Rousseau, 1988).
• Achieving is the overarching goal within an expected time (Cooke & Rousseau,
1988). Achieving organizations create a culture orientation with a priority on high
standards of excellence where members are expected to set and meet their own goals
(Simosi & Xenikou, 2010).
• Self-actualizing refers to a culture that supports fully motivated employees reaching
their full potential (Cooke & Rousseau, 1988). Self-actualizing organizations are
creative, and how they accomplish growth and tasks encourages employees to enjoy
their work and think out of the box (Simosi & Xenikou, 2010).
• Encouraging cultures support employees in performing at their best and striving for
success (Cooke & Rousseau, 1988).
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• Finally, affiliative promotes a positive work environment and avoids negative
influences (Cooke & Rousseau, 1988).
Constructive cultures can influence industries in positive ways, including quality in
manufacturing (Corbett & Rastrick, 2000), client perceptions and outcomes in service
organizations (Glisson & James, 2002), and practical problem-solving (Shurberg & Haber,
1992). Organizations with constructive cultures have employees who are performing, motivated,
and satisfied with their jobs (Rousseau, 1990). In addition, employees in constructive
organizations have individual well-being (van der Velde & Class, 1995) and trust in their
supervisors and organization (Weider, 1997).
Passive/defensive organizational cultures are characterized by approval, conventional,
dependent, and avoidance (Cooke & Rousseau, 1988). The members will work in ways that will
lessen threats to their security (Chaudhry et al., 2016). Employees may behave contrary to how
they feel is correct or ideal (Cooke & Rousseau, 1988). Employees' motivation is to please their
supervisors, follow the rules and regulations, and maintain their job security (Chaudhry et al.,
2016). Passive/defensive organizational cultures negatively affect successful outcomes (Cooke &
Szumal, 2000).
Chaudhry et al. (2016) stated that aggressive/defensive organizational cultures include
oppositional, power, perfectionist, and competitive components that lead members to forceful
ways to protect their status and security (Chaudhry et al., 2016). In this organizational culture,
employees are encouraged to compete against each other, and collaboration is associated with
incompetence (Cooke & Szumal, 2000). Employees are aggressive and fight for power and
attention (Sodowsky, 1996). Mistakes can be career-limiting (Sodowsky, 1996).
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Aggressive/defensive organizational cultures negatively affect successful outcomes (Cooke &
Szumal, 2000).
Charles Handy – Employee Behavior Correlates Power Distributions
Charles Handy’s book, “The gods of management: The changing work of organizations"
(1980), is credited for his model of organizational culture. The Handy model (Figure 4) uses the
behavior of employees and their environmental interactions to correlate power distributions and
levels of cooperation (Russo et al., 2012).
Figure 4
Charles Handy Model (www.toolshero.com)
Note: Model taken from Toolshero at www.toolshero.com
There are four components to the Handy (1995) model: power culture, task culture,
person culture, and role culture.
• First, power culture is characterized by centralization with little bureaucracy and few
rules and formalized procedures.
• Second, in task culture, the culture can be dynamic, allowing the individuals to focus
on tasks as experts responding to the changes and needs of the market.
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• Third, cultures that focus on the individual and their professionalism are person
cultures.
• Fourth, role culture is more bureaucratic, having management that must coordinate
procedures and rules with a focus on the group, not the individual.
Competing Values Framework
Initially developed from research on significant indicators, the competing values
framework is based on questions centered on the criteria determining organizational
effectiveness, the definition of organizational effectiveness, and how people judge what makes
an organization effective (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) analyzed the
patterns identified in a list of 39 indicators of organizational effectiveness created by Campbell et
al. (1974). The outcome is known as the competing values framework (Figure 5).
Figure 5
Competing Values Framework
Note: Source: www.quinnassociation.com
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The model differentiates on two dimensions for clarity (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). On the
vertical, the framework measures flexibility and discretion versus stability and control. The
vertical plane shows how the organization is viewed as effective regarding changing, adaptable,
and organic versus stable, mechanistic, and predictable. On the horizontal plane, the model
differentiates internal focus and integration versus external focus and differentiation. The
horizontal plane differentiates organizational effectiveness by emphasizing integration, unity,
internal orientation versus differentiation, external orientation, and rivalry. The results are four
distinct sets of organizational effectiveness indicators. These four sets of indicators become the
four major cultural types.
The hierarchy (control) culture is characterized by a structured workplace and formalized
engagement with set procedures and rituals. Organizations with hierarchical cultures emphasize
predictability, efficiency, and stability with formal rules and policies that hold the organization
together (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The market (compete) culture emphasizes transaction costs,
external environmental needs, and internal control with specialized jobs, centralized decisions,
and rules as part of a core value of competitiveness and productivity (Ouchi, 1981; Williamson,
1975). The clan (collaborative) culture has collaboration with value placed on individuality,
cohesion, and teamwork where customers are partners, the business is developed as part of an
overall environment, and tasks are managed by facilitating participation, commitment, and
loyalty while empowering employees (Lincoln, 2003; Ouchi, 1981; Pascale & Athos, 1981).
Finally, the adhocracy (create) culture emphasizes innovation, entrepreneurship, and cutting-
edge activities that generate future vision (Cameron & Quinn, 2011). The adhocracy culture is
cutting edge and dynamic, relying on rapidly growing technologies.
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Importance of Organizational Culture
Both models previously presented, the Theoretical (Figure 1) and Conceptual (Figure 2)
models, show organizational culture at the center with a blue arrow on either side. This
placement in the model represents the importance of organizational culture to an organization
and the evolution that is constantly occurring to support the organization. When confronted with
situations, members of an influential group are likely to interpret the events similarly and
respond in kind (Mischel, 1973). If the group is weak, members will not code the information
equally and will most likely respond differently to a situation they are experiencing together
(Kozlowski & Klein, 2000; Ostroff et al., 2003). Therefore, the circle must be flexible and
robust.
Factors Affecting Organizational Culture
The organizational size, structure, hierarchical levels, and control mechanisms are linked
to worker attitudes, organizational productivity, and administrative practices (Blau, 1986; Heck
& Marcoulides, 1989). Organizations are a social work of art of the members' shared
experiences. To this end, organizations develop code (Arrow, 1979), world views (Hedberg et
al., 1976), or public maps (Argyris & Schon, 1978) that provide a flow chart for organizational
action (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984). Organizations develop norms that are expectations of
behaviors; members hold each other accountable and apply pressures to conform (O’Reilly et al.,
1991; Schein, 1992). The theoretical model (Figure 1) shows some exogenous and endogenous
forces affecting organizational culture.
Models of Organizational Culture
Models for organizational culture are provided here to aid in clarity to the observation of
a black swan. Researchers quickly anchor their theories on methods or partial concepts without
23
defining multiple viewpoints, creating fuzzy theory (Schein, 1996). The current research
included several models of organizational culture to bring a more robust observation and
theoretical understanding.
Edgar Schein – Dynamic and Adapting Organization Cultures
Figure 6
Schein’s Components of Organizational Culture
Note: Source: https://octo.vmware.com/vmware-devops-behavior-change-via-optimized-tooling/
Edgar Schein worked with Lewin and others in The Human Relations Training lab as a
scholar-practitioner. Schein used Scharmer and Senge as examples of consultative work while
conducting research that advances knowledge (Schein & von Ameln, 2019). Schein postulated
that organizations are dynamic, developing culture over time and adapting to environmental
changes. Schein (1992) credited the muddiness in definitions of culture to unsuccessfully
differentiating the levels at which culture manifests correctly. Research prior to Schein (1992)
described organizational culture as a single construct; Schein differentiated culture into levels by
showing the importance of analyzing and differentiating between these levels. Schein’s Cultural
Model (2007) has three distinct levels that are interrelated: artifacts, values, and assumptions
24
(Figure 6). Schein’s theoretical framework or model shows that leaders determine the type of
organizational culture by defining and perpetuating the culture (Simosi & Xenikou, 2010). There
is a consistent reciprocal action between leadership and the organization's culture (Bass &
Avolio, 1993; Xenikou & Simosi, 2006).
Artifacts and symbols are the most easily observed and felt by individuals exposed to
organizational culture (Schein, 1992). Examples of artifacts are the mission and vision of an
organization, the office furniture and decorations within the buildings, the outward behavior of
employees, and possibly a dress code (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). Schein and Schein (2017)
described artifacts as phenomena you see, feel, and hear when encountering a new group or
unfamiliar culture. An artifact can include spoken language, technology, myths and stories,
published values, and observable rituals and ceremonies. An artifact is relevant to employees,
suppliers, customers, and competitors (Anning-Dorden, 2020). The organizational climate
resides in the artifact layer, along with the formal organizational charts and descriptions (Schein,
1992). Artifacts are easily observed but can be challenging to decipher (Schein & Schein, 2017).
A level of trust must be established before individuals can understand the artifacts' whole
meaning by observing the layers of values and assumptions (Schein, 1992).
The organization's and employees’ values are the processes and attitudes that profoundly
impact the organization (Schein, 1992). Schein & Schein (2017) defined values as the validated
beliefs and values that can be empirically tested and continue to work to solve problems and
eventually be transformed into assumptions. These values influence employees' attitudes as well
as the direction of the organization and define interactions with crucial actors (Anning-Dorsen,
2020). Some beliefs or values may need social validation to be accepted by the members
25
(Schein, 1992), and as a result of the validation, the values become non-negotiable for the
members (Schein & Schein, 2017).
Expoused values are essential, providing principles and philosophies that steer conduct
and provide the theoretical account for organizational routines and practices (Hatch, 1993).
These espoused beliefs, moral, and ethical rules in this level of culture are conscious and
articulated to guide members' behaviors (Schein & Schein, 2017). Many organizations express
desired expoused values, but these are not reflected in the observed behaviors (Argyris & Schon,
1966, 1978). The beliefs will become part of the organization's ideology or philosophy which
serves as a guide for dealing with uncontrollable or difficult situations (Schein & Schein, 2017).
The innermost layer is basic assumptions. Schein and Schein (2017) define assumptions
as unconscious taken-for-granted beliefs and values that determine organizational members'
perceptions, thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. This layer is the most difficult to observe and
measure because it contains the intangible manifestations of values, processes, and beliefs
(Marcoulides & Heck, 1993). Direct expressions of cultural assumptions explain the
organization's business and how it conducts that business (Barney, 1986). The assumed values
and beliefs are practiced and not discussed, but are facts that stay hidden and become part of the
organization’s nature (Schein & Schein, 2017). Basic assumptions can be related to theories-in-
use (Argyris & Schon, 1996) that postulate unstated assumptions that direct behavior and guide
group members' thinking, perceiving, or feeling about things. The assumptions impact the
organization's strategy and structure (Tichy, 1983). These basic assumptions are not up for
negotiation (Schein, 1992). Assumptions include processes that work for some time and are
accepted as successful or have been accepted by the organizational members as a truth or reality
that will eventually be taken for granted (Schein, 1992). This level of culture is integrated into
26
the organization with few variations by repeated degrees of acceptance and implementation of
values and beliefs (Schein & Schein, 2017). Assumptions are shared and accepted as fact, which
is the ultimate power of the organizational culture. It is essential to distinguish between the
congruent underlying assumptions that guide performance and those that are rationalizations or
aspirations for the future. Researchers must dive deeper and understand the assumptions (Schein,
1992).
The leaders of an organization rely on the mechanics of organizational culture to
influence and manage the organization's business (Anning-Dorsen, 2020). Making changes to the
basic assumptions means re-examining or resurrecting stable pieces of the organization's overall
structure, called double-loop learning or frame-breaking (Argyris & Schon, 1974, 1996).
Learning new assumptions makes cognitive and interpersonal assumptions unstable, creating
anxiety within the organization (Schein & Schein, 2017). Culture at the assumptive level tells
members what their identity is and defines their values and self-esteem within the organization
(Hatch & Schultz, 2004). Assumptions are shared among the group members and are mutually
enforced (Schein & Schein, 2017), although, occasionally, group members behave in a variant or
dominant orientation (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). This enforcement can lead to new
assumptions or cause the member to be rejected by the culture (Schein, 1992).
Geert Hofstede – Culture an Aggregate of Historical Components
Geert Hofstede et al. (1990) theorize that organizational culture is an aggregate of
historical components that determines a social construct involving beliefs, assumptions, and
expectations for employee behaviors that exist on several levels and establish itself in a wide
range of features within the organization. Hofstede's model is often used in international
business. The research is also applied to organizational research (de Mooij & Hofstede, 2010).
27
The current Hofstede model is dynamic and has evolved to six dimensions (de Mooij &
Hofstede, 2010). Unlike the international culture model, the organizational culture model
represents organizations, not individual performers (Hofstede, 1998). This research focuses on
organizational culture, not international culture, so this literature review does not cover GLOBE
or international culture-specific literature. Hofstede's organization model is composed of six
dimensions: power distance, collectivism versus individualism, uncertainty avoidance index,
masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-term orientation, and indulgence versus
restraint (Figure 7) (de Mooij & Hofstede, 2010).
Figure 7
Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Model
Note: Source: Hofstede-insights.com
The power distance dimension is thought to have come from the move from agricultural
to large-scale societies (Hofstede et al., 1990; Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). In
agricultural communities, people personally knew their group members and leaders (Beugelsdijk
& Welzel, 2018). Members' participation in organizational culture requires accepting the
leadership and influential people within the organization (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The
sliding scale differentiates the amount of power delegation (Hofstede et al., 1990). Hofstede
28
(2001) recognized technology as an essential factor for organizational change, increasing the
difference between group members to the degree they accept the newer technological
advancement.
Individualism means employees feel independent instead of codependent with each other
(Hofstede et al., 2005). Individualism means the choices should be made individually (Hofstede
et al., 1990). On the other hand, collectivism means “knows one place” in life, but it does not
mean closeness (Hofstede et al., 1990). Individualism means responsibility and focusing on
oneself, whereas collectivism means loyalty and social exchange among the group (de Mooij &
Hofstede, 2010). Individualistic cultures have low context explicit verbal communication. More
collectivist cultures focus on the social system with high context and direct style
communications.
The uncertainty avoidance index dimension deals with the organization's tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity (Hofstede et al., 1990). The uncertainty avoidance index is associated
with anxiety and distrust when an organization member is faced with things that are not known
and organizational rituals that became processes within the organization (Hofstede et al., 1990).
Organizations needing more rituals are strong in uncertainty avoidance (de Mooij & Hofstede,
2010). These organizations seek truth from experts avoiding change and innovation.
Organizations that are slow to adopt innovations have high uncertainty avoidance (Tellis et al.,
2003; Yaveroglu & Donthu, 2002; Yeniurt & Townsend, 2003).
In masculine cultures, employees are more forceful; winning is essential regardless of
gender, and quantity is significant (Hofstede et al., 1990). Masculine cultures focus on
achievement and success with an emphasis on achievement and performance (de Mooij, 2010; de
Mooij & Hofstede, 2002). Conversely, feminine cultures have emotionally closer gender roles
29
(de Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). In more feminine cultures, there is less competition (Hofstede et
al., 1990). The dominant characteristic in feminine cultures is caring for others and quality of life
(de Mooij, 2010; de Mooij & Hofstede, 2002).
Long-term-oriented cultures have a dynamic worldview; therefore, preparing for change
is always needed (Hofstede et al., 1990). In long-term orientation, the values are pragmatic and
include perseverance, thrift, status, a sense of shame, and an investment in the future (de Mooij
& Hofstede, 2010). In short-term oriented cultures, the organization is how it has been through
history, where the past is a moral compass, and members are expected to adhere to what is
morally good (Hofstede et al., 1990). The short-term cultures rely heavily on philosophy,
education, and previous achievements (Hofstede et al., 1990). Short-term orientation cultures
rely on personal steadiness, respect for tradition, and stability, focusing on pursuing happiness
(de Mooij & Hofstede, 2010).
Indulgent cultures allow the innate drive to enjoy life and receive gratification
(Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). Restraint cultures rely on strict social rules and curb gratification
(Minkov, 2011).
Yvan Allaire and Mihaela Firsirotu – Interrelated Systems Culture
Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) proposed an identifiable three-layer interrelated culture
comprising systems (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). Within the layers are perceived functions of
officially ascertained organizational strategies, policies, structures, and management practices of
the sociocultural system (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984). The sociocultural system develops processes
due to previous successes that become rituals (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). This system
recognizes the use of classical management theory to achieve the organization's goals through
activities to meet expectations (MacKenzie, 1986; Thompson, 1967).
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The organizational belief system substantiates the organization's values, myths, and
ideologies (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). In organizational belief, the leadership attempts to
demystify values and clarify the organization's purpose (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984). This level
stresses the internal and external communication of goals and production results (Heck et al.,
1990; Reynolds, 1986). This level of the organizational culture contains the organization's myths,
ideologies, and values and uses symbolic behaviors to communicate the organizational values at
a deeper level (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984).
The collective employee system is the final level (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). The
collective employee system contains the individual collective with their goals, personalities,
experiences, and belief systems (Allaire & Firsirotu, (1984). The goal is to indoctrinate
employees into the organizational culture, but the process is not always consistent for all
individuals (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). Individuals come into an organization with different
perceptions about political, social, and work-related issues (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). These
different perceptions can cause management to feel constrained (Fuller et al., 1982). In the
collective employee system, the organizational culture embodies the attitudes and values of the
individual employee and the organizational climate (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984).
Organizational Climate
The term climate, initially coined by Lewin et al. (1939) to describe a social process
involving the feelings and attitudes of children in a group at summer camp, has since evolved in
its meaning (Ashkanasy et al., 2000). Organizational climate reflects the activities and perception
of the organization as viewed by outsiders (Goodenough, 1971). Climate, previously defined as
the shared view of organizational practices, policies, and procedures, both informal and formal
(Schneider, 1990), is an individualist perspective constructed from personal experiences that
31
allow employees to adapt to the organization (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984). Employees formulate
opinions based on perceptions of how well the organization is functioning and the quality of the
environment they work in, including rewards for successes, social exchanges and interactions,
organizational communications, resource availability, and the stresses related to job performance
(Owens, 1987). The organizational climate is a swiftly dynamic component of an artifact that is
short-lived and responds to reactionary elements rather than facts (Murphy et al., 2013).
Chan's (1998) consensus models pose an argument for climate development in
organizations. The direct consensus model uses within-group consensus at more grounded levels
of an organization, such as teams or work groups, as a stipulation by higher hierarchical levels to
aggregate the individual contributors' inputs. An individual owns the psychological climate.
When shared within a workgroup setting, the aggregate becomes an organizational climate, still
allowing the individual ownership of the observations (Glisson & James, 2002). Researchers
agree that organizational culture affects components of work units impacting employee behavior,
work attitudes, and organizational climate (Kopelman et al., 1990).
It falls on leadership to protect the organization from the exogenous cultural influences,
only allowing in the aspects that lend to goal attainment (Marcoulides & Heck, 2008).
Managerial attempts to circumvent culture by creating an independent structure of controlling
culture to promote consistency can lead to increased employee turnover and decreased
organizational commitment (Glisson & James, 2002).
An organization's climate is integral to employees' emotions, the physical environment,
and visitors and new hires' perceptions (Schein, 2000). Culture forms from the top and affects the
bottom, whereas climate forms from the bottom and affects the top (Glick, 1985; Schneider,
32
1990). Just as other organizational artifacts evolve from values, rituals, or assumptions, the
organizational climate is codependent on all aspects of the organizational culture.
Organizational Values
Behavior is the visible part of the culture, while values represent the invisible part
(Hofstede, 1998). Values are qualities, conditions, objectives, or standards that satisfy or are
credited as satisfying needs and acts that guide human action (Stackman et al., 2000). The
artifact layer of organizational culture is the most visible, and the values layer is the least visible
(Schein, 1992). Values define what the organization considers failure or success (Deal &
Kennedy, 1982). Values are long-standing beliefs that specific conduct is preferred by others
(Rokeach, 1969). Strong cultures have a complex value system shared by all employees, where
the values are talked about openly with pride and with intolerance for defiance (Deal &
Kennedy, 1982). Values are building blocks of behavior and individual choice (Conner &
Becker, 1994) and are powerful because they elicit emotion (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
Leadership can emphasize specific values to affect the artifacts and influence the
organizational culture (Heck et al., 1990; Owens, 1987). Leadership can emphasize specific
value propositions guiding the middle managers to incentivize their direct reports who commit to
the value proposition to pull through (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
Values can be divided into two types, espoused and enacted (Schein, 2004; Schwartz,
1992). Written organizational values become core and inflexible, where the organization's values
are ever-changing (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Writing down values removes the ability to adjust
daily application and commitment (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Leadership can use values to
influence the organization (Mumford et al., 2002). Training employees' values is essential to
organizational success (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
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Organizational Processes, Change Management, and Change Theory
Studies of the change models focus on the dynamic relationships in organizations
(Marcoulides & Heck, 2008). Change often occurs in response to significant occurrences
described by Handy (1989) as fighting to sustain the organization, influx of new leadership,
innovation, new processes, and change in goals or organizational or industry standards. Change
is reviewed in terms of complexity, cost, level of uncertainty, or risk (Nadler, 1998). Generally,
at a high level, there are three types of change: adaptive change, innovative change, and radically
innovative change (Nadler, 1998).
• Changing a process currently in use, used previously, or used elsewhere in the
organization is adaptive change.
• Change introduces new processes to an organization exclusively in innovative
change.
• Radical, innovative change is a change that involves more than the singular
organization.
Environmental changes are met with organizational resistance, or extreme changes
necessitating employees' quick adaptation can cause top management to behave inconsistently
(Deal & Kennedy, 1982). If leadership does not adhere to the professed values of the
organization, the culture will be undermined and toxic.
Kurt Lewin is the most noted scholar on change and change management (Ash, 1992;
Bakari et al., 2017; Burnes, 2015b; Burnes & Cooke, 2012; Freedman, 1999; Liebhart & Garcia-
Lorenzo, 2010; Marrow, 1969; Schein, 1988). Lewin is credited with establishing field theory,
group dynamics theory, action research theory, and the three-step change model (Burnes, 2009).
Lewin’s three-step model for change is described as unfreezing, moving, and refreezing (Lewin,
34
1947). The purpose of unfreezing is to generate concurrence and motivation for the change based
on the current practice becoming less than suitable (Weick & Quinn, 1999). Moving is changing
to implement a new practice. Refreezing champions and reinforces the new practice through
rewarding adaptation until the new practice becomes a ritual. Academic research strongly
supports Lewin’s model (Santhidran et al., 2013). The research upholds leadership involvement
curbing resistance to maintaining the status quo (Bakari et al., 2017). Critiques of the Lewin
model of change reference Lewin’s writings and note that he never proposes these three steps
like a change model, instead proposing change as dynamic and continuous (Cummings et al.,
2016). Lewin is justifiably credited with an equation on behavior that demonstrates change. The
field theory and Lewin’s equation on behavior (B=ƒ(P, E)) demonstrate that behavior is a
byproduct of physical traits (for this research, the researcher used the traits of the organizational
culture) and the environment (Bakari et al., 2017).
In 1999, Armenakis and Bedeian proposed a three-step change model, adding
components of Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory. The three stages are readiness,
adaptation, and institutionalization (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999). Change readiness is "the
extent to which an individual or individuals are cognitively and emotionally inclined to accept,
embrace, and adopt a particular plan to alter the status quo purposefully" (Armenakis et al., 2007,
p. 235). Readiness can be the organization's psychological and behavioral commitment to
successfully implementing change (Weiner et al., 2008).
Readiness, and Lewin's unfreezing, require the members of an organization to create
dissatisfaction with the status quo to reduce resistance (Neves, 2009). The organization
encourages change as it is appealing and will bring long-term benefits (Armenakis et al., 1993).
The first stage involves organizational members' commitment to change (Bakari et al., 2017).
35
This commitment to change is separate from overall organizational commitment
(Bouckenoogheet al., 2015; Herscovitch & Meyer, 2002; Kalyal, 2009). Using social cognitive
theory (Tu & Lu, 2016), implementation of change relies on the organization's commitment to
the change and positive communication for the benefits of new practices (Appelbaum et al.,
2015; Battilana et al., 2010; Santhidran et al., 2013).
Changes in Organizational Culture
Culture is dynamic, continuously evolving, bending to forces such as technologies,
environmental changes, or challenges, evolving social systems within the organization, and
elements of organizational activities, good or bad (Schein, 2000). The most renowned challenge
associated with competing as an organization in an industry is the need to complement internal
adaptation and coordinate external pressures, achieve stability and flexibility, and fuse high-level
control with lower-level involvement (Yilmaz & Ergun, 2008). High-growth or extremely
dynamic industries are characterized by rapid change, risk, and organizational turnover
(Chaudhry et al., 2016). Organizations in high-growth industries create a dynamic nature with
new initiatives, freedom in decision-making, and acceptance of innovation (Hambrick &
Finklestein, 1987). Management and employees have more opportunities to effect changes (Datta
et al., 2005). An industry's more moderate growth rate allows the organization to have stronger
innovative and team-focused cultures than more inert industry organizations (Chatman & Jehn,
1994). Therefore, the research on constructive cultures that support innovation, teamwork, or
cooperation maintains more advantages (Chaudhry et al., 2016).
Social Exchange Theory
Homans (1958) described social behavior as an exchange that combines four behavior
theories, psychology, economics, and propositions.
36
• First, a hierarchical complex social structure develops among people (Blau, 1986),
followed by a norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960).
• Second, the hierarchy establishes the balance of power and justice within the network
(Cook & Emerson, 1978).
• Third, social exchange theories are built on how people use power and influence
(Cook, 1989).
• Fourth, Lawler (2001) researched the emotional ties developed by social exchanges.
These ties are the sense of belonging individuals get when part of a cohort or
organization (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Etzioni, 1961; Levinson, 1965; March &
Simon, 1958; Scholl, 1981). Employees who sense they have organizational support
will trust the organization as it initiates change (Blau, 1986; Gouldner, 1960).
Communication and Organizational Culture
Glisson and James (2002) suggested that research demonstrates that culture is shared and
expressed among employees more through normative beliefs and behavioral expectations than
through assumptions and ‘deeper’ values (Hofstede et al., 1990; Hofstede, 1998). Culture is the
glue that holds organizations together (Goffe & Jones, 1996).
The artifacts of an organization are easily accessible to insiders and outsiders of an
organization (Schein, 1992). These artifacts are contextual clues that help employees understand
what is expected from them within the organization (Mahler, 1997; Meyer, 1995).
Culture and the New Hire Success
Researchers have asked if culture affects performance (Kozlowski & Hults, 1987;
Pritchard & Karasick, 1973). The research divides the outcomes into three distinct performance
areas: individual, unit, and organization (Ostroff et al., 2003; Schneider, 1990). Individual-level
37
outcomes measurements are core task performance, citizenship performance, or counter-
productive work performance (Borman & Motowildo (1993). Unit-level performance is a team-
level outcome (Schneider, 1990). The organizational level outcomes are the level of strategic
focus and strategic differentiation achieved (Porter, 1980, 1985). The strength of the
organizational culture can determine the focus of the onboarding process, whether it be
orientation, socialization, or training (Feldman & O’Neill, 2014).
Outside Sales Professional/New Hires/Trainees
Outside salespeople are the first line connection between the customer and the
organization. The salesperson creates the agility needed for the organization to meet the
customer’s needs (Flint et al., 2002). Weitz (1981) is credited with introducing a personal
adapted construct of sales effectiveness known as adaptive selling. Influential sales forces adapt
quickly to external events, implement strategies, launch products, innovate the sales process, and
seek performance improvement (Jones et al., 2005).
Sales Trainees
A salesperson is an employee whose job is to interact with customers to understand
customer needs while positioning organizational products or services to meet those needs (Jones
et al., 2005). The seller and buyer create contracts for mutual benefit (Dietvorst et al., 2009).
Salespeople are expected to be effective communicators (Dietvorst et al., 2009). The training for
new sales professionals is done traditionally. How training is done, face-to-face or virtually, will
confirm an organization's culture and climate to new hires (Feldman, 1989).
Most organizations have a cohort system encompassing mentorships, classroom, virtual,
video, role-playing, testing, and a lecture series spread over time, allowing customer interactions
(Panitz et al., 1997). Training can be identified as either institutionalized or individualized
38
training strategies where institutionalized training involves large numbers of new employees
being trained formally at the same time to guarantee everyone receives the same training (Baker
& Feldman, 1991; Jones, 1986). This initial stage of training is called orientation and is where
new hires are exposed to an organization's policies, rules, and procedures (Feldman, 1988). The
initial stages are HR-related and start with fun interactions to get to know one another and
establish a social exchange. The subsequent interactions are usually high executive levels,
establishing the larger organization's membership and slowly exposing them to layers of culture.
Weekly and monthly interactions involve speakers, product training, process training, and role-
playing, concluding at the end of the course. Cohort members must rely on each other, trainers,
and mentors to succeed. The new hires establish connections among peers and learn the
organization's hierarchy. Minor changes have occurred over the past fifty years in basic sales
selling skills, and little is expected to change in the future (Smith, 1991). Many of the observed
changes prior to 2019 are in the addition of technologies.
Trainers/Training Program
What if the exogenous influence on the organization goes so deep that it cuts through the
established processes, such as new hire sales training? The organization must adapt by suddenly
changing internal structures and processes that the organization was not prepared to change
(Dyer & Singh, 1998; Eisenhardt 2002; Harrigan, 2001). Organizations that respond effectively
during extremes, regardless of the nature of the turbulence, will gain a competitive edge (Jones et
al., 2005).
Feldman (1976, 2012) described organizational socialization as the process of new hires
going from being outsiders to insiders. Socialization is trained in an organization (Schein, 2004;
van Maanen, 1976). Organizational socialization refers to new hires being taught the role they
39
are expected to perform, group norms, social interactions, and the organization's culture and
climate (Feldman, 1981). The new hires understand important group norms through training and
indirect observation, eventually learning the specific ways the organization accomplishes tasks
(Schein, 2004; van Maanen, 1976). The socialization strategy used by an organization will
determine if a new hire embraces cultural values (Chatman & Spataro, 2005).
Adapting to new hire sales training methods creates a new dynamic, aggressive change in
a traditional training role. Sales trainers challenged to move away from the traditional models are
forced to accelerate this path (Cron et al., 2005; Lassk et al., 2012). Moving from a physical
classroom to a virtual classroom, defined as an e-learning experience, was mandatory during the
COVID-19 travel restrictions. E-learning is “learning that is delivered, enabled or mediated by
electronic technology for the explicit purpose of training in organizations” (Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development 2009). In 2009, about 22% of institutional learning was conducted
as e-learning (Lassk et al., 2012). In addition to the learning modules typically presented online,
the skills taught in person needed to be taught online. Moreover, virtual presentation skills to
customers became a focus for all sales professionals, not just new hires (Rangarajan et al., 2020).
Using traditional inside sales professionals to teach outside sales professionals could empower
teams.
Technology plays a vital role in the B2B (Business to Business) sales team (Rangarajan
et al., 2020). Many organizations were moving towards digitization before COVID-19, which
was vastly accelerated during the pandemic. Facilities were closed to nonessential workers. The
inability to visit customers was causing sales meetings to be handled virtually as organizations
looked to minimize the exposure. The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant disruptions to
40
industry and altered business processes. COVID-19 did not just change the way distributors sell;
it changed how their customers buy. Remote sales mean an increase in digital marketing.
Digitization allows more meetings to fit into a day, leading to more revenue (Guenzi &
Habel, 2020). Virtual work may lead to burnout due to increased intensity. Zoom fatigue may be
confirmed. Organizations must evaluate the social exchange to ensure there are parameters for
employees' physical and mental health. Managing onboarding and social exchange for new hires
through all the crises and change is exceptionally challenging.
Theories on Rituals
Rituals are systematic and programmed behaviors of everyday life expected by
employees in an organization (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). Organizations use ceremonies to provide
examples of this behavior. Rituals are necessary as these symbolic actions in ceremonies ground
an organization's culture. Some rituals that are standard within organizations relate to public
decorum, communication, linguistics, presentations, homework, and explicit instructions. People
need to be told what is expected of them and how they are expected to behave becomes the
organizational ritual. Onboarding is the assimilation of outsiders into an organizational culture
that includes infinite behavior patterns. Leadership often takes time to help develop rituals and
celebrate them by participating in onboarding activities and other orchestrated celebrations such
as retirement recognition (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). These activities by leadership demonstrate to
new hires the whole organization's priority of specific behaviors. Rituals are the rules for an
organization's culture and start with myths symbolizing fundamental beliefs. Training rituals
within an organization can be done through play which encourages innovation and bonding
among people while reducing tensions and conflict, helping to create innovative vision and
values. This need for interaction is problematic when new hires rely on virtual communications.
41
Management hires new employees with specific education, experience, values, nationality, and
age, expecting them to be socialized to fit into the organization by learning symbols, rituals, and
heroes (Neuijen, 1990). Understanding how COVID-19 has separated people from a physical
environment and collective culture by social distancing and creating virtual workspaces will be
researched for years to come (Spicer, 2020).
Black Swan Theory
On December 31, 2019, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (WHO) issued a
statement describing pneumonia of unknown cause in Wuhan. The WHO would later name the
disease COVID-19. Should the world have foreseen a pandemic? It was an outlier. It was there,
just like the other outliers. The effects of COVID-19 on the world will be analyzed and
overanalyzed for many years. The analysis could assign blame, predict future pandemic impact,
voice concerns, or praise. This researcher aimed to delve into the organizational member's
perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic in a single established organization to understand the
possible impact. During this analysis, research will define Black Swan Theory and its impact on
Social Exchange Theory.
What is Black Swan Theory? Nassim Taleb wrote a best seller called The Black Swan:
The Impact of the Highly Improbable in 2007. Taleb is a quantitative analyst for economic
exchanges. The outliers in quantitative analysis can either be tossed or ignored but rarely are they
the focus of analysis. The black swan is the outlier. Taleb defined a black swan as exogenous,
highly improbable, high impact; as humans, we try to explain it as an event. Those four
components are present in each occurrence. Taleb is often asked to predict the next black swan.
The book’s purpose was to create an understanding of the occurrences. Attempting to predict is
42
problematic as it is not possible to acknowledge “the possible” before their occurrence.
Researchers can best attempt to adapt to the understanding that they will occur.
Examples of black swans include COVID-19, the 9/11 terrorist attack, and the economic
crash in 2008. Those would be considered catastrophic events. Black swans could be non-
catastrophic as well. Some examples of positively influenced black swans could be the
introduction of innovations that changed lives, such as Amazon, first flight, and Facebook. What
makes these black swans? Were they possibilities? The argument can be debated and could be a
subject for future academic research.
In some cases, black swans are identified but ignored as too improbable. They are
outliers. They are the point on the linearity graph that falls outside the norm and throws off the
data just enough. The exogenous and high-impact nature of the events makes them black swans.
The nature of the black swan theory is high impact. Reviewing the full effects on
organizations is too large a topic for a paper. For this reason, this research focused on a single
aspect. The research looked at COVID-19 as a black swan and the new hire onboarding process
for a medical sales organization during this period. There are specific reasons for the study group
that will be covered later. The principal target was the lived experiences during a black swan on
this group’s establishment of social exchange during their onboarding and training process.
The conceptual framework was presented earlier in Figure 2 and is replicated in Figure 8
for further explanation. In the center is the organizational culture. Culture is an ever-evolving
component that is the heart of an organization. The organization unfreezes, allowing
commitments to change as needed to grow or maintain strategic influences in the market. The
organizational culture expands and contracts as the organization changes. How is COVID-19
different? The changes needed to maintain and grow as an organization during an exogenous
43
change that is high impact and unexpected do not allow the adaptation needed to accept the
changes. The organization cannot unfreeze to allow the commitment to change to occur. The
possible high impact of COVID-19, or any black swan, leaves the organization no option but to
react. Strong cultural leadership sees the sudden exogenous influences and begins to
overcommunicate, allowing the flow of information to be two-way and supporting the unfreezing
needed to manage the change.
Figure 8
The Conceptual Framework
44
The perceived impact of a black swan on an organization's culture is difficult to
determine due to the nature of the three levels, espoused values and beliefs, basic assumptions,
and invisibleness. To understand the perceived impact, a researcher can look at employees just
entering organizational membership. Trainers, managers, and mentors teach the new hires the
organization's culture. The perceived effects of COVID-19 as a black swan will be more
apparent using this specific group and process, training, and new hires. In the end, behavior is
still a function of personal traits and the environment B=ƒ(P, E) (Lewin, 1949). One of the
characteristics of a black swan is the nature of human reflection. Humans want to say, “we saw
this coming,” which could have been foreseen. The immense perceived impact COVID-19 has
had on the world and every organization globally was unexpected. This research brings value to
literature and the business community by creating understanding of the lived experiences that
allow the leadership to prepare for other unprecedented exogenous events.
45
Chapter 3
Methodology
Overview
The purpose of this study was to observe the perceived effects of COVID-19 as a black
swan event, and its impact on the organizational culture as experienced through sales training in
a medical diagnostic company. The researcher observed disruptive organizational changes and
became curious about the determinants of this change phenomenon. The researcher conducted an
extensive literature review looking for theoretical components that helped describe the change in
the organization’s culture witnessed by the members of the organization’s sales training.
For the subject matter of organizational culture, a qualitative research method was
primarily chosen for this study. Qualitative research includes several methodologies with
identifiable research paradigms, history, methods, and traditions (De-Moll, 2010). The five
research traditions most often used are ethnography, (Fetterman, 2010; Wolcott, 2008), grounded
theory (Charmez, 2014; Corbin & Strauss, 2015), case study (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2014),
phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994; van Manen, 2014), and narrative (Clandinin, 2013;
Riessman, 2008). The research design selected was a mixed-method analysis.
Organization of the Chapter
The first section of this chapter includes detailed descriptions of ethical considerations,
philosophical worldview, research questions, research design rationale, research design, and
research model. The second section of this chapter is the research approach, which includes a
flow chart of research, research site, participant recruitment, sample, and selection of
participants. The third section of this chapter is data collection, including the research
46
instruments of interviews and surveys. Finally, the fourth section of the chapter contains data
analysis, the researcher's positionality, and validity.
Ethical Considerations
Researchers use precautions to protect the well-being and safety of participants as well as
the integrity of the study (APA; 2010). This researcher established procedures including
voluntary informed consent to avoid deceitful acts (see Appendix A). Each participant was
provided with this informed consent form before an interview or a survey. In addition,
precautions to maintain the strictest level of confidence were taken to secure the highest quality
of the collected data and protect the participants (Creswell & Poth, 2017; Paley & Lilford, 2011).
Philosophical Worldview
The researcher’s worldview describes the orientation the researcher holds about the
research problem examination. The researcher primarily holds a pragmatic constructivist
worldview seeking to understand the sales and sales training process, where she has more than
two decades of experience. The researcher acknowledges exposure to the research problem as an
observer and former organization member. The researcher also acknowledges a passion for
learning and sharing knowledge, prior exposure to the organization, and the potential bias that
this presents.
The researcher has more than twenty years of experience with sales training, either being
trained or training, and often mentoring. At the same time, in between medical sales
organizations, the researcher experienced the intensity of pharmaceutical sales in the 1990s,
commonly referred to as "pharmaceutical bootcamp," where sales professionals were sequestered
from family and friends over as much as four months to focus on organizational expectations,
disease states, and product knowledge. Conversely, the researcher has experienced a lack of
47
start-up sales training. A passion for knowledge led to the researcher seeking additional
resources after training and often established the researcher as a product/disease state expert with
invitations to mentor and aid in training new hire sales professionals. The teaching component
was recognized and valued by the organizations. Continuing education through master’s and
later doctoral studies led the researcher to consider the theoretical application of this experience
to areas of business and management. For example, the researcher began recognizing the theory
behind applying training techniques and the organizational impact.
The researcher recognizes the possible bias this previous exposure as a practitioner had
on this research and added steps to the method described later in this chapter to minimize
potential threats to validity. In addition, the researcher is no longer directly working in the
business unit used in this research, allowing the examination of the phenomenon to be
independent, further decreasing bias in the research. This previous exposure to the organization
allows the researcher unique understanding of the organization’s culture.
Recall that the researcher’s observation of the organizational culture as a participant,
consultant, and researcher drove the research toward understanding the introduction of newer
employees into the established organizational culture. This emphasis was cultivated throughout
the coursework during the researcher’s doctoral studies. The black swan event of COVID-19
presented a unique situation and provided a research problem that fit the researcher’s interests.
The researcher was involved in the training and mentoring of new hires during COVID-19.
During this time, the researcher experienced a pause in teaching and exposure to essential
elements of the organizational culture to new hires. This interruption was due, in part, to the
stay-at-home orders. The training department quickly adjusted to meet the requirements of the
previous face-to-face training with virtual training, of which some modules were made available
48
to the entire sales organization. There were social aspects in the training process that could not
be adapted quickly.
In addition, the organization's leadership communications, an integral cultural component
for all employees, was disrupted. The researcher perceived the change as a byproduct of the
high-impact exogenous event. The researcher also observed an interruption in facilitating the
acceptance of the newest sales professionals into the organization's culture. There were
additional changes observed in organizational behavior. The resulting changes reflected in the
climate and culture were felt across the organization. The researcher chose the training team and
the trainees during this time to examine this phenomenon because the trainers, managers, and
mentors are tasked with teaching the culture to the new hires, and the new hires are unbiased
recipients of the training.
This research aimed to address a gap in the existing body of knowledge and research by
introducing black swan theory in relation to the sales organization of a medical diagnostic
company experiencing rapid changes during COVID-19. First, the researcher identified
numerous articles, studies, and related research observing the black swan impact on various
organizations. None involved sales organizations. Second, there was no research found on the
perception of new employees' induction into the organization's culture during the period of a
black swan event, the focus of this study. This research may add to the knowledge on training,
communication, organizational culture, and black swan in business organizations.
As previously stated, academic examination of the participant’s lived experience was the
best fit for this topic due to the inherent complexity and often ambiguous nature of
organizational culture (Schein, 2007). At the same time, the researcher as a practitioner
recognized the benefit of a pluralistic approach to the research problem, thus also holding a
49
pragmatic worldview developed over years of professional experience. The social constructivist
view supports the primary qualitative phenomenological method, and the pragmatist view
supports supplementing this with a mixed methods approach.
The mixed methods approach involved semi structured personal interviews for qualitative
data collection and analysis and surveys for supplemental quantitative data collection and
analysis. The use of surveys in culture research using Likert-type scales has been validated by
academics (Hofstede, 1980; Kilmann, 1984; Likert, 1967). Surveys alone provide limited
individual data on an organizational participant, which could be problematic (Schein, 1990).
Using semi-structured interviews allowed individuals to share stories, rituals, symbols, and other
organizational cultural elements from an individual’s perspective that can be used as evidence
for the themes generated by qualitative research (Schein, 1990). The researcher's use of
quantitative data provided through surveys demonstrated the new hires' understanding of
organizational culture. The combined mixed method provided a comprehensive understanding of
the research phenomenon.
Questions That Guided the Research
Four qualitative questions and one quantitative hypothesis guided this research study.
Qualitative Questions
Research qualitative questions centered around first, understanding the organizational
culture (RQ1 and RQ1a) and was followed by the culture adjusted and adapted during COVID-
19 (RQ2, RQ2a, RQ3, RQ3a, RQ3a1, and RQ3a2), as observed through new hire sales training
efforts. The fourth research question (RQ4) asked how the company could continue to monitor
the culture in anticipation of future exogenous events. The interview questions mirror these
research questions. The interview questions later become the categories from the analysis.
50
RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ1a: What is the importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic
organization's strategy?
RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to change in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ2a: How did the company’s organizational culture change during COVID-19?
RQ3: How has the company’s organizational culture adapted during COVID-19 as
observed through new hire sales training?
RQ3a: What affected the company’s new hire sales training of organizational culture
during COVID-19?
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's understanding of the organization’s espoused
beliefs and values during COVID-19?
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19?
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational
culture in anticipation of future exogenous events?
The researcher uses theory established in the literature review to understand the
participants experiences.
Quantitative Hypothesis
The quantitative hypothesis stated: There is not a statistically significant relationship
between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
Research questions RQ1, RQ1a, and RQ2 were specific to the conceptual model where
the organizational culture is composed of artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions that
51
are dynamic as the organization adapts to endogenous and exogenous influences. RQ2a is related
explicitly to the exogenous influence of COVID-19 as a black swan. RQ2a was represented in
the participant interviews with an identical question. The researcher’s logic was to establish the
changes recognized by the participants directly related to COVID-19 as a black swan. The
researcher asked RQ3, RQ3a, RQ3a1, and RQ3a2 to understand the organizational member’s
lived experiences during COVID-19, as a black swan, and the perceived impact on the
organizational culture using new hire sales training as a specific subset of the organization. Next,
the researcher asked RQ4 to understand how the organization can be strategic and prepare for
extreme exogenous events in the future.
The survey instrument was created by the researcher from well published survey
questions developed for the OCI and OCIA. The OCI is an academically validated organizational
culture inventory (Cooke & Szumal, 2000). The OCAI is the organizational culture assessment
index academically validated through the competing values framework and presented in the
research literature review. An initial pilot survey was conducted by the researcher that
established question wording and narrowed the questions to focus on the questions guiding the
research. The researcher used the pilot study to reduce the number of items and improve the
structure of the survey. The final survey contained fifty questions.
The survey was sent to participants that met the inclusion criteria. The researcher used
Qualtrics as a tool for conducting and analyzing the survey. The researcher used a correlation
measure of consistency of the answers to items of the scale. The researcher used Excel to
establish the survey reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha and chi square to evaluate each
question’s significance to the findings. Cronbach’s Alpha is a statistical index used to
demonstrate internal consistency reliability (Spector, 1992). The researcher used Cronbach’s
52
Alpha to demonstrate the average correlation between all the items in the scale (Cronbach,
1951). Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient values range from zero to one with a minimal acceptable
level of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). The researcher hypothesized an outcome for the quantitative
measures to complete the understanding of the black swan event through the observations from
the organization's new hire sales training and trainees on their fit within the organizational
culture.
Research Design Rationale
The researcher conducted a mixed-methods design study (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003)
hermeneutic phenomenological method (Smith et al., 2009). This qualitative method used the
lived experiences of participants involved in the sales training process and related functions
where organizational culture was revealed. To improve clarity and understanding of the
organizational culture change, the researcher collected supplemental quantitative data that was
triangulated with the qualitative data to enhance the rigor of my findings. Quantitative research
measures relationships between quantifiable variables to look for statistically significant
differences between groups or to test hypothesis (Denzil & Lincoln, 2005). The result was a
mixed methods convergent research design based on the summary notations in Figure 9 with
prioritization of qualitative data and a supplement of quantitative data implemented
simultaneously (Morse, 1991, 2003).
The procedure concurrently collected and analyzed qualitative and quantitative data in a
single study to examine the research problem (Creswell, 2002). The method design is called a
convergent design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). The rationale for using a mixed-method
approach was that neither qualitative nor quantitative methods capture the data fully to explain
the situation, i.e., complex issues new hires experience in training during COVID-19. A mixed-
53
method approach allowed the researcher to use structured and open-ended techniques and
multiple data collection and analysis types. Combining quantitative and qualitative methods
allowed for a more thorough analysis of the research problem (Green et al., 1989; Tashakkori &
Teddlie, 1998).
Figure 9
Descriptive Summary Notation
Note: (Adapted from Creswell, 2018,). Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing
and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Table 10.2. Sage.
When choosing the most appropriate research design, a researcher evaluates integration
choices, the timing of data collection, emphasis placed on data sets, the type of design most
suited for the field of study, and the choice based on a single researcher or collaboration of
researchers (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In this design, the two databases were triangulated, one
from the qualitative interview transcriptions and the other from quantitative survey results. A
researcher employs a convergent mixed methods design when comparing different perspectives
drawn from qualitative and quantitative data to compare the findings from the two data types to
show how the data does or does not complement each other as an expected outcome (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
Organizational culture is best observed through qualitative research (Schein, 2007). In
this study, those responsible for sales training, i.e., sales trainers, training managers, and senior
54
sales professionals, were interviewed for the qualitative arm of the research. Using sales training
for research did not give a complete picture without input from the new hires receiving the
training. Eligible sales trainees participated in the quantitative arm by taking the survey yielding
quantitative results and qualitative results from two open text questions. A stronger emphasis
was placed on the interviews because these reflected the extent of cultural change from the lived
experiences of the employees present in the organization prior to COVID-19 and still employed
during and post COVID-19, and supplemental survey data from the trainees complemented the
results by triangulation.
Researchers use qualitative data for a more profound understanding from the perspective
of fewer participants and explore their views in-depth (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). The
researcher developed a "complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of
informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting" (Creswell, 1998, p. 15). Using qualitative
data as a phenomenological approach allowed the researcher to understand the phenomenon's
essence in an organization. This approach is recommended when data collection from individuals
knowledgeable about the phenomenon through interviews, followed by an analysis of the data
for common descriptive terms or phrases of their lived experiences can be combined into
categories and themes.
The aim of hermeneutic phenomenology (Smith et al., 2009) is to study subjective
experience. The goal is to see how the participants give meaning to their experiences. The
researcher's interpretations are accepted as valuable to the research. Using a hermeneutic method
allowed the researcher to understand the participant's experience and how the participants make
sense of the experience. The researcher used quotations from the voice of participants as
evidence of the conclusions drawn from the data. For this study, interviews, as qualitative data,
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from employees responsible for the onboarding and sales training of new hire sales professionals
present in the organization before and during COVID-19, were used to give a picture of the
organization’s culture and changes in the organizational culture the interviewed employees lived
through. Using qualitative data alone omits the inclusion of understanding provided by the
analysis of quantitative data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). The supplemental quantitative
survey data gave details from the trainees to help complete the understanding from both
perspectives for a complete picture.
Quantitative research uses numerical data (Charles & Mertler, 2002). Quantitative data
provides a more generalized understanding by using many participants and assessing the
responses to a research problem (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Quantitative data alone can
limit the understanding necessary to examine the research problem (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018). The quantitative data supplied additional clarifying data on the phenomenon. It is
recommended to use two independent sources to ensure each separate database can stand on its
own, and it is rigorous for the researcher to triangulate the databases and produce
comprehensive, validated conclusions about the research problem (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018).
For the research problem, the organization's new hires were well-suited to explaining
their lived experiences during COVID-19. Using isolated variables, the researcher determined
the extent of the event as felt subjectively by the new hires. Researchers use qualitative data to
understand the data from multiple contextual factors (Miller, 2000). The hermeneutic circle is the
researcher's exposure to the experience and its value to the analysis. The researcher examines the
interview transcriptions from the recorded videos and the data generated from the survey tool
through analysis of descriptive statistics and frequency tabulations, breaks down the
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codes/themes separately, and then brings them back together until the experience is thoroughly
examined (Heidegger, 1971). For the research, using interviews with the training professionals
allowed the researcher to examine their notions of the change from COVID-19 on their expected
work.
The contemporary design was initially called either convergent, simultaneous
triangulation (Morse, 1991); parallel study (Tashakkori &Teddlie, 1998); convergent model
(Creswell, 1999); concurrent triangulation (Creswell et al., 2003), or embedded model (Creswell,
2018). All of these designs combine both quantitative and qualitative data collection and
triangulate the two in order to understand the entire phenomenon (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018). The goal was to use the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs (Patton,
1990).
Research Design
The research model (Figure 10) shows a simplified organizational model with identified
departments, human resources, sales training, and sales. The sales training model has been
previously described in the literature review and is broken out in Figure 10, showing culture
training as the base. The effect of the black swan is represented with red arrows. The specific
focus area of the examination is the red broken lined area in the center of the model.
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Figure 10
Research Model
Research Approach
The initial research approach started with an extensive literature review based on the
initial observations by the researcher. This literature review allowed the researcher to formulate a
theoretical model that further developed into the conceptual model (see Chapter 2, Figure 2). The
conceptual model aided the researcher in the development of the research design. Finally, the
researcher established the areas and methods of data collection from the research design and
developed the procedure design.
Research Site
The research site was accessed virtually by mutual agreement due to the remote nature of
the participants’ work. The quantitative and qualitative data collection was from participants
employed by a single global medical sales organization. The organization is a manufacturer of
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diagnostic devices used to diagnose infectious diseases, including COVID-19. This method
provided an in-depth view of the stresses imposed on the sales training department and new hires
from COVID-19.
Recruitment
The sales training department agreed to, pending IRB acceptance, the participation of the
staff, including global vice president of training, senior directors of training, trainers, or
managers responsible for salespeople, and mentors. In addition, the training department agreed to
aid in the new hire survey that was used for the quantitative analysis. The participants were
advised that they needed approximately one hour to complete the interview portions of the
research. A small pilot survey and interviews were conducted. Participant interviews were
conducted through Microsoft Teams meetings, recorded, and transcribed.
Sample
The sample consisted of two separate groups for data collection. Qualitative study data
were collected from 11 tenured participants who were interviewed through Microsoft Teams for
one-hour semi-structured interviews. Tenured employee criteria included having been employed
with the organization prior to COVID-19. To be included, management must have had a
minimum of one new hire in 2020 or 2021 to participate, or mentors must have mentored a new
hire sales professional in 2020 or 2021 to participate. The quantitative study data included 15
individual surveys of new hire sales trainees hired during COVID-19 and still employed with the
organization. The survey questions in Appendix B were adapted from the OCI and OCAI, a
highly published cultural survey, presented in the literature review. The current study sampled
new hires and trainees trained during COVID-19 and hired after September 2019 and before June
2022. Additionally, survey participants must have worked for the company for six months.
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The procedural model (Figure 11) was adapted from Creswell (2018) and expands on
Figure 9, the descriptive summary notation. This procedural map shows emphasis (capitalized
lettering and thicker border lines) on the qualitative data collection and analysis compared with
supplemental data from quantitative data collection and analysis.
Figure 11
Procedural Model
Note: Adapted from Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting
mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Procedural Model
Qualitative Data
The qualitative data collection was semi-structured, recorded, and transcribed Microsoft
Teams interviews. The qualitative data analysis procedure was a constant comparative thematic
analysis generating significant themes and categories. The supplemental quantitative data
collection was a Likert scale survey conducted online to participants producing data that were
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analyzed statistically. Both data sets were analyzed individually and triangulated, integrating the
codes and categories to produce a matrix of themes. In addition, the data collection process of the
two sources was run concurrently.
For qualitative data analysis, the transcriptions of the personal interview represent raw
research data and was run through NVivo qualitative data analysis software. Analytical memos
and pertinent findings in research studies from the literature were also entered into NVivo.
NVivo was then used to develop codes, categories, and themes from the collected data.
Qualitative researcher Saldaña (2021) explained:
Our brains synthesize vast amounts of information into symbolic summary (codes); we
make sense of the world by noticing repetition and formulating regularity through
cognitive schemata and scripts (patterns); we cluster similar things together through
comparison and contrast to formulate bins of shared knowledge (categories), and we
imprint key learnings from extended experiences by creating proverb-like narrative
memories (themes). (p.11)
First- and second-cycle coding was used. The standard tool of NVivo offers the
researcher a coding and sub-coding tool for group lines of data and creating themes in this
theoretical approach (Figure 12).
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Figure 12
Streamlined Codes to Theory Model
Note: Adapted from Saldaña (2021), The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (4th ed.)
Sage, p. 18.
Quantitative Data
A Likert scale survey was used to understand how strongly the participants agree or
disagree with a statement (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020). The Likert five-point scale used the
following anchors: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3=Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4= Agree,
and 5= Strongly Agree (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020). This Likert five-point scale allowed the
researcher to distinguish how strongly the participants felt towards the specific statement. Using
a nominal scale allowed the participant's responses to be categorized into categories through
frequency analysis. The most frequent value for each statement was the mode.
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Triangulated Data
Figure 13
Implementation Flow Chart
Note: Adapted from Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting
mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Interview-derived thematic coding and quantitative statistics data were triangulated for
joint interpretation and discussion. The researcher used this method to triangulate the data and
give in-depth responses to the research questions and hypotheses supported by data collection
evidence. Triangulation of the data was done by collecting codes from the qualitative interviews
and the codes from the quantitative survey data and merging them. The researcher then defined
how the supplemental quantitative data enhanced the qualitative data. The implementation flow
chart (Figure 13) was adapted from Creswell and Plano Clark (2018). This abbreviated flow
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chart shows the workflow starting with determining the study design to the finalized
interpretation of results and discussion.
The researcher used the theoretical model generated from the literature review to develop
a conceptual model. The conceptual model was used to develop research questions and
hypothesis. The research design was created to allow the researcher to collect data to understand
the phenomenon. Once the researcher determined how the data will be used, the data collection
was completed simultaneously by running qualitative and quantitative data collection.
Participants only contributed information to the study's research questions or hypothesis. No
participants are used in either qualitative or quantitative portions. Once the data was collected, it
was interpreted using the appropriate method specific to either qualitative or quantitative
protocols.
Selection of Participants
Qualitative
• The researcher established criteria for selecting participants for the qualitative and
quantitative portions of the research. Participants for the qualitative portion included
the sales training director, sales trainers, sales managers, directors, and mentors. The
criterion for the participants is that they were responsible for the sales training
activities and the sales trainers. The global vice president of sales training and two
senior directors of sales training (one from the US and another from Europe)
responsible for the overall sales training program were interviewed.
• Sales trainers train new hires. Two field sales trainers were interviewed.
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• The human resource professional is a specialist responsible for the new hire
onboarding process. No representative from Human Resources is qualified to
participate in this research.
• The sales managers are the people responsible for hiring the salespeople. In addition,
the managers/directors are responsible for all activities in their geographical area.
Two managers/directors participated in the interviews. Mentors are responsible for
triangulating the training from the training department and sales managers with real
experience. Three mentors participated in the interviews. Each
manager/director/mentor had to have a new hire they manage, or support hired in
2020 or 2021 to participate in the study.
Quantitative
Participants for the quantitative arm included new hire sales trainees. New hires are
defined as people hired for this study after September 2019 and before June 2022. They must
also have worked for the company for a minimum of six months. Fifteen new hires participated
in the survey.
Data Collection
The IRB of Florida Tech approved all data collection processes prior to initiation of
contact with sample participants.
Instrument Development
The first step in this research study was to recognize the area of interest. The second step
was the systematic literature review. This literature review served two purposes. First, the
literature review allowed the researcher to define the issues with the theory that could be
applicable and understand the research methods the authors used. Secondly, the literature review
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provided clarity on the path to the addition of this research by understanding the gap in the
literature. The goal of the literature review was to provide a foundation for the phenomenon and
a path forward to research the gap in literature.
Literature was searched online for qualitative and quantitative peer-reviewed journals
published by academics and practitioners using databases such as Emerald Insight, ProQuest, and
Google Scholar. The specific terms used in the search were organizational culture, sales
training, organizational change, exogenous organizational influence, COVID-19 impact on the
organization, black swan, organizational culture model, sales professional, sales activity, sales
trainee, sales trainer, theories of change, theories of organizational culture, social exchange,
organizational rituals, and inclusion. The subject was narrowed to include the specific
phenomenon observed through sales training.
The literature review showed that the critical research elements were qualitative. Schein
(2007) stated that an organization's culture should be studied by understanding the lived
experiences of individuals of that organization. Schein also stated the difficulty an outsider to the
organization will have in observing the culture. Therefore, the researcher used qualitative
research to explore the lived experiences of the specific study group. Renowned researchers
suggest that the pilot study (Puerta, 2008) and a limited number of initial open-ended questions
(Burns, 1989; Clarke, 2007; Manuel, 2016; Puerta, 2008) provide stronger data and faster
generation of themes during analysis of the data. The pilot interview questions associated with
the research questions are found in Appendix C. The questions were created by following
guidelines proposed by Charmaz (2014) and served as a foundation for the pilot test. From the
pilot interviews, the researcher developed semi structured interview questions, available in
Appendix D. The researcher used NVivo sentiment auto coding for the interview questions. This
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auto coding verified the questions were neutral and would not create bias, leaning positive or
negative, during the data collection process.
A quantitative measure adapted from the academically validated OCI and OCAI
organizational culture surveys from the trainees was used to understand the trainee’s perception
of the organizational culture as a lived experience through their training. The OCI has been
extensively used and adapted; examples are Arbour et al. (2014), Chaudhry et al. (2016), Kartolo
(2016), Kartolo and Kwantes (2019), and Rovithis et al. (2017). The OCAI has been extensively
used and adapted in academic literature; examples are Bachtiar et al. (2016), and Kumaresan and
Sakthi (2016). Schein (2007) stated that quantitative research can be used with qualitative data in
organizational culture research. Therefore, the researcher used validated questions from known
organizational culture surveys to develop the survey questions specific to the research problem.
The pilot survey tool can be found in Appendix B. Specific survey questions are associated with
research questions and the hypothesis (Table 1). The final survey questions can be found in
Appendix E.
The researcher kept the statements worded simply and short in the language the
participant would understand. The questions were not double-barreled, which could confuse the
participant. Any leading or negative questions were avoided to remove bias in the responses.
The pilot study of the survey was conducted to assess the questions. This pilot ensured
the questions were straightforward and understood when taking the survey. In addition, the
outcome of the pilot helped the researcher organize and word the questions appropriately.
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Table 1
Research Question/Hypothesis, and Research Instrument
RQ/Hypothesis
Instrument
Organizational
Culture
RQ1: How is organizational culture
manifested in a medical diagnostic
company?
Interview Questions RQ1:1-13
Survey Questions: 36, 37, 40
RQ1a: What is the importance of
organizational culture to a medical
diagnostic organizations strategy?
Interview Questions RQ1a:1 & 2
Survey Questions: 36, 37, 40
RQ2: How does organizational
culture adjust to change in a medical
diagnostic company?
Interview Questions RQ2:1 & 2
Survey Questions: 2, 16, 17, 18,
22, 27, 28, 29, 38, 39
Change
Observed by
Sales Training
RQ3: How has the company’s
organizational culture adapted from
the change of COVID-19 as observed
through new hire sales training?
Interview Questions RQ3:1-4
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's
understanding of the organization’s
espoused beliefs and values during
COVID-19?
Interview Questions RQ3a1: 1 & 2
Survey Questions: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21, 23, 24,
25, 26, 30, 31
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales
trainees established a learning cohort
during COVID-19?
Interview Questions RQ3a2: 1-3
Survey Questions: 1, 3, 19, 20, 32
Hypothesis: New hires trainees who
joined the organization and went
through sales training during COVID-
19 disagree that they feel part of the
organization’s culture.
Survey Questions: 2, 3, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 40
Black Swan
COVID-19
RQ2a: How did the company’s
organizational culture change during
COVID-19?
Interview Questions RQ2a: 1-12
Survey Questions: 2, 16, 17, 18,
22, 27, 28, 29, 38, 39
RQ3a: What affected the company’s
new hire sales training of
organizational culture during COVID-
19?
Interview Questions RQ3a:1-4
Survey Questions: 3, 19, 20, 33,
34, 35
RQ4: How can the company continue
to monitor and mitigate risks to
organizational culture in anticipate of
future exogenous events?
Interview Questions RQ4:1 & 2
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Note: Adapted from Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting
mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage, p. 155.
Interview Process
The researcher contacted each participant, who verified that the participant accepted the
terms of the study. The terms protected the participant's privacy, allowing them to speak freely
during the interview process and ensuring the participant understood that the interview was being
used for research. Next, the researcher set up appointments with the participants for a recorded
Microsoft Teams meeting. The interviews were conducted through Microsoft Teams and
recorded. Semi-structured interview questions were developed using Hatch (1993), Hatch and
Schultz (1997), Schein (1992, 2004), Farrell (2005), Hallett (2003), Trice and Beyer (1984),
Bass and Avolio (1993), Tusi et al. (2006), Bushardt et al. (2007), Milne (2007), Bunch (2007),
Kissack and Callahan (2010), and Smircich (1983) and were tied to the research questions. The
Microsoft Teams recordings were transcribed, and the names were replaced with a unique
identifier that was documented and held to ensure validity. Once the video was transcribed, the
participant's name was removed and replaced with a numerical identifier. The person's identity
with the assigned number is only known to the researcher. Finally, the transcriptions were read
and thoroughly analyzed for accuracy. The transcriptions were then line-by-line coded. The
transcriptions were member verified by sending it back to the participant for review. Once the
transcriptions were verified as accurate, the Microsoft Teams recordings were deleted.
Survey Process
The surveys were conducted using Qualtrics. The survey questions were compiled using
example questions from Hatch (1993), Hatch and Schultz (1997), Schein (1992, 2004), Farrell
(2005), Hallett (2003), Trice and Beyer (1984), Bass and Avolio (1993), Tusi et al. (2006),
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Bushardt et al. (2007), Milne (2007), Bunch (2007), Kissack and Callahan (2010), and Smircich
(1983) and were organized based on the pilot study and Schein’s 2004 levels of culture model to
conform to the qualitative semi-structured questions. The survey participants were contacted
through their company email and LinkedIn. The first question of the survey was a consent to
participate. The second question on the survey was proof the survey participant was qualified to
participate based on the criteria for participation. The participants’ responses were anonymous,
and their responses were used for research in this study.
Data Analysis
Table 2
Data Analysis Procedure
Note: Adapted from Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting
mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
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The data analysis procedure (Table 2) provided an in-depth protocol for the research
procedure once the data had been collected. The intent was to provide a systematic and
reproducible work description that later researchers could replicate if needed.
Qualitative
The qualitative interview data was reviewed in video and transcription to ensure a
complete understanding of the responses from the participants. First, the transcription was
reviewed and compared to the recording to verify accuracy. Next, the transcription was shared
with the participant for review and accuracy, otherwise known as member checking (Marshall &
Rossman, 2016). The reliability of the study was strengthened by member checking of the
transcribed interviews and pilot study for non-biased semi-structured interview questions. Next,
the transcription was formatted for analysis. The researcher read the data looking for visually
apparent initial codes and noted these as such in a code book.
Inductive Coding
Next, the formatted transcriptions were analyzed using NVivo. The NVivo process
included coding the data inductively, grouping codes, establishing categories and then themes
specific to the research focus. The researcher used all the data while using the NVivo program.
The data was recorded as descriptions and categories. The first coding method was inductive as
demonstrated in Saldana’s inductive coding model (Figure 12) (Saldana, 2021).
A second analysis was done by creating individual documents (files) for each interview
question and coding these separately through NVivo. Questioning the meaning of recurring ideas
allowed the researcher to generate additional categories. The researcher used NVivo data to
create a graphical model for the codes. The research questions became categories. The codes
were then assigned to coding categories by completing line-by-line coding of the question file.
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To compile the data, the researcher broke the transcribed phrases into fragments and labels, then
clustered similar phrases into groups. These key phrases were linked to existing academic
literature. Quotes from the transcriptions and visual models were used as evidence for these
categories and themes. Table 3 shows a map of coding from the real data. These are examples
and not inclusive of the coding for the theme, category, or code.
Table 3
Example of coding
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Figure 14 is a visual depiction of the flow of the method from individual data to category
to theme.
Figure 14
Visual flow of coding using real data
Note: Adapted from Saldaña (2021), The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers (4th ed.).
Sage, p. 18.
Quantitative
The quantitative data were collected using a five-point Likert scale survey assigning
numeric values to each response. The Likert scale was used to examine how strongly participants
agree or disagree with a specific statement (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020). The data was reviewed for
data entry errors. The screening aims to identify outliers and justify a method to remove them
from the data. The data screening included statistics from the survey. All analysis is included in
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the text. Next, the discriminatory analysis was conducted to identify similarities and differences
between the participants. A measure of reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha was performed to
verify the validity of the survey responses. Frequency and significance were analyzed using Chi-
Squared. The code book was used again to document quantitative variables. The research
information was reported as a discussion with data supplementals once it was triangulated with
the qualitative data. Statistical interpretation was made through a chi-squared analysis using
Microsoft Excel in place of SPSS. Laerd Statistics was an additional source to aid the researcher
in data analysis.
The Likert scale was developed to turn qualitative data into quantitative data (Boone &
Boone, 2012). The five-point scale uses a neutral or no opinion middle range to exclude the
response as it offers no information toward the hypothesis. To avoid a skew of the data by
removing the middle responses, the researcher used the mode recording the highest score versus
the mean, which records the average score.
The quantitative data collected in this research came from a Likert five-point scale
survey. The researcher analyzed the individual questions. The data was ordinal, allowing the
researcher to compare the responses from participants (Frost, 2022). The ordinal data type was
agreement level, ranging from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree.
Statisticians consider ordinal data qualitative but can be ranked and analyzed statistically.
Categorizing the ordinal data into a numerical value transformed it into data that can be analyzed
quantitatively (Frost, 2022).
The researcher used chi-square tests to investigate the differences between observed and
expected values in quantitative data (Wuensch, 2011). Pearson introduced the chi-square test in
1900 to examine categorical data and distribution. The chi-square formula is χ2 = ∑ (Oi –
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Ei)2/Ei, where O i = observed value (actual value) and E i = expected value. Researchers use this
formula to compare two or more data sets.
The researcher used the five-point Likert scale in the survey by combining the Strongly
Agree and Agree to create a single category of Agree. This was followed by combining the
Strongly Disagree with Disagree to create a single category of Disagree. This was done by using
the recoding program in Microsoft Excel. Using Microsoft Excel, the researcher ran a chi-square
test by clicking on the formula tab at the top of the spreadsheet, choosing more functions, and
selecting statistics. The researcher then selected the chi test or chi-square procedure as it appears
in the program. The individual survey questions were analyzed with a chi-square using the Excel
program, and the significance of at least 5% (.05) was considered statistically significant from
the expected value. The researcher took all questions that showed a significant chi-square value
and triangulated these with the major categories from the qualitative data as supportive data. An
example of the chi square is shown in Figure 15. In this example, the question “I was able to be
engaged in the training and onboarding” has a p value better than 0.05 and is considered
significant. The question “My training cohort is like extended family” is not significant based on
a p value of 0.819. The significant question and results are included in the analysis and the
insignificant results are excluded from analysis.
Figure 15
Example of Chi Square Analysis
The researcher established codes in the qualitative inductive coding analysis generated
major categories from the qualitative arm of the study contained codes from the transcriptions
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and survey data was added as a triangulation. The interpretation of the data resulted from this
organization of data and represented the evidence in the form of descriptions, quotes, visual
charts, and quantified significant frequency data from the chi-square test. The data were related
to the previously presented literature review, and the meanings of the data were assessed.
Finally, the limitations and areas for future research were provided.
Researcher Positionality
“A researcher's background and position will affect what they choose to investigate, the
angle of investigation, the methods judged adequate for this purpose, the findings considered
most appropriate, and the framing and communication of conclusions” (Malterud, 2001, pp. 483–
484). In addition to research, the researcher is a long-time sales professional holding many
positions in several organizations for over thirty years. The experiences range from retail
organizations to extensive capital equipment and start-ups to multi-billion-dollar international
organizations.
Sales roles require specialized training that the researcher observed varying little
throughout the tenure of recent career experience. Observing organizational culture within
organizations is best done from the inside (Schein, 2000). Previous exposure to medical
organizations and the participant's organization gave the researcher a unique perspective. As
discussed earlier, the exposure to many organizations sparked a passion for organizational
behavior, specifically culture. The researcher was not a member of the specific organization
during the research.
During COVID-19, the medical diagnostic community, specifically those companies that
could manufacture a COVID-19 test, were thrust into a rapidly growing market with no visible
saturation point. Production focus changed from an existing product portfolio to a product that
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did not exist three months earlier. The only visible limiting factors were the validity of testing,
FDA emergency use authorization, raw materials, and people. The first two (validity and FDA
EUA) could be easily accomplished through internal processes that federal regulations could
speed up to meet the demand. The latter (raw materials and people) aware not easily
accomplished quickly. The stress associated with the demand for the product, lack of raw
materials, and the intricacies associated with employees during the pandemic were enough to
strain an existing organization. Another component in the mix is worth observing was the black
swan's point of this research. COVID-19, as a black swan, influences every aspect of an
organization, including the culture. The researcher chose to use the new hire sales professionals
introduced to the organizational culture and those responsible for the indoctrination of those new
hires to observe the influence of a black swan on organizational culture. The researcher
recognizes the possible bias associated with the knowledge she possessed of the sales
organization and exposure to the organization’s culture in the past and took steps throughout the
research process to minimize her influence on the research.
Reliability
Qualitative
Qualitative reliability is the precision and accuracy of data measurement procedures
(Thorndike, 1997). A pilot survey was conducted to ensure the interview questions met the needs
of the research. The pilot study was compared with results in the final data analysis. The
researcher used member checking to ensure the data transcribed were reliable for both the pilot
study and the final research study data.
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Quantitative
Quantitative reliability is an analysis to ensure the numerical scoring is consistent and
stable throughout the data collection. Survey data results are generated by running the data
through Microsoft Excel and comparing the outcomes generated.
The researcher used excel to establish the survey reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha. The
reliability of data can be observed using is statistical index called Cronbach’s Alpha (Spector,
1992). The researcher used Cronbach’s Alpha to demonstrate the average correlation between all
the items in the survey statistical scale (Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient values
range from zero to one with a minimal acceptable level of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). This was done
by using Microsoft excel, highlighting the raw data and from the data menu running an ANOVA
without repetition. The formula used was 1-MS(error)/MS(factor) where MS stands for Mean
Square. Table 4 shows the ANOVA with the Alpha derived from the formula Alpha = 1-
(1.950245/30.94633) = 0.93698. A minimally acceptable alpha score of 0.70 is considered
reliable (Vogt et al., 2014).
Table 4
Cronbach’s Alpha
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Validity
Qualitative
Qualitative validity is the degree to which a research study assesses the problem the
researcher is attempting to examine (Thorndike, 1997). Criteria was established based on the
research question and available literature to verify the validity of the interview questions. The
researcher used member checking to confirm the credibility, ensuring that the findings were from
the participant's perspective. The researcher ensured the results were confirmatory by using
semi-structured interviews to probe further into the participant's lived experience. The researcher
adhered to the interview protocol's data collection and analysis techniques to ensure
transferability. To verify the validity of the data analysis from NVivo, a second analysis was
performed on each individual interview question generating codes and comparing these codes to
the ones generated by the inductive coding of each interview. The researcher looked for
comparative categories and coding. The second round of coding did not contain any participant’s
information eliminating bias.
It is essential to note the researcher's background and experience that will influence this
study. Previous exposure to the study group is a benefit of this research. Individuals do not move
past artifacts in organizational culture without participation in the culture-making of current or
previous members as ideal researchers in an organization's culture (Schein & Schein, 2017).
Quantitative
Quantitative validity was assessed to ensure the numerical data scores were meaningful
indicators for the research. A committee is overseeing this dissertation. The feedback and
guidance of the committee was used to support the rigor of the research and eliminate
unnecessary bias. The following measures were taken to minimize validity threats:
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• The survey questions paralleled the semi-structured interview questions.
• The final discussion reflected differences in sample sizes.
• Results were displayed qualitative side by quantitative side and jointly.
• The researcher recognized the disconfirming results.
A methodology map (Figure 16) is provided to visually represent the researcher’s method
development. The development starts with the conceptual model developed from the theoretical
model presented in Chapter 1. This conceptual model is presented in Chapters 2 and 3. Next, the
research questions and a hypothesis were developed from the conceptual model. These research
questions and hypotheses are presented throughout the research.
The research questions led to interview questions (Appendix D) which, in turn, led to the
interview protocol (Appendix D) as an instrument for semi-structured interviews. These semi-
structured questions maintained the focus of the interview and allowed the participants to expand
on the answers with their experiences. For this reason, interview questions were shown under the
research question of interest and were open-ended questions. These specific questions were a
guide; additional follow-up questions allowed for a more in-depth understanding.
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Figure 16
Methodology Map
The hypothesis led to a pilot survey instrument (Appendix B) which, in turn, led to the
survey (Appendix E) that was used to triangulate the interview instrument data. The survey
questions were customized and adapted for the study from two established accredited survey
tools (OCI and OCAI). The survey instrument questions aligned with the interview questions,
which aligned with the research questions. This survey provided information from the recipient
of the training to observe the whole perception of the event within an organizational culture
through new hire sales training. The survey included questions that addressed the feelings or
observations focused on the organization, the training, and the employee’s perspective on their
current fit with the organization's culture. The employee’s perspective on their fit with the
organizational culture specifically addressed the research question.
The data from both instruments (Appendices E and G) were analyzed. First, following
individual database analysis, the codes, categories, and themes generated were integrated and
triangulated with the quantitative data. Next, the triangulated codes, categories, and themes were
interpreted. Finally, the newly triangulated, analyzed data was triangulated with published data
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for further understanding. The final discussion developed from the data-interpreted results and
further literature review.
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Chapter 4
Results
The study aimed to understand the observed challenges to the organizational culture
faced by a medical diagnostic organization during COVID-19 as a possible black swan event
through the perception of the people responsible for training the new hires. The researcher
conducted 11 interviews with tenured employees of the organization who had direct
responsibilities for training new hires during the period. A supplemental survey was completed
by 15 new hires.
Organization of the Chapter
Chapter 4 begins with the research questions and hypothesis that guided the research. The
rest of the chapter contains the analysis of the interviews, including coding. The most referenced
codes are presented with additional data. The researcher created a thematic framework generated
from the codes based on the research questions used to guide the research. Supplemental data
derived from both the interviews and surveys are presented to conclude Chapter 4.
Questions / Hypothesis That Guided the Research
Four qualitative questions and one quantitative hypothesis guided this research study.
Qualitative Questions
Qualitative research questions centered around first understanding the organizational
culture and were followed by the culture adjusted and adapted during COVID-19, as observed
through new hire sales training efforts. The fourth research question asked how the company
could continue to monitor the culture in anticipation of future exogenous events.
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RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ1a: What is the importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic
organization's strategy?
RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to change in a medical diagnostic company?
RQ2a: How did the company’s organizational culture change during COVID-19?
RQ3: How has the company’s organizational culture adapted during COVID-19 as
observed through new hire sales training?
RQ3a: What affected the company’s new hire sales training of organizational culture
during COVID-19?
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's understanding of the organization’s espoused
beliefs and values during COVID-19?
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19?
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational
culture in anticipation of future exogenous events?
Quantitative Hypothesis
The quantitative hypothesis stated: There is not a statistically significant relationship
between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
Qualitative Interviews
Of the original 14 individuals identified as meeting the criteria for participation, 11
completed the interview process. The initial interview instrument consisted of 10 semi-structured
questions. After the first interview, a final 11th question was added based on the first interview.
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Eleven individuals, professionals working for a single medical diagnostic organization who
participated in the training of new sales professionals hired into the organization during COVID-
19, participated in interview sessions through Microsoft Teams. Demographically, 64% of
participants were male. The length of time with the organization was 4–10 years, and the age
ranges were between 30-60 years. Demographic information is provided in Appendix F.
Each interview was conducted using three phases: (1) the initial and general remarks, (2)
the primary interview, and (3) the Q&A session on the topics discussed during the interview. The
interviews were recorded, including a video and audio stream that would be held for 30 days on
Microsoft Teams and then deleted in accordance with Microsoft Team policies. The recording
started after the initial introduction session. The opening of the interview was important because
it set the climate and tone of the interview. Per Stewart (2009), the opening interview discussion
signals whether the interview will be formal or informal, relaxed or tense, professional or
nonprofessional, friendly or hostile, nonthreatening or threatening.
The researcher started the primary interview with the best single question for semi-
structured interviews, also known as a ground tour question (Spradley, 1979). As the name
suggests, these questions have respondents give a verbal response of something they have lived
experience with (Leech, 2002). In this case, the initial question had the respondents describe the
culture of their organization prior to COVID-19. The researcher built a list of opinions, codes,
and themes held by the participants observed from the semi-structured interviews (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967).
The participants represented the population of new hire sales training professionals found
in a medical diagnostic organization. Note that the organization is global in scope, and to
represent this, the researcher interviewed the VP responsible for global sales training and a
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senior director of sales training from the Europe Division. Interview participants were provided
with the transcription and asked to confirm that the contents represented their lived experiences.
“Interviews provide a useful way for researchers to learn about the world of others, although real
understanding may sometimes be elusive” (Qu & Dumay, 2011, p. 239). Using a drill-down
approach is a way to reduce elusiveness, making the answers more tangible and thus easier to
define and potentially measure. Using this drill-down approach, the interviewer and interviewee
communication becomes less complicated even when these people do not share the worldview.
The researcher used the tools available in NVivo 12 to track the number of new codes
and coding to the existing codes as a proxy to the coding saturation, as advised by Strauss
(1987). The following section describes the coding results and provides information on some
interviews used in the study.
Demographic information was collected and is presented here. See Table 5 for participant
names (pseudonyms) and demographic information.
Table 5
Interview Participant Demographic Information
Participant
Pseudonym
Job Title
Years
Tenure
Gender
Age
James
Director Clinical Solutions
10
Male
50-60
Allen
Senior Director US Sales Development
7
Male
40-50
Sophia
Manager Sales Development
5
Female
30-40
Charles
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
6
Male
30-40
Andrew
VP Global Sales Development
4
Male
50-60
Carol
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
8
Female
40-50
Jessica
Senior Director EMAE Sales Development
6
Female
40-50
Ron
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
4
Male
30-40
Gerald
Regional Sales Director
5
Male
40-50
Carl
Regional Sales Director
6
Male
40-50
Krista
Director Field Sales Development
5
Female
40-50
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Coding
The researcher used a phenomenological approach to collect and analyze the qualitative
data to ensure the research did not overlook important themes. Initial background theory guided
the organization of phrases, sentences, and paragraphs of textual data from interview transcripts.
NVivo qualitative data analytic software, Version 12, was used to facilitate the coding process
and content analysis. Content analysis involves classifying a large amount of textual data into a
smaller number of content categories (Weber, 1990).
The researcher used Microsoft Teams auto transcription for the first transcription. The
researcher reviewed the transcription for obvious errors in transcription and sent it to the
participant for review and member checking. The verified transcription was then modified to
remove any organization identifiers and the participant’s name was replaced with a unique
identifier. The final delineated transcription was imported into NVivo 12 software for additional
analysis. The first round of coding was an inductive line-by-line coding from each interview. A
separate document was generated by copying answers from each interview to a Word document
for each of the 11 questions and was coded.
A visualization of the difference in code distribution between the two files was created by
NVivo 12. A comparison diagram was also generated in NVivo that compared the codes
generated during the first and second interviews. This view allows the researcher to understand
the codes that are unique to each interview or question and the codes that are shared.
A second diagram, Figure 17, generated by NVivo 12, is a close up of visual comparison
coding between two different questions of the 11 asked from the interview protocol created by
coding. The full comparison is presented in Appendix G.
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Figure 17
Close up of Comparison 2 Questions Coding
The number of codes generated during the inductive analysis of the interview
transcriptions was much larger than the number of codes generated for the question-specific
transcription file. It is also possible to observe that some codes were common for interviews and
questions. This researcher used open coding to “analyze the data minutely” (p. 31) as
recommended by Strauss (1987) during the inductive coding. Additionally, this coding
minimized the failure to observe important categories and enabled a conceptually dense
category. The large number of codes generated from open coding was fine-tuned by merging
codes recognized as equivalent to each other.
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A visual depiction of codes was generated by NVIVO 12 that allowed the researcher to
understand the most used codes as seen in Figure 18. The researcher used these codes to focus on
the categories. The code book is presented in Appendix H.
Figure 18
NVivo Visual Code Depiction
The top seven codes with direct references are communications, building relationships,
permanent change in culture, leadership, virtual sales training, culture before COVID-19, and
rapid hiring of sales. The following are additional results for each of these codes. The following
section describes each of these codes in more detail.
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Communications
Communications are the most referenced code, with 58 direct references. Communication
was discussed in reference to moving from in-person communications to virtual
communications. James described “lose the interpersonal ability or interpersonal
communication” as a change. Discussed by each participant was the concern the leadership
expressed about employee well-being. The communications were described as “outward” and
usually concerned supply chain and employee well-being. The participants described how initial
concerns expressed to each employee waned as the pandemic continued. The participants
described how the outward communication had a different expected action from the
communication. Allen said: “It did not feel like that was encouraged, even though that was what
was spoken.” The participants described the culture prior to COVID-19 as having a challenge
with communications. Sophia said: “I think communication in my organization has always been
a challenge before.” The increased market demands and strain on the organization highlighted
the existing communication issues expressed in previous engagement surveys. Charles said: “It
really came through as a weakness at some point during the pandemic, but it still remains an
opportunity to improve.”
Building Relationships – Networking
New hires often have exposure to multiple departments during the training phases.
“Building relationships – networking” as a code has 33 direct references. A challenge facing
organizations is facilitating relationships through electronic communications. Andrew said:
I would say to build this company culture. I think the challenge we have, and we see it
today is this kind of remote situation and allowing a lot of people to stay at home. For me
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this is not how we are going to build the company culture. Because this, for me, this is
really about people, about networking.
During new hire training, the new employees spend time with each department to learn
how the department functions, how it contributes to the position they will be working in, and
who the main contacts will be. Participants in this research expressed concern about the ability to
establish this training through virtual communications. Carol said: “Usually, during an
immersion training you have the opportunity to meet real people. So that's also the starting point
to build your internal network.” In addition to the exposure to the multiple departments and
networking with key personnel, the research participants expressed concern about establishing a
commitment to the organizational culture. Jessica stated, “Without being able to go to our
corporate office, they couldn't gain that attachment or connection with certain individuals within
the organization, as well as what we do and how we do it.” Jessica concluded, “It created a
really poor connection which affected how culture was integrated into the new hires.”
Permanent Change in Culture
Interview participants’ concerns about the permanency of changes in organizational
culture were coded as “permanent change in culture” with 24 references. Several interview
participants held leadership positions and understood the need to, as Ron said: “protect the
company and their shareholder information and their shareholders.” The leadership interview
participants described a direct communication trail that they describe as consciously not shared
on all levels of the organization, and that has not changed as the strains from the pandemic have
subsided. Gerald noted: “I was also told not to communicate a lot of what I knew to the
salespeople. So that tells me that I had privileged information which meant it probably still
wasn't getting down to certain levels of the organization.”
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Interview participants described a strong communication at the very beginning that
quickly turned into a waning of communication. The communications were funneled through
direct supervisors up a chain of command. This was a drastic change in organizational
communication that had not changed since the strains of the pandemic had lessened. Carl said
that the strained organization:
started communicating more often so there was more information being shared from
leadership to field sales… Then I noticed those started slowing down and the culture
changed where it became more closed, so they also decided not anyone in sales could
reach out to certain departments.
Leadership
Employees often see the responsibility for establishing and maintaining the culture of the
organization falls on the leadership. “Leadership” as a code was referenced 20 times.
Organizational culture is, according to Krista, “bred by the actions of superiors and leadership,
and not to the fault of leadership.” The tenured employees involved in new hire training are
partially sympathetic to the intensity of market demand and strains due to the responsibilities of
leaders. James said: “Senior leaders just didn't have the opportunity to look eye to eye and build
any kind of followership with the new hires.”
Interview participants voiced frustration with leadership in several ways. In some cases, it
was a differentiation between communication and listening described as “the disconnect.” In
other interviews it was a disappearance from any appearances or communication as the pandemic
extended past the six-month mark. Allen stated, “I've heard many times through COVID that
sales reps are making a lot of money anyway... They can deal with it ... so we're talking about
people.” The interviews revealed a lack of transparency that was deemed necessary due to the
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nature of how rapidly things were changing and the need to protect the organization. The more
tenured sales professionals that were mentors appeared to understand the lack of shared
information and at the same time admitted that they wish they had more information to improve
their faith in leadership. These interview participants, in their voice, were “a little skeptical”
when information was shared.
Virtual Sales Training
In this organization, the sales training is traditionally held in multiple locations over
several months and involves department heads and leadership personal introductions along with
coaching from the direct supervisor and a mentor. Moving from this well-established routine to a
virtual platform was challenging. The sudden black swan type situation increased the chaotic
nature of the sales training. “Virtual sales training” as a code was referenced 23 times. The sales
department includes sales training but is considered remote department. The face-to-face
interaction during sales training is a ritual that included introduction to the culture of the
company, the corporate headquarters, touring facilities, and establishing relationships between
departments. The isolation due to COVID-19 restrictions created a new training experience.
Allen said:
When you started in the pandemic, your first day was at your house by yourself. That's
just how it was. You might have a computer if it was ordered in time, nobody was there to
welcome you. No one was there to shake your hand or give you a hug and really welcome
you to the company. It wasn't a very personable welcome. It was more of a you have a
job. Now when you get your computer log into Zoom, and we'll talk. The feel-good stuff
when you started here was missing as it relates to training.
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Meeting in person allows the participants in training to focus their attention on learning
for a full day over a week. The sales trainers described a lack of focus due to a home
environment, even with “requiring people to have their cameras on,” and an adjustment to the
learning routine based on the virtual adult learning environment. The adaptation to a stay-at-
home environment was experienced across many industries and for many roles in those
industries. Sophia noted that the training department recognized the “old adage is telling…
training… It is a lecture and while that is OK for some things in our world …we worked really
hard to try to bring adult learning methodologies into the virtual world.”
Rapid Hiring of Sales Professionals
Due to explosive market demand, the organization rapidly expanded. Traditionally, there
were eight to 10 new hires going through training as a cohort. The traditional new hire had a
minimum of five years of experience. Charles said their experience was often in a “…clinical
lab, whether they're a clinical person who worked in the lab or it could be a sales rep working
for a different organization, a different company.” The sales force was known as a complex
high-level sales position. “Rapid hiring of sales professionals” as a code was referenced 20
times. Adding to the internal struggle with the organization’s culture, the new hires brought
knowledge from other organizations. The additional knowledge influenced the established
culture that was in a state of rapid change.
The new hire’s previous cultural experiences, as Andrew noted, “…elevated some of the
behaviors in some cases, and in other cases folks came in with the minimum experience. They
maybe never even worked in our environment, and they were also contributing to the culture.”
The strategy during the expansion was to hire people with varying experiences. This led to
additional training challenges. The sales team’s skill levels became “diluted.” The exponential
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growth led to additional challenges. With this expansion, there were more than 40 people in the
training classes at a time. The managers and mentors had many more people to train with an
increased workload from their other job requirements. Carol described hiring “three or four
brand new people at once that I didn't get to give that one-on-one attention to. And that's just a
function of the market, the demand.” Jessica, an established employee, described the rapid hiring
as:
[T]his is not sustainable. It is just way too many people were coming through and we
didn't even have our processes set up …for the culture. It is like we are flying an airplane
and we're creating a flight plan as we're up in the air.
Organizational Culture Before COVID-19
Understanding a black swan’s impact on culture requires an understanding of the
organizational culture prior to the event. The “organizational culture before COVID-19” is a
code referenced 18 times. Ron described the organization’s culture as “inclusive… reps had
better visibility of business decisions or of executive leadership vision and getting a heads up on
things that we're going to come.”
Gerald stated, “The culture was transparent. I believe that there was open
communication or transparency, there was a culture of integrity. There was like a true
investment in individual success that allowed for collective and or organizational success.”
Categorical Framework
After all the codes were established, they were assigned to a category. Focus categories
came from the research questions that guided the research.. A chart (code book) of the categories
and codes is provided in Appendix H.
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The following is a brief description of each category developed from the codes specific to
the research focus. The eight categories are presented in Table 6. Included are codes with
references or tags associated with each category for more understanding and clarity.
Table 6
Categorical Framework
Categorical Framework
Category
#
Description
1
How an Organizational Culture is Manifested
2
Importance of Organizational Culture to Strategy
3
How Organizational Culture Adjusts
4
How Did Organizational Culture Shift During COVID-19
5
How Did the Organizational Culture Adapt During COVID-19
6
Impact of New Hire Sales Training of the Organizational Culture
7
New Hires Understanding of Espoused Values
8
How Have the New Hires Established a Cohort
Category 1: How an Organizational Culture is Manifested
The first category is “how an organizational culture is manifested.” This category had
fifteen codes associated with it (see Code Book Appendix H). The code “Building a culture”
discussed rebuilding, as Gerald said, as “the challenge we have…allowing a lot of people to stay
at home. We are going to build the company culture. Because this for me, this is really about
people, about networking.” The code “unable to speak freely” was related to previously
discussed issues within the organization that are rooted in transparency, trust, and
communications. For example, Krista said, “you have to have somebody to complain to. You
have to have a safe place. This goes to a big change in culture.” The code “culture before
COVID” reference by James was, “They take care of their people, they want. They were very
much team oriented.” An example of the code “highly skilled employees” that Allen voiced was,
“I think that our talent level was strong and high at that time.”
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Category 2: Importance of Organizational Culture to Strategy
The second category was “importance of organizational culture to strategy.” This
category had 29 codes (see Code Book Appendix H). The code “essential business COVID test
supplier” with 13 references was discussed by the interviewed participants because the
organization was a supplier of a COVID test. This test was adopted with emergency use only
with FDA approval. Prior to the pandemic, the organization had 21 PCR tests on the market.
There was a strategic focus on unstacked respiratory testing. Most of the revenue and therefore
strategy was focused on healthcare acquired infections and sexual health prior to COVID-19.
The strategic focus, as Sophia noted, “was a monumental shift … don't care about any of that
other stuff.” The overwhelming demand had the sales team, according to Sophia, “running at
1,000,000 miles an hour for survival, literally and figuratively,” assigned to a code “short-
sighted strategy”, a code referenced 11 times in the data. “Adapting the strategy” was a code
referenced three times represents the company’s focus of making sure that the largest healthcare
systems had what they needed to treat the patients who were flocking in their doors as stated by
James:
We were encouraged to have difficult conversations with customers early to set realistic
expectations, encourage customers to go get other platforms, to bring in competitive
platforms because ultimately the company looked at customer care as being number one.
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Category 3: How an Organizational Culture Adjusts
The third category was “How an organizational culture adjusts.” This category had 18
codes associated with it (see Code Book Appendix H). How an organization adjusts references
overall adjustments to culture that are not specific to a black swan event or COVID-19. The next
category discussed later addresses COVID-19 specific adjustment. It is important to distinguish
between these two categories. The most referenced codes were “strained infrastructure” (16
references) described by Carol as “overwhelming demands and you know which I think strained
our infrastructure and a lot of different ways” and “daily work” (11 references). An example of
a code designated as “daily work” would be, as Jessica noted, “… to get to where we could do
something live in three days, we could barely do it in two weeks of virtual.” “Adjusting to
environment,” with two references describing adjustments made based on the need for change as
stated by Carol, “…we are learning to tolerate” and “growth,” with two references example
from Ron , “then there's a lot of opportunity.” This reference refers to the growth creating new
roles and opportunity as an organization adjusts.
Category 4: How did the Organizational Culture Shift During COVID-19
Under the category “How did the organizational culture shift during COVID-19” there
were 57 codes associated with this category (see Code Book Appendix H). The large number of
codes under this category compared to other categories demonstrates the focus of this research
and the later development of the theme. The four most referenced codes were “diluted skills,”
with 13 references, “employee well-being,” with eight references, “change to improve
technology,” with five references, and “virtual world,” with five references. The participants
described a shift in the sought-after skills during the expansion hiring. Skill requirements had
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included previous experience with the customers for the products over an extended period. The
positions were not entry level. A reference of shift in skilled sales came from, as Ron noted,
[D]on't worry about someone's background if they've never stepped foot in a hospital and
don't know anything about medical sales. Don't worry about that. Look at the person.
Look at the character. Hire based on character, not on experience.
The shift to a virtual work life was an adaptation that was very visible and was described as
difficult. The organization emphasized employee health, providing adapted home offices, and
emphasizing frequent breaks and exercise. “Employee well-being” was referenced with eight
tags. The employees, according to Allen, “appreciate how the leadership was sensitive to the
safety and the personal well-being of a lot of their employees.” The improved technology, as
Carol noted, “we were absolutely not used to all this kind of technology and this virtual world.
So, it was completely different. It was easier from a company culture point of view.” Allen
described a change in work as; “It's not just e-mail or phone calls, it's texting, and it's being on
video. Expanding the hours and times of availability, stretching beyond the typical 9 to 5.”
Sophia described a change in the daily work for the sales professional:
I close the deal, I get the paperwork, I push it off. I close the next deal, I get the
paperwork, I push it off. That's not the world we live in. You close the deal and that's the
easy part. Now you have the hard part. Now you have the hours of work to get it
processed in the right checkboxes and it's a mess.
Jessica described the communications as ambiguous and funneled through hierarchy:
(communications) during the pandemic really highlighted the lack of information that our
reps had to operate with so much. The word I like to use is ambiguous information…it
really strained the salesforce. It really strained the sales management because a lot of
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things were said: Filter that through your Rd, the manager, and the manager didn't know
any more than the Rep. I don't believe that communication improved whatsoever through
the pandemic. If anything, it got worse.
Category 5: How the Organization’s Culture Adapted During COVID-19
The organization’s culture made several shifts that would lead to adaptations during
COVID-19 as described by the participants in the interviews. How did the organization’s culture
adapt during COVID-19 was the next category with 44 codes (see Code Book Appendix H). The
most referenced code was “trust” with 13 references. James described an “exhaustion” that is
related to “lost trust… lost faith.” Krista stated: “we did trust each other, and we could say this
is broken or this is screwed up. People are tapped dancing in tiptoeing around that it's not
good.” Ron stated: “if you trust me to work for you, then let's make that the relationship.” Allen
describes: “leaders must make themselves approachable and make themselves invested in those
around them and I think some do that really well and I think some haven't caught on to the
importance of doing that. We're not recognizing how much impact that had during the
pandemic.”
Relationships grew stronger on a more local level or within the teams of the supervisors,
creating a culture that was local to the team, but not to the larger organization. The tenured
employees describe this as “developing our own separate culture.” James said:
Let's both trust each other. I'll trust you with what you give me, and you give me what I
need to do my job. It came down to being very cautious of being negative. Perceptions
around our COVID supply or anything around COVID I think was a very protected type
of information.
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The movement to virtual meetings had five references. Described by Carol: “we are an
essential business. In healthcare, business had to continue but it changed from face-to-face
meetings with sales to virtual.” Charles describes a shift in strategy:
I don't know how long that evolution took place, but because we were also an
organization that was involved with a test for COVID the value that we brought in the
healthcare space was tremendous. So, it shifted, everything shifted from a portfolio of 24
tests to a portfolio of 1 test.
Category 6: Impact of New Hire Sales Training of the Organizational Culture
The next category was “Impact of new hire sales training of the organizational culture.”
There were 25 codes under this category (see Code Book Appendix H). Within the codes, six are
highly referenced. The codes are “Virtual sales training” had 20 references, “retraining needed”
had seven references, and “no connection to mothership” had six references. Andrew described
they were “flying by the seat of their pants” in reference to suddenly training expansion hiring
classes in a brand-new virtual environment. The people responsible for training the
organizational culture described the difficulty with the absence of conversations at dinner or at
breakfast or around a water cooler. The strategic focus on a single product out of 22 tests in the
organization’s portfolio made it difficult to have effective training for the whole organizational
portfolio. Carol said:
The first year that a new hire was with us it was all about respiratory (COVID) and
allocations, so they were trained on another bucket (of products) that they really didn't
use from training. This is terrible because training is supposed to be timely and relevant.
The trainers observed new hires having difficulty identifying as a member of the broader
organization because they were not, as Jessica described, “able to go into the mothership
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to see where your role is and what everybody else is doing.” The ability to be innovative
and adaptive was critical. The trainers describe debriefing and adjusting lectures or
delivery of training after every class coded as “adjusting training,” with 10 references
described by Gerald, “One of the things that we've regularly talked about was how do we
maximize our time when we're together.” Critical to the successful new hire cultural
embracement was the enhancement of a mentor program. This allowed the seasoned
employee mentor to be, as Ron noted, a “peer-to-peer trainer and freeing the manager to
manage the daily work on supply chain and allocations” an example of the code
“mentors,” with seven references.
Category 7: New Hires Understanding of Espoused Values
New hires’ understanding of espoused values was a category that established the new
hires’ understanding of the organization’s culture deeper than the surface layer of mission and
vision. This category is critical to understanding the way these participants understood the
impact of COVID-19 on the organization’s culture. There were 36 codes assigned to this
category (see Code Book Appendix H). Within the codes, four were referenced the most. These
are “connecting with the organization” with eight references, “diluted culture,” with six
references, “new hire exposure to culture,” with four references and “growth and innovation,”
with three references. As Gerald noted, “I think (the culture) got diluted during the pandemic.”
Gerald asked how a new employee would “get a feeling of what is the culture of any company
when you're not seeing and you're not getting the message from somebody in person.” Prior to
COVID, the participants describe the organizational emphasis on innovative behavior. The spirit
of “we're here to support you” from a team perspective was emphasized to new hires. An
example from Krista, “Nothing compares to, you know, being in person or, you know, being face
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to face and I think we all realize that.” Employees were encouraged to bring ideas to their
supervisors. Carl said that “They weren't always implemented. But I always I encouraged it.”
This communication style is one of the reasons why the culture was so strong at a team level and
lacking on a broader organizational level.
Category 8: How the New Hires Established a Cohort
The final category was how the new hires established a cohort. There were eight codes in the
category. There were two codes that are each referenced four times: “negative cohort” and “not a
member of the organizational culture.” Traditionally, a new hire group would go through four
months of training together in this organization. This would establish a cohort. Throughout the
tenure of the employees’ career, this cohort relationship can be a safe space to bounce ideas and
ask for help. James said, “We've probably lost good people because they couldn't find their
place.” Krista said:
The new hire going through training virtually established stronger relationships with
their mentor and their regional teams than they did with other trainees going through
training at the same time. The regional teams became where you would find folks to
commiserate with and to share your experiences with and to bounce ideas off.
The code under this category that had the most references was “cohort.” Cohort was
referenced as cohort to the new hire process, and to the adaptability of the teams the new hires
were joining.
Thematic Framework
The researcher used inductive coding to establish themes from the categories previously
described. A Final coding method including the themes (Figure 19), shows the coding method
including the categories and themes. The researcher used the literature review, research
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questions, codes, and categories to create the thematic framework (Table 7). Each theme is
briefly described below.
Figure 19
Final coding method including the themes.
Table 7
Thematic Framework
Thematic Framework
Theme #
Theme
1
COVID-19, as a black swan, had an impact on the organizational culture
2
The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the
organizations culture itself were changed from previous new hire trainings
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Theme 1: COVID-19, as a black swan, had an impact on the organizational culture.
The theme, COVID-19, as a black swan, had an impact on the organizational culture has
the most categories. This theme contains the data, codes, subcategories, and categories from the
interviews that describe the participants lived experiences from before COVID-19 and as the
organization worked through the COVID pandemic. The intent of this research was to
understand the changes in the organizational culture from the training of new hires perspective.
This theme generalizes the statements of the lived experiences of the participants that observed
the organization’s cultural change during COVID-19. Five categories make up this theme. These
five categories are: how an organizational culture is manifested, importance of organizational
culture to strategy, how organizational culture adjusts, how did organizational culture shift
during COVID-19, and how did the organizational culture adapt during COVID-19.Within these
five categories there are 364 codes. These categories and codes are discussed in the previous
section.
Theme 2: The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the
organization’s culture itself were changed from previous new hire trainings.
The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the organizational
culture itself were changed from previous new hire training is Theme 2. This theme contains
categories and codes from the participants who trained the new hires during COVID-19. In
addition to the interviewed participants, this theme triangulates additional supplemental data
from the new hires of the organization with additional data from a survey. There are three
categories in this theme that are made-up of 211 codes. These categories are impact of new hire
sales training of the organizational culture, new hires understanding of espoused values, and how
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have the new hires established a cohort. These categories and codes are discussed in the previous
section.
Quantitative Hypothesis – Survey Results
The quantitative hypothesis stated: There is not a statistically significant relationship
between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
A total of 80 possible participants were contacted through company email and LinkedIn.
Of the 80 possible participants, six bounced back as having left the organization, 16 participants
started the survey. All participants met the criteria, having been hired between September 2019
and June 2022 as a sales professional within the single organization. No other demographic
information was noted. The purpose of this additional data was to share the perspective of the
new hires as a supplement. These new hires did not have knowledge of the organization’s culture
prior to their employment. For this reason, they were giving a supplement to the research only. A
survey was used due to the limited data the new hires can provide to provide only understanding
of their position on their fit within the organizations culture. The analysis of the survey can be
found in Appendix G.
The researcher performed a chi test on the individual questions from the survey results.
The chi test is used to compare data from one set to expected values of the same set and report
the significant difference from that expected data. The points of data were broken out in two
ways. The first section is the data with positive, negative, and neutral responses. The second set
shows the data with the neutral responses removed. The chi test was performed in Excel and the
value is reported for each question. A significant chi test was p=<0.05. There were 26 of the 50
survey questions that had significant results based on the chi test. Two questions were only
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significant when the neutral responses were included in the data. These were “My mentor
attends/attended virtual meetings with me and was an active participant during COVID-19” and
“I was rewarded by leadership for my work during COVID-19.” Both questions became
insignificant when the neutral responses were removed from the data. The results are reported on
questions that were observed through this analysis to be significant.
• When asked: “I felt like I fit into the organization during COVID-19” 13 of the 15
respondents agreed. This is 86.667 % agreement p = 0.000. This question is directly
related to the feeling of belonging during the pandemic.
• When asked “I feel like I fit into the organization” 12 of the 14 respondents agreed.
This is 85.714% agreement p = 0.000. This question is less specific and relates to
feeling like you belong overall.
• When asked “I am committed to this organization” 11 of the 14 respondents agreed.
This is 78.571% agreement p = 0.001.
• When asked “how happy or unhappy are you with this company as a place to work” 9
of the 14 respondents or 64.286% replied happy or very happy, p = 0.030.
• When asked “How likely are you to be working at this company two years from
today” 11 of the 14 or 78.571% responded likely or very likely, p = .002.
• When asked “I would recommend this organization to friends” 9 of the 14 or
64.286% of respondents agreed, p = 0.030.
In summary, the majority of new hires surveyed are happy with their positions and feel
they are part of the organization and its culture. This is demonstrated in Table 8. Based on the
results, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis.
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Table 8
Survey Results with Chi Test Significance (p<.05)
Questions related to employees
personal engagement
Question
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
I was able to be engagaed in the
training and onboarding
15 0 1 14 0.000 6.667 93.333 0.000 15 114 6.667 93.333 0.000789
I feel my career in this
organization is progressing as it
should since COVID-19
14 3 2 9 21.429 14.286 64.286 0.046 11 2 9 18.18 2 81.818 0.034809
How interested are you in your
current role
14 3 0 11 21.429 0.000 78.571 0.001 11 011 0.000 100.000 0.000911
How challenging would you say
your current role is
14 4 0 10 28.571 0.000 71.429 0.004 10 010 0.000 100.000 0.001565
Questions related to
Mentors/Trainers
Question
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
I had a supportive
mentorduring COVID-19
15 2 2 11 13.333 13.333 73.333 0.005 13 211 15.385 84.615 0.012555
Questions related to Direct
Supervisor
Question
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
My manager attended virtual
meetings with me and is an
active participant during
COVID-19
15 0 1 14 0.000 6.667 93.333 0.000 15 114 6.667 93.333 0.000789
I openly talk(ed) with my
manager during COVID-19
15 0 0 15 0.000 0.000 100.000 0.000 15 015 0.000 100.000 0.000108
Managers removed the barriers
to success during COVID-19
15 3 2 10 20.000 13.333 66.667 0.022 12 210 16.667 83.333 0.020921
Questions related to
fit/Belonging
Question
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
I felt like I fit in with the
organization during COVID-19
15 2 0 13 13.333 0.000 86.667 0.000 13 013 0.000 100.000 0.000312
I feel like I fit into the
organization
14 2 0 12 14.286 0.000 85.714 0.000 12 012 0.000 100.000 0.000532
I am committed to this
organization
14 3 0 11 21.429 0.000 78.571 0.001 11 011 0.000 100.000 0.000911
How happy or unhappy are you
with this company as a place to
work
14 4 1 9 28 .571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
How likely are you to be working
at this company two years from
today
14 1 2 11 7.143 14.286 78.571 0.002 13 211 15.385 84.615 0.012555
I would recommend this
organization to friends
14 4 1 9 28 .571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
Questions related to
Organization/Leadership
Question
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
The organization emphasized
winning in the marketplace and
achieving targets during
COVID-19
15 1 1 13 6.667 6.667 86.667 0.000 14 113 7.143 92.857 0.001341
The organization defined
success by having unique
products and innovation during
COVID-19
15 2 0 13 13.333 0.000 86.667 0.000 13 013 0.000 100.000 0.000312
The organizations goals were
realistic and achievableduring
COVID-19
15 1 2 12 6.667 13.333 80.000 0.001 14 212 14.286 85.714 0.007526
The leadership in the
organization was results-oriented
and aggressive during COVID-19
15 4 1 10 26.667 6.667 66.667 0.015 11 110 9.091 90.909 0.006556
Senior leadership took the time
to reach out to me to reward my
success during COVID-19
14 3 9 2 21 .429 64.286 14.286 0.046 11 9 2 81.818 18.182 0.034809
The organizations customers liked
me during COVID-19
14 4 1 9 28 .571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
The organization defines success
by out selling the competition
14 2 1 11 14.286 7.143 78.571 0.002 12 111 8.333 91.667 0.003892
People who work hard in this
organization are rewarded
14 0 3 11 0.000 21.429 78.571 0.001 14 311 21.429 78.571 0.032509
People who work hard in this
organization are rewarded
14 0 3 11 0.000 21.429 78.571 0.001 14 311 21.429 78.571 0.032509
People in the organization are
competitive with each other
14 2 2 10 14.286 14.286 71.429 0.010 12 210 16.667 83.333 0.020921
The organizations top concern is
getting the job done
14 6 1 7 42.857 7.143 50.000 0.109 8 1 7 12.500 87.500 0.033895
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In addition, the survey data was triangulated with the interview coded data. An excerpt
from the triangulated data is available in Table 9. The full comparison is available in Appendix J.
Table 9
Excerpt of Combined Interview Coded Data with Survey Analyzed Data
# References Code Questions
P
Value
%
Agreement
%
Disagreement
3attempted new hire recognition
I feel my career in this
organization is progressing as it
should since COVID-19
0.04 81.82 18.18
1challenging through virtual tools
How interested are you in your
current role
0100 0
1
changing to a mixed format for
training
I had a supportive
mentorduring COVID-19
0.01 73.33 13.33
1culture exposure in person
How challenging would you say
your current role is
0100 0
2
culture the reason they came to
the org
Managers removed the barriers
to success during COVID-19
0.02 83.33 16.67
6employee well being
I feel like I fit into the
organization
0100 0
3growth and innovation
I am committed to this
organization
0100 0
2helping each other
How happy or unhappy are you
with this company as a place to
work
0.01 90 10
1inclusivity
I felt like I fit in with the
organization during COVID-
19
0100 0
1listen to the customer
How likely are you to be working
at this company two years from
today
0.01 84.62 15.39
1networking
I would recommend this
0.01 90 10
4new hires exposure to the culture
The organization emphasized
winning in the marketplace and
achieving targets during
COVID-19
0 92.86 7.14
1owning responsibility
The organization defined
success by having unique
products and innovation during
COVID-19
0100 0
1
personally accountable for
cultural perception
The organizations goals were
realistic and achievableduring
COVID-19
0.01 85.71 14.29
1survival mode
The leadership in the
organization was results-oriented
and aggressive during COVID-19
0.01 90.91 9.09
1trusting of employee commitment
The organizations top concern is
getting the job done
0.03 87.5 12.5
The organizations customers
liked me during COVID-19
0.01 90 10
The organization defines success
by out selling the competition
0 91.67 8.33
People who work hard in this
organization are rewarded
0.03 78.57 21.43
People who work hard in this
organization are rewarded
0.03 78.57 21.43
People in the organization are
competitive with each other
0.02 83.33 16.67
Interview coding
Survey Data
Category: New hires understanding of the organizations espoused values
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The organization implemented a mentor program to help facilitate interaction between
tenured employees and new hires. This would complement the training activities normally
provided by the sales training team and direct supervisors.
• The survey data results show 84.62% of new hire sales professionals felt
supported by a mentor during their training (p = 0.013).
• The new hires felt supported by their direct supervisors. A total of 83.33% (p =
0.021) believed their supervisor removed barriers to success during COVID-19;
93.33% (p = 0.001) had supervisors attend virtual meetings with them in a
supporting role, and 100% (p = 0.000) felt they had open two-way
communication with their supervisor.
• The new hires felt supported locally. In open text a survey participant stated: “My
teammates and my director has made this easier to navigate and the onboarding
process would've been much worse if I didn't have them.”
The interview participants describe the organization's focus was training products
specifically related to COVID-19 and work processes to integrate the new salespeople into their
job requirements as fast as possible. They discuss how introducing the organization’s culture
during this time was difficult. As stated by the interviewed training leadership, sales leadership
and multiple department introductions through virtual training classes did not effectively create
connections with new hire sales professionals onboarding during this time. This is the one
significant negative survey response from the new hires with 81.82% (p = 0.035) reporting they
did not have any contact with senior leadership to reward them for success. Despite this, the
survey results show new hires believed the organizational strategy was innovative and
performance driven. As described by sales trainers, supervisors, and mentors, communication of
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the organization's culture was limited due to the consistent changes occurring. Communications
was the strongest code, and the sentiment was repeated by the new hires “there isn’t
transparency from the internal team.” as stated in an open text from a survey participant.
The new hire sales professionals surveyed answered multiple questions about their
opinion about their new roles.
• They believe that the customers like them (90.00%, p = 0.011).
• The new hire sales professionals are interested in their current roles (100%, p =
0.001)
• They are being challenged in their current roles (100%, p = 0.002).
• They feel their career is somewhat progressing as it should within the
organization (81.82%, p = 0.035).
• The surveyed new hire sales professionals agreed that they fit into the
organization currently and/or during COVID-19 (100%, p = 0.001).
• When asked if they would recommend the organization to friends the majority
answered they agree (90.00%, p = 0.011).
• They believe the organization makes people competitive with each other (83.33%,
p = 0.021).
• The interview participants did not feel that there is a clear understanding of the
organization's goals since COVID-19. The survey data on this was insignificant.
• The new hires had positive agreement when asked if the leadership in the
organization was results oriented and aggressive during COVID-19 (90.91%, p =
0.007).
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• The new hires agreed that the organization's top concern is getting the job done
(87.50%, p = 0.034).
The survey results show new hires felt that they somewhat developed a cohort with other
new hires and the training team, and strongly felt supported by their direct supervisor and
mentor. These results agree with the interview results demonstrating the organization's culture
has become fragmented and more localized into teams. Fragmented organizational cultures can
lead to less committed employees.
• The new hires did not demonstrate a need to leave the organization (100%, p =
0.001).
• They somewhat agreed that they are committed to the organization and are happy
with the company as a place to work (90.00%, p = 0.011).
• They only somewhat agreed that they would most likely be working with the
organization two years from now (84.62%, p = 0.013).
Most data concerning the organizational culture change due to COVID-19 comes from
the qualitative interviews. The combined data adds an additional full picture from the perspective
of tenured employees and newer employees.
In addition to the 5-point scale questions in the survey, the participants were able to share
more thoughts in the final question: “Please feel free to share any insights you have about the
organization’s culture, onboarding, or training.” These answers were combined with the
interview responses as additional data. The responses are available in Appendix K.
Sentiment
The interview and survey participants were asked to provide one-word answers to two
questions. The interview questions were: Can you give me a one-word description for the culture
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prior to 2020? What would be a one-word description for the culture today? The survey question
was: What would be a one-word description of the culture today? The answers to these questions
are provided in Table 10.
Table 10
One Word Description Combined Comparison
Organization’s culture
prior to COVID-19
Organization’s culture
during and after COVID-19
New hire survey results
Growth
Teamwork
Real
Family
Focused
Diverse
Engaging
Optimistic
Improving
Evolving
Inclusive
Fair
Winning
Free
Transitional
Focused
Scattered
Inclusive
Unconfident
Employee-oriented
Business-focused
Rewarding
Engaged
Prideful
Broken
Sharable vision
Rebuilding
The researcher recognized the emotional tone of the participants during the interviews.
Due to the sentiment of the one-word answers that lead to an emotional response, an 11th
question was added to the interview structure. Each interview participant was asked how openly
discussing the change in organizational culture made them feel. Carl described his feelings
during this interview process as “this is not completely new for me to have this kind of
conversation. I think this is important to have this kind of conversation… it is therapeutic.” Carl
added:
Good. I liked it. Nobody's asked me these things before. Being asked the question and
giving answers is one thing. Having something happen from it, people listening, whether
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it's publishing a paper or real change getting made, that's even better. The other emotion
that comes to mind is anger, because the person asking me this is not three levels above
me that could actually impact the change. I'm angry that nobody in that role has really
asked me outside of a standard issue survey that goes out every year and the results on it
are always discarded. There's an excuse for why a metric was bad, so happy that you
asked. Angry wasn't like my leadership chain.
The sentiment from both the interviews and the open-ended survey responses are
observed by this researcher as findings in addition to the original scope of this research. These
sentiments are not coded and are not specific to a theme for this research. The sentiment
expressed are additional findings that are discussed in chapter 5 as recommendations for future
study. The researcher recognizes the positionality of her exposure to the organization being
studied during COVID-19 could introduce bias into the results. The researcher’s positionality is
discussed in several areas of this paper. This is another reason to only use this sentiment data for
future research.
Additional Information Sources
To help corroborate the findings, the researcher held two meetings with known
authorities on organizational culture to discuss the impact of these changes on an organization.
Peter Schein, cofounder and COO for Organizational Culture and Leadership Institute, co-author
with his father Edgar Schein (Schein & Schein, 2017) on many books and lecturer on
organizational culture, described the changes in power that would cause the culture to change its
values moving from a proposed structure to a practice that reflects different espoused values.
These espoused values for the new hires during COVID-19 were very different from the pre-
pandemic values. The newer forced isolation and decreased communication has become a
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normal component of the value system within the organization. An additional academic
influencer interviewed by the researcher for additional input is Doctor Geert Jan Hofstede, a
professor, committed teacher, and an active researcher (Hofstede Insights Organizational Culture
Consulting (hofstede-insights.com)). The focus of the interview with Doctor Hofstede was
understanding the cohesive nature that was present in the organization prior to the pandemic that
became one of distrust due to inconsistent support and a lack of communication from leadership.
In Hofstede’s paper with his father (2005), he described that culture requires new members to
accept leadership and influential people. For most of the new hires within the organization
during COVID-19 accepting the leadership and influential people within the organization was
impossible because they did not know who they were.
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CHAPTER 5
Discussion, Implications, Recommendations
Overview
The discussion of this research study considers how organizational culture is manifested
by its membership. The interview participants for this research came from multiple levels of
leadership and followership within the organization. In addition, the researcher conducted an
extensive literature review to understand existing theoretical publications on how an
organizational culture manifests. An organization's culture is constantly changing as its strategy
and innovations change.
The implications of this research study center around how a sudden improbable
exogenous high-impact event affects an organization's culture. The sudden changes within the
organization impacted the organization's culture, which could be considered positive in some
respects and harmful in others. Leadership in organizations might not be able to predict an
exogenous event but can be better prepared to mitigate risk associated with exogenous events.
The recommendations of this research study advocate for a better understanding of the
organizational culture's impact on the organization's strategy and sustainability. Organizational
leaders may better understand the aftermath of changes resulting from the transition from in-
person to virtual work. The participants expressed the ramifications of changes in
communication, including a loss of trust. The research provides an observed connection between
organizational networking as a form of cultural communication and successful fit into an
organization's culture.
Understanding key points such as communications, networking, change, and virtual work
may serve well for organizations attempting to understand how they can utilize the organization's
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culture as a strategic advantage. This research study opened with an explanation of the Black
Swan theory (Taleb, 2007). A sudden, improbable, unprecedented event, classified by this
definition as a black swan, can impact the organization's structures, routines, and culture.
Organization of the Chapter
The remainder of Chapter 5 begins with a restatement of the problem studied. Following
is a section describing the implications and conclusions from the research results, including a
statement of limitations. Finally, the chapter concludes with recommendations for possible future
research and practice.
Statement of the Problem
In late 2019 reports of a novel form of respiratory disease began to be spotlighted in
various locations worldwide. By March 2020, COVID-19 had spread across the globe and was
declared a pandemic. The sudden nature of this disease caught the healthcare industry and
healthcare product manufacturers off guard. Manufacturers of healthcare equipment and supplies
had trouble meeting a sudden increase in demand. The event strained the healthcare community
well beyond its normally stressful state. The medical diagnostic segment was thrust to the
forefront to provide frontline workers with patient test capabilities. The manufacturer studied
was a leading producer of molecular (PCR) test devices for various diseases. They were forced to
refocus all their resources on a brand-new product with emergency clearances through all
government avenues and funding from multiple directions. This created an urgent need to
redirect this organization away from its long-established strategy. Similarly, the medical
diagnostic industry shifted all business and resources to supplying COVID-19 testing. The
demand surge exceeded the combined manufacturing capability of all manufacturers globally.
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During this time, all organizations were affected in some way. Those considered
nonessential suffered and were forced into short and sizeable employee layoffs. Anyone who
could work from home became remote and isolated, using electronics for virtual business. This
shift changed the way people and organizations interacted with one another. This research
suggests these interactions may be essential for developing and maintaining an organization's
culture.
To better understand the impact of this sudden exogenous improbable change on an
organization, the researcher studied the lived experiences of the people responsible for
establishing the cultural connection of new hire sales professionals. This phenomenological
mixed method convergent study contributes to the research and overall understanding of how an
exogenous event categorized as a Black Swan affects the organization's culture. This study
identified two significant themes that aid in understanding change in relation to organizational
culture. Through the lived experiences of the participants of this study, the findings show how
COVID-19, as a Black Swan, changed the organization's culture and how the new hires were
introduced to the organization's culture differently than people hired before COVID-19. This
information may be important for organizational leaders to recognize and mitigate risks
associated with exogenous events. In addition, information will be provided to help leadership
understand the effects a black swan has on the organization’s employees. The researcher
recognized several gaps in the existing research. The available research had not addressed the
employees responsible for integrating new hires in a sales function into the organization via sales
trainers, sales managers, and mentors. Available research could not be found on the impact of a
black swan event on organizational culture. In addition, the available black swan research has
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traditionally focused on short catastrophic events; COVID-19 is a long-term global high-impact
event. The knowledge gained from this study may add to the literature.
Implications
Culture is manifested within an organization by sharing values, norms, and behavior
patterns from leadership, tenured employees, and new hires (Schein, 1996a). Engagement within
the organization’s culture is manifested in the unique way business is conducted (Barney, 1986).
Leadership within an organization's culture is held responsible for the strengths or weaknesses as
asserted in leadership theory and organizational theory (Selzick, 1957; Simosi & Xenikou, 2010)
and observed in this research. Baker (1980) stated that an organization's overall success is
codependent on managing that organization's culture. Furthermore, an organization’s culture
cannot be divided within it (Alvesson & Berg, 1992). Though sometimes dysfunctional
(Balthazard et al., 2006), an organization's culture is a source of competitive advantage (Barney,
1986).
This research study examined the organizational culture of a medical diagnostic
organization through the lived experiences of senior training and sales professionals. The
research questions aimed to help focus on this researcher and better understand how this
organization’s culture is manifested, how the organizational culture adjusts to change, and how
the organizational culture shifted during COVID-19. RQ1 sought to understand how an
organizational culture manifests through the lived experiences of tenured employees. RQ1a
sought to understand the contribution of organizational culture to the strategy of a medical
diagnostic organization. RQ2 explored how an organizational culture adjusts to change. RQ2A
attempted to examine the company's organizational culture change during the COVID-19
pandemic. RQ3 explores the company's organizational culture adaptation during COVID-19
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through new hire sales training. RQ3a sought to understand better what affected the company's
new hire sales training of organizational culture during COVID-19. RQ3a1 examines the new
hires’ understanding of the organization’s espoused beliefs and values during COVID-19. RQ3a2
sought to understand the new hire sales trainees’ establishment of a learning cohort during
COVID-19. RQ4 sought to understand possible ways a company can continue to monitor and
mitigate the risks to organizational culture in anticipation of a future exogenous event. These
research questions were designed to help guide how participants describe their lived experiences
as part of an organization's culture during COVID-19.
This research study gives a voice and representation to the trainers, managers, and
mentors responsible for exposing new hire sales professionals to the organization and its culture.
As noted in the literature review, new hire sales professionals attend training over several
months, typically provided in person with exposure to organizational culture, product
knowledge, and sales skills.
Discussion
The following section presents the significant research findings in the two analytical
themes developed in Chapter 4. The data set was obtained from the semi-structured interviews
and supplemented by survey results from a different sample. The qualitative data was sourced
from the transcripts of the 11 participant interviews. A total of 608 references to 219 unique
codes were generated from the data, then these codes were clustered into eight categories and
finally grouped into two major themes. Theme 1 is derived solely from interview data clustered
into five categories. Theme 2 is informed by interview data clustered into three categories and
supplemented with survey results. The two themes are discussed in the following paragraphs as
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they relate to the research questions (RQs) and, where applicable, to the literature review in
Chapter 2.
Theme 1: COVID-19, as a black swan, impacted the organization’s culture.
Theme one is derived from 5 categories, 150 codes, and 397 references to these codes.
RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company? This research
question set the basis for the interviewed participants to describe the organization's culture before
COVID-19. The code "Culture before Covid" was referenced 27 times out of the 150 codes in
this theme. These participants describe an inclusive organizational culture with “integrity,"
“investment in individuals," “visibility to the leadership vision," and “success," as stated by
interview participants. The organization's culture was not perfect. Previous engagement surveys
and discussions during this research brought up the difficulty with leadership communication as
stated by an interview participant: “We didn’t have this necessarily a strong communication
channel.” At the same time, the tenured employees describe a “team-oriented” organization with
strong, talented employees.
Each school of thought in theory surrounding organizational culture has a component of
social interplay. These schools of thought described in the literature review in this research
demonstrate the vital component of social interaction and communication within an
organizational culture. The findings are consistent with the existing research. In addition to the
schools of thought and manifestation of culture, the theorists' descriptions of cultural change
discuss the ebb and flow much like a gentle wave of cultural change (Allaire & Firsirotu, 1984).
This is traditionally observed over a more extended period. COVID-19, as a black swan, affected
the organizational culture quickly and highly impactfully through sudden organizational changes;
as described by one tenured participant, "We were absolutely not used to all this kind of
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technology and this virtual world. So, it was completely different. The system that makes up the
organization's culture possesses all the history, definitions, and ritual communications that make
it separate and identifiable from other organizations (Schneider, 1990). It is this historical
component that is consistently evolving that is described as culture. COVID-19 disrupted the
normal evolutionary process, which was perceived in a variety of ways by the participants. The
high frequency of "Culture before Covid" references suggests a high level of identification with
the former organizational culture. As stated by a participant: “I think everybody just really kind
of bled OrgA blue. It was a fun place to work.”
Using Cooke’s descriptive model for organizational culture types previously presented in
Chapter 2, the descriptors given by the participants in the interviews suggest that the type of
culture within the organization is passive/defensive, where members of the culture are behaving
in ways expected without regard for opinion to maintain their security (Cooke & Rousseau,
1988). Using Handy’s (1995) model for organizational culture, the participants described a
culture before COVID-19 that was dynamic and focused on individuals, creating experts in the
market. Based on the Handy model (1995), this would be considered a task culture with high
power distribution and high levels of cooperation.
The importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic organization’s strategy
(RQ1a) connects the culture to the organization’s vision, mission, and purpose. In the first few
months of COVID-19, the participants described a fully supportive organizational culture
concerned with well-being and activities to support daily work: “the focus on well-being and
diversity inclusion," as described by an interview participant. The participants discussed the
waning of these activities as COVID-19 progressed past the first months. As a direct
consequence of the exponential market growth from the event, the organization also rapidly
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increased hiring activities. This growth was based on the market need for supporting COVID-19
medical products “everyone was dedicated to the COVID test," as stated by a participant. This
strategy, described by the interview participants, was “short-sighted” because in less than a full
year, the leadership would recognize that the growth was not sustainable and would implement
layoffs. The participants in the study described a decrease in faith as communications from
leadership decreased during the pandemic, and layoffs ensued. The participants describe how the
layoffs, as the world transitioned from pandemic to endemic, created additional stresses on
employees' faith and trust in their leadership. “A culture of integrity, true investment, and
individual success allowing for collective and/or organizational success” is a participant’s
description of how they saw the culture contributing to the strategy and success of the
organization.
As the pandemic progressed and the culture change followed suit, the leadership took on
a more bureaucratic role within the culture. RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to
change in a medical diagnostic company? This question eventually became a focus question
during the participants’ interviews. Employees were managed, and tasks were dictated without
communication across the organization. The culture became more role oriented with low power
distribution and low levels of cooperation (Handy, 1995). Using the Handy Model, the shift in
the culture from task culture, described as a dynamic culture, allowing individuals to focus on
tasks as experts in meeting the needs of the market, to role culture, described as a more
bureaucratic form of a culture where procedures and rules are propagated from leadership, rather
than coordinated through individual contributors, could be out of necessity.
Participants described the shift as a product of the stress associated with the organization
maintaining the supply chain, communications through the hierarchy, regulations with the FDA,
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and correspondence with customers. Internally, the organization was changing daily work
routines, losing more tenured sales professionals while rapidly expanding through hiring less
skilled sales professionals. These are some of the reasons for a culture change. One participant
stated: “It's a challenge when everything is being done virtually to really establish relationships
and understand the culture.” These components were described in length by the participants.
The changes occurring at the time described by the participants experienced by this organization
were a direct result of the increased market demand, overwhelming supply issues, and
unprecedented growth associated with the pandemic. With abrupt market changes, including a
sharp increase in demand, the participants also describe “opportunities for career growth.” The
changes described by the tenured employees included an increased focus on well-being and
acceptance of new technologies.
RQ2a: In what ways did the medical diagnostic company’s organizational culture shift
during COVID-19? The category associated with this question was the most coded section of
each interview. First, the organization started communicating much more frequently during
COVID-19. A participant described this “fluff” communication as one-sided, with leadership
disseminating information to all levels of the sales organization. As the pandemic continued
having peaks and valleys of testing needs, communications lessened, as stated by a participant:
"As the pandemic progressed, it became more and more just a lack of transparency.” From the
pandemic's beginning, interview participants describe how communications across departments
slowed, then stopped altogether. The “team-oriented” culture presented prior to COVID-19 was
not expressed by the participants. The direction from leadership was to funnel all
communications and questions between departments through direct supervisors. Sales could no
longer reach out to marketing or any leadership without funneling their questions directly
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through their managers. This was a change in the former ritual communication styles described
by the interview participants and is consistent with the shift in a culture supported by the Handy
model (1995), as previously discussed.
At the same time, participants described that the organization took a heightened interest
in maintaining the health of all employees. The stay-at-home orders were extended and
continued for more than two years. Sales professionals were equipped with complete home
offices and shifted meetings to a virtual exchange. Sales professionals described long days with
back-to-back meetings using their computers and cameras. The participants describe this as a
sudden and impactful change in the organizational culture. This change was described as
permanent by the participants.
A significant finding within this theme is that the participants described a culture that has
become decentralized. What was once a centralized organizational culture described as “team
oriented” with strong talent has been changed into localized team cultures that are lightly
connected but not intertwined. A participant stated, “I think the real inclusion was done by the
field-level managers." These localized cultures were isolated from the broad organizational
culture. “It is essential to do the job on a day-to-day basis without really communicating within
the organization's culture. It is the more nuanced things that really make the experience more
than the sum of the parts," as stated by a participant. The interviews demonstrated this when the
participants stated that the organization’s culture was specific to localized teams. Additionally,
they expressed that the culture was no longer centralized within the organization. This
observation is shown in Figure 20. In this figure, the blue sales regions have established a local
culture that is separate and stands alone.
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Figure 20
New Sales Organizational Model with Organizational Culture Localized to Sales Region and the
Absence of Broader Organizational Culture
RQ3: How has the company's organizational culture adapted during COVID-19, as
observed through new hire sales training? This research question guided the researcher to
understand better the changes in how new hires became part of the organization's culture. The
participants described the pre-pandemic dissemination or indoctrination of organizational culture
within the medical diagnostic organization as an in-person exchange integrating new hire sales
professionals into the organization with introductions to multiple departments, leadership, and
corporate offices. This coaching into the world of this organization created a sense of belonging
on a high level that helps the new sales professional feel part of the greater good and successes of
the organization. One participant described coaching new hires on organizational culture during
COVID-19 as “building the company culture is really about people and networking.”
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As introduced in Chapter 2, the organizational climate is a component of the artifact
layer, the most visible outer layer of the culture (Schein, 1992; Goodenough, 1971). The climate
is the culture seen by customers or people looking at the organization from the outside. The
climate would expect to change with any exogenous influence. Change in an organizational
climate can be temporary. When the organizational culture changes, climate as a component can
be permanently changed. This climate change can be observed from both a customer's and the
employees’ perspectives. The participants described a change in the organization's climate
starting from just before the stay-at-home orders and existing throughout this research. Data from
the new hire surveys provided insight into this. For example, 90% (p = 0.011) of new hires agree
that their customers liked them (Appendix E).
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational
culture in anticipation of future exogenous events? This research question redirected the inquiry
from a retrospective to more prospective or lessons learned from the lived experiences during
COVID-19. Participants acknowledged that organizations could not predict or avoid exogenous
events (Taleb, 2007). These events will continue to happen in the future. Knowing this,
participants recommended that continued open lines of safe communication are necessary to
monitor and mitigate risks to the organizational culture. The organization has demonstrated that
it can establish effective communication and maintain trust and faith in leadership. Additionally,
ensuring a set path for innovative work environments will assist leadership in managing strains
of the organization's established routines. Lastly, participants recommend that leadership develop
new ways to recognize employee contributions made to the organization in ways other than
revenue generation during times of crisis.
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Theme 2: The way new hires were introduced to the organizational culture and the
organization’s culture itself were changed from previous new hire trainings.
Up to this point in this discussion, the focus has been on organizational culture change in
the existing employees or change related to the overall company because of market growth
within the medical diagnostic community through COVID-19. The remainder of this discussion
will focus on the new hire sales professional’s exposure to organizational culture through their
training during COVID-19. Theme 2 is derived from three categories, 69 codes, and 211
references to these codes.
New hire sales training shifted from in-person delivery over months in multiple locations
described by a participant: “you go to the corporate headquarters, you take a tour of the
facilities, you do a tour of the manufacturing plant. You put the hard hat on and the boots. And
like you feel a part of the company.” This method changed to e-learning to complete a
“reworked curriculum” over a longer time as the duration of the classes was shortened and made
repetitive to accommodate the adult e-learning modality.
RQ3a: What was the effect of the company's new hire sales training of organizational
culture during COVID-19? As the delivery mode of sales training shifted from in-person to e-
learning, organizational culture was affected by this change. The findings suggest that the
innovative nature of the pre-COVID organizational culture may have contributed to the quick
response to creating virtual activities. An observation discussed by participants was that the
change from in-person training in multiple locations, including the corporate headquarters and
manufacturing facilities, to exclusive virtual training was completed over a few months.
Participants described that this change had already been considered to occur over the coming
years as part of the organization's strategy. As described by a training participant, “It is not a dull
128
learning [environment], and we worked really hard to try to bring adult learning
methodologies.” However, the organization was unprepared for a sudden stop to the sales
training rituals. The abrupt shift in work activities changed how new sales professionals were
introduced to the organization’s culture, work processes, rituals, and how products were
introduced. The reactions to this change were mixed. One participant stated: “Through e-
learning, we could maximize our time when we're in the classroom to really practice. To really
have the conversation for sales reps to screw up and articulating the message and do it in that
space...” Another survey respondent’s response was: “Training didn’t attend to vital aspects of
our business and daily responsibilities.” Yet another participant stated: “There was no
connection to the mother ship."
RQ3a1: What was the new hires’ understanding of the organization’s espoused beliefs
and values during COVID-19? A key component of organizational culture and the training of
organizational culture to new hires is the observation of leadership and leadership
communications. The new hire sales professional surveys provided the new hire salespersons’
perceptions of the leadership within the organization. Responses, though not all were statistically
significant, contrasted with the interviewed tenured employees. The interviewed participants
described spoken and unspoken rules for communication with leadership. For example, one
manager stated: “Because the biggest complaint that we heard from new hires during this time
was the lack of communication from leadership and the fact that they just did not feel immersed
in the company. They didn't know what to do or where to go.” This was different from the survey
results, where the new hires agreed that leadership reached out to them to reward them for
success and took time to understand their needs during COVID-19. The new hire's surveys also
showed they did feel connected to the organization.
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The dichotomy of views between the interview participants and survey respondents was
evident in answers to leadership decision questions during COVID-19. From the interview data,
the tenured employees did not feel the organization's leadership emphasized “trust,”
“openness,” and “participation” during COVID-19 or that people who worked hard in the
organization were rewarded. At the same time, the new hires’ responses showed that questions
concerning trust and faith in leadership were not significant. The difference in responses paints a
picture of the fluctuating organizational culture that was results driven (91%, p = 0.01) and
empathetic to daily employee responsibilities (88%, p = 0.03). The survey participants had a
more positive observed cultural perspective than the interviewed employees. This could
demonstrate greater acceptance of cultural changes by newer employees without knowledge of
the culture prior to COVID-19. From the survey responses, the new hires felt part of the current
organizational culture (100%, p = 0.00). This led the researcher to reject the null hypothesis: No
statistically significant relationship exists between new hires during COVID-19 and their
affective commitment to the organization/organizational culture.
An organization's value system is an inner layer of organizational culture where
employees share longstanding beliefs and behaviors and talk openly about what brings the
members together as a single unit (Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Schein, 1992). The values within the
organization are powerful and elicit emotion (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). The interview participants
discussed a break in the value system in the organization. As described by one participant: “I can
see a gap in knowledge for especially our newer employees or employees hired during the
pandemic where they're not getting as much investment exposure and knowledge in our internal
processes.” Unlike usual ebb and flow changes in organizational culture, this sudden exogenous
high-impact change in the organization created a change in the value system that seemed to
130
affect the tenured employees emotionally. Some participants described a form of depression,
high anxiety, fear, and sadness that continues to persist. The survey of new hires did not express
this sentiment. The survey data shows that 90% (p = 0.011) are happy at the organization, and
85% (p = 0.013) are likely to still work there for two years. These responses differ from the
tenured participants’ and brought into question the new hires’ understanding of the longstanding
beliefs and behaviors of the organization.
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19? The managers and mentors interviewed described attempts to create socialization on
a more localized level. The survey results directly related to relationships in a cohort was not
statistically significant. The survey results demonstrated that 93% (p = 0.00) of the new hires
could engage in the new hire training. The interview participants described a shift from a
commitment to the overall organization to a commitment to their local team and a lack of
understanding of the overall organizational culture. The new hires did feel supported by their
managers (83.33%, p = 0.021) and mentors (84.62%, p = 0.013).
The researcher added a question at the end of the interviews to allow the participant to
describe how vocalizing these changes to their organization’s culture made them feel. Most of
the participants described a sense of relief and a “need to have this conversation.” In one case,
anger was expressed that this conversation was not happening within the organization.
Participants described an inability to voice opinions and emotions in an acceptable way within
the organization. This inability was a recognized component of the organization’s value system
before the pandemic. The participants described how one-way communication was apparent in
previous engagement surveys taken annually but in a less intentional way. COVID-19 increased
the limits on communication, which became a recognized characteristic of the organization.
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Sentiment and Single Words
The sentiment that emerged from the participants in the interviews and surveys was not
part of the scope of this research. The discussion provided here is intended for additional future
research. When asked to describe the organization’s culture with a single word, the survey
responses were real, diverse, improving, fair, and transitional. The new hires recognized the
organization as still in a transitional period. The researcher used these single-word descriptions
to compare with the single-word descriptions the interviewed participants gave. The combined
one-word organizational culture descriptions from the interviews and surveys are provided in
Table 11.
Table 11
One Word Description Combined Comparison
Organization’s culture
prior to COVID-19
Organization’s culture
during and after COVID-19
New hire survey results
Growth
Teamwork
Real
Family
Focused
Diverse
Engaging
Optimistic
Improving
Evolving
Inclusive
Fair
Winning
Free
Transitional
Focused
Scattered
Inclusive
Unconfident
Employee-oriented
Business-focused
Rewarding
Engaged
Prideful
Broken
Sharable vision
Rebuilding
This data demonstrates a sentiment more than an actual description of the culture. The
sentiment among all answers was similar. This researcher concludes that the single-word
132
answers were revealing but less beneficial for understanding. A deeper dive into the components
of the culture is necessary to gain an understanding.
Recommendations
The researcher is both an academic and a practitioner with a sales and sales training
career. For this reason, the recommendations are divided between these two roles.
Academic
As an academic, the researcher observed a high emotional level relevant to understanding
the classification of black swans. This observation was unexpected and not part of the focus of
this research. Future research could be done to understand high emotionality as a possible fifth
characteristic of a black swan.
This research was conducted over a limited timeframe. Longitudinal studies and the long-
term cultural impacts of COVID-19 on organizational culture should be conducted. The
recommended research may include the transitions to electronic work, the difficulties coming
back into the office or hybrid work, how to train employees remotely, how to establish an
organizational culture through virtual training, and how to have committed employees for the
long term within different working environments. The research study includes results that show
COVID-19 impacted this organization’s culture. As discussed in the literature review, it should
be noted that studying organizational culture is done by focusing on a single organization.
Researchers observe changes to the climate, espoused values, and rituals over a long period.
Additional studies should be conducted on this topic.
The focus organization of this research study is global. Organizations that are smaller or
larger than this organization may have different results. Additional research may be conducted
on small organizations where organizational culture is not typically examined. Also, there is
133
limited research understanding of reestablishing an organizational culture after a significant
change. Additional research could be conducted with theory development to understand the
impact of change on each organizational department and the best ways to mediate the risk
associated with significant changes in culture.
This research focused on a sales organization within a global organization. However,
additional research on the long-term changes to sales activities and the impact these changes
have on the rituals of organizations may be impactful.
Practitioner
Improved leadership communication in times of crisis emerged as a consensus
recommendation from the tenured employees who were interviewed. Senior leadership should
critically examine the communications between all levels of the organization's hierarchy and
between departments. It is also recommended that the organization's leadership have active
conversations with employees providing a safe space for them to share more profound opinions.
Climate survey responses, especially single-word responses, were deemed less effective. It is
also recommended that the organization consider assigning a senior employee or hiring an
outside consultant to guide them through reestablishing two-way communication for all levels.
This research focused on training organizational culture for new hires during COVID-19.
To fill the observed void in exposing new hires to the organization’s culture, this could be
reintroduced to all employees hired as of January 2020. New training will help reestablish a
broader organizational culture. It should be noted that the sales training department can utilize
both virtual and in-person training techniques. This additional training could be conducted in a
corporate office and in person. It is highly recommended that the organization reinvigorates the
pride in the brand. This can be done by supplying employees with branded merchandise and
134
exposing them to corporate locations to help them feel committed to the larger organization
outside their local team. The leadership can reinstitute, remind, and actively promote the
organization’s culture with clear intent to boost morale, esprit de corps, and productivity.
The participants in both the interviews and the surveys discussed heightened emotions.
The researcher recommends human resources (HR) involvement to improve communications and
acceptance of the emotions associated with these sudden dramatic changes. All the participants
in the interviews described a need to communicate their feelings. Similar to reinstituting two-
way communications, it is recommended that HR or a third party be assigned to help guide
people through the emotions they are experiencing. The result may be more committed, happier
long-term employees.
Additional studies understanding the impact of hiring skilled sales professionals versus
less skilled sales professionals in an existing organizational culture is a recommendation for
future research. It was noted by many of the interviewed participants that the skills of those hired
during COVID-19 were intentionally less than existing sales professionals. The researcher
believes this dilution of skills for sales professionals is a component of this organization’s
cultural change.
Limitations
It should be noted that the use of black swan as a label can be controversial. Researchers
have varying opinions on the qualifying attributes of an event for classification. The researcher
did not intend to address these issues in this dissertation. The research was limited to a single
organization to dive deeply into the culture and cultural change. Every organization's culture is
different, and the culture observed in this research may not apply to another organization. During
this research, the organization experienced a downsizing that decreased available participants
135
and could influence responses. The timeframe of this research was limited. Additional research
observing longer durations of time could affect the observations. This research focused on an
industry heavily impacted by a surge in market activity. Other industries impacted more or less
than this organization’s industry could have different observations. This research aimed to
observe changes from a sudden event in a single organization's culture. The overall impact on the
organization or individual departments within the organization is beyond the scope of this
research. Varying sizes of organizations may have different observations from this organization.
Additionally, organizations of other legal formations may have other results.
Conclusions
There is little doubt that COVID-19 impacted the world. All types of organizations, large
and small, felt an impact. Was COVID-19 a black swan? That question is still up for debate.
Previous discussions on the black swan event describe it as exogenous, highly impactful, and
improbable, with a component of acknowledgment retrospectively. Organizations were
challenged to hold to their organizational culture through the strains and stresses of supply chain
issues, government interventions, changes in daily work, changes in regular routines, and
changes in organizational strategy. Strategies changed, and focus changed. Returning to Lewin's
field theory (1936), the behavior of a person is a function of their traits and the environment
(B=ƒ(P, E)). An organization's behavior is similar. The organization's behavior is a function of
the culture representing personal traits and the environment. Using Lewin's field theory formula
is critical to understanding the importance of the organization's culture to eventual organizational
performance. To reduce risks, organizations attempt to control their environment and their
culture. From this research, organizational leaders can learn better ways to understand the
importance of knowing, monitoring, and adapting the organization's culture, which can help with
136
long-term recovery from exogenous risks. Leadership in organizations and future academics
researching strategy and organizational culture could use the insights from this research to
understand better the importance of communicating facts throughout an organization's levels and
allowing employees to be heard during times of change.
137
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Appendix A
Email/Letter of Invitation and Consent Form
Dear <PotentialParticipant>,
Participants are needed in a research study regarding lived experiences and observations
during COVID-19 on Organizational Culture.
My name is Maelyn Lessard, and I am a student at the Florida Institute of Technology
pursuing a Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) degree and a previous employee. I am
conducting a research study titled “The Effects of COVID-19 on Organizational Culture: An
Examination of New Hire Sales Training Within a Medical Diagnostic Company.”
This study seeks to explore the lived experiences and themes of employees during
COVID-19 through the trainers, managers, mentors, and new hires from December 2019 to today
focusing on the pandemic’s perceived impact on the organization’s culture. An organization’s
culture is described as an ever-evolving group dynamic shared by the employees. The way
outsiders see the organization is one component, the shared value system and basic way of
working that is just part of working in the organization is another. The findings of this research
may help expand the body of research on organizational culture. This research may also provide
a better understanding of the experiences, issues, complexities, and challenges faced by
employees during a high impact, sudden, outside force on an organization.
There are two parts to this study.
The first is a series of interviews with training personnel and sales management and
mentors that will describe the organizational culture prior to COVID-19 and the perceived
impact of COVID-19 on their work lives. To participate in the interviews, you must be a part of
human resources, the sales training department, a sales manager, or mentor of employees who
162
were hired on or after December 2019 and on-boarded prior to June 2022 within the company
where you are currently employed. Interviews should take 60 minutes and will be very
conversational in nature and will be held virtually. The interviews will be recorded to allow for
transcription. Your confidentiality will be maintained throughout the study and no one within the
organization will receive or see your interview. I will not share that you were interviewed for this
study in any way with anyone. You should feel free to share information with no threats to you,
or job, or your organizational relationships. If you are interested in participating in this study,
please email me at mxxxx@my.fit.edu with acceptable times and means of getting in touch with
you.
The second is a survey for employees who were hired on or after December 2019 and on-
boarded prior to June 2022. The survey should take approximately 20 minutes to complete.
Again, the survey is confidential.
I appreciate your participation in this research study.
Consent Form
Organizational Culture During the Era of a Black Swan: A Phenomenological
Examination of New Hire Sales Training Within a Medical Diagnostic Company
Purpose of the Study
This research is being conducted by Maelyn Lessard at the Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, Florida, under the direction of Dr. Robert Schaller. We are inviting you
to participate in this research project because you are part of the sales training department,
human resources, sales management, or a mentor of an employee hired on or after December
2019 and on-boarded prior to June 2022 or you are an employee hired on or after December
163
2019 and on-boarded prior to June 2022. The purpose of this research project is to investigate the
lived experience during COVID-19.
Procedures
The research process will take place over three months, and the procedures involve
interviews (one-one-one) and surveys. Maelyn Lessard will conduct face-to-face virtual
interviews at a time that is mutually convenient to the participant and to the investigator. Each
interview should last about one hour. The interview will be conversational in nature and will
explore your specific experiences and perspectives with regard to organizational culture and
COVID-19 perceived impact. All meetings will be videotaped. The interviewer will take
handwritten notes. The topic for each of the meetings will be those experiences of organizational
culture. Sample questions: How has work changed for you since COVID-19? How has the way
you describe the organization to others changed since COVID-19? How has professional
development changed since COVID-19? You will receive a transcript of the interview and be
asked to verify the contents as your lived experiences described during the interview.
Potential Risks and Discomforts
There are possible risks in this study. You may disclose personal information (i.e.,
‘stories’ or personal anecdotes) related to your experiences in or seeking mentoring relationships
during this study. You will be asked to face some sensitive issues of values and beliefs. You may
experience feelings of discomfort because of being videotaped. Allowing participants to review
their own video-taped discussions and conversations to make additions, corrections, and/or
deletions at any time should do much to reduce the risk of discomfort. Video-tapings may be
reviewed by participants after completion. You are encouraged to ask the researcher questions
164
during this study and may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Your personal
identification will not be published at any time to anyone.
Potential Benefits
Potential benefits to this research include a greater understanding of your own experiences
within and/or in understanding the organization’s culture or training of new hire salespeople and
their lived experiences during an era of a black swan. A black swan is an unpredictable event that is
beyond what is normally expected of a situation and has potentially severe consequences. Black swan events are
characterized by their extreme rarity, severe impact, and the widespread insistence they were obvious in hindsight.
We hope that in the future, other people might benefit from this study through an
improved understanding of what a black swan event such as COVID-19 may have on the
organizational culture and the new hire understanding of the organization.
Confidentiality
I will do my best to keep your personal information confidential. To help protect your
confidentiality, the identities of the participants will be protected through several means. (1)
Names of participants will not be included in collected data. You will be asked to offer a single
fictional name which will be used in all documents; (2) All collected material and information
will be kept in a safe; (3) Electronic files will be secured on a private computer and cloud storage
using password-protection; (4) Consent forms will be separated from material by participants.
Only the researcher/principal investigator will have access to the material collected.
____ I agree to be videotaped during my participation in this study.
____ I do not agree to be videotaped during my participation in this study.
In addition, collected data such as transcriptions and videotapes will be kept for ten years
then destroyed. Written data will be shredded, computer data will be deleted, and videotapes will
165
be erased. If we write a report or article about this research project, your identity will be
protected to the maximum extent possible. Your information may only be shared with
representatives of the Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, or governmental
authorities if you or someone else is in danger or if we are required to do so by law.
Medical Treatment
The Florida Institute of Technology does not provide any medical hospitalization or other
insurance for participants in this research study, nor will the Florida Institute of Technology
provide any medical treatment or compensation for any injury sustained as a result of
participation in this study, except as required by law.
Right to Withdraw and Questions
Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. You may choose not to take
part at all. If you decide to participate in this research, you may stop participating at any time. If
you decide not to participate in this study or if you stop participating at any time, you will not be
penalized or lose any benefits to which you otherwise qualify.
If you decide to stop taking part in the study, if you have questions, concerns, or
complaints, or if you need to report an injury related to the research, please contact the
investigator:
Maelyn Lessard
321-XXX-xxxx
mxxxxx@my.fit.edu
Participant Rights
If you have questions about your rights as a research participant or wish to report a
research-related injury, please contact:
166
Florida Institute of Technology
Institutional Review Board
Melbourne, Florida,
email: irb@fit.edu
This research will be reviewed according to the Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, Florida, IRB procedures for research involving human participants.
Statement of Consent
Your signature indicates that you are at least 18 years of age; you have read this consent
form or have had it read to you; your questions have been answered to your satisfaction and you
voluntarily agree to participate in this research study. You will receive a copy of this signed
consent form.
If you agree to participate, please sign your name below.
Signature and date Name of participant:
Signature: _______________________________________________________
Date: _________________
167
Appendix B
Survey Instrument
Quantitative Hypothesis:
The quantitative hypothesis for this study stated: There is not a statistically significant
relationship between new hires during COVID-19 and their affective commitment to the
organization/organizational culture.
Survey Tool
For each question below, please select one response to indicate your belief as it applies to your organization.
Question
Agree
Disagree
N/A
I am an employee hired after
September 2019 and before
June 2022.
Yes
No
N/A
Questions are on a 6 point 1 - strongly disagree; 2 - disagree; 3 - unsure; 4 - agree; 5 - strongly agree and 6 -
not applicable
Question
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
N/A
1
I was able to be engaged in
the training and onboarding
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
2
The organization is like
extended family during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
3
My training cohort is like
extended family during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
4
People in this organization are
encouraged to take risks
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
5
The organizations top concern
is getting the job done during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
7
The organization is very
structured with formal
procedures for my daily work
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
168
8
The leadership in the
organization is nurturing and
exemplifies mentoring during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
9
The leadership exemplifies
innovation, risk taking, and
entrepreneurship during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
10
The leadership in the
organization is results-
oriented and aggressive
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
11
The leadership of the
organization exemplifies
efficiency, organizing, and
coordination during COVID-
19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
12
The organization emphasizes
trust, openness, and
participation during COVID-
19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
13
The organization encourages
innovation, trying new things
and creating new challenges
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
14
The organization emphasizes
winning in the marketplace
and achieving targets during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
15
The organization emphasizes
stability, control, and smooth
operations during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
16
The organization defines
success based on people
development, teamwork,
employee commitment, and
concern for employees
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
20
I feel like I fit in with the
organization
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
22
I can openly talk with my
manager
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
23
I can openly talk with
leadership
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
24
I feel I have/had a relationship
with the training team through
my training during COVID-
19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
25
I have/had a supportive
mentor during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
26
People who work hard during
COVID-19 in this
organization are rewarded
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
169
27
Senior leaders listen
constructively to ideas and
criticism during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
28
The organizations goals
are/were realistic and
achievable during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
29
I am/was given information in
a timely way to do my job
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
30
My managers
removes/removed the barriers
to success during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
31
The organization
supports/supported my work -
life balance during COVID-
19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
32
The leadership in the
organization understand the
job I am doing during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
33
Senior leadership takes the
time to reach out to me to
understand my needs during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
34
Senior leadership takes/took
the time to reach out to me to
reward my success during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
35
Employees have/had a clear
understanding of the
organization’s goals during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
36
Constructive criticism is
encouraged here during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
37
If I could find an equal paying
job, I would leave this
organization
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
38
My manager attends/attended
virtual meetings with me as
an active participant during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
39
My mentor attends/attended
virtual meetings with me and
was an active participant
during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
40
I feel my career in this
organization is progressing as
it should during COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
41
I would recommend this
organization to friends
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
42
I feel like I fit into the
organization during COVID-
19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
170
45
All things considered; I have
had faith in the leadership of
my organization during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
47
I trust the leadership made
good decisions during
COVID-19
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
48
I am committed to the
organization
1
2
3
4
5
N/A
49
Please feel free to share any
insights you have about the
organizations culture,
onboarding, or training
171
Appendix C
Interview Questions
RQ1: How is organizational culture manifested in a medical diagnostic company?
1. How do outsiders view work in your organization?
2. What are the values and beliefs within your organization?
3. How are the values and beliefs of the organization part of everyday work in the
organization?
4. What is the culture of the organization?
5. What is the best part of working here?
6. How do you describe this organization to others?
7. In what ways does the organization support professional development?
8. Describe the process for providing feedback in the organization.
9. How do people collaborate here?
10. How does the organization recognize success?
11. Are there any specific personality types that you see in specific roles within the
organization?
12. How does your organization address failure?
13. Describe communication between leadership and employees in the organization.
RQ1a: What is the importance of organizational culture to a medical diagnostic
organization’s strategy?
1. In what ways does the culture of your organization set it apart from other
organizations in the same market?
2. Describe a situation that demonstrates the organization’s culture importance to
your market.
RQ2: How does organizational culture adjust to change in a medical diagnostic company?
1. How has your organizational culture adjusted to changes in the market prior to COVID-
19?
2. Describe how the organization communicates through market changes prior to COVID-
19.
RQ2a: How did the company’s organizational culture change during COVID-19?
172
1. How has work in this organization changed for you since COVID-19?
2. How has the way you describe the organization to others changed since COVID-
19?
3. How has professional development changed since COVID-19?
4. How has employee feedback to leadership changed since COVID-19?
5. How has collaboration changed since COVID-19?
6. How has recognition for success changed since COVID-19?
7. How has addressing failure changed since COVID-19?
8. How did COVID-19 affect the organization’s mission and values?
9. In what ways did the organization change during COVID-19?
10. How did the leadership communication changes during COVID-19?
11. Describe the culture during the first 3 months of COVID-19?
12. Describe the changes in the organizational enacted values during COVID-19.
Enacted Values are values that are observed through action rather than words.
RQ3: How has the company’s organizational culture adapted from the impact of COVID-
19 as observed through new hire sales training?
1. How did you change your skillset to teach the organizations culture to the new hires?
2. How did you teach the organizations values and mission prior to COVID-19? Did the
method change?
3. How did the organization adjust to changes needed for training new salespeople?
4. If you could use one word to describe the impact COVID-19 had on your job, what
would that be?
RQ3a: What was affect the company’s new hire sales training of organizational culture
during COVID-19?
1. In what ways did the participation of leadership change in the training process?
2. How have new hires established connections within their teams?
3. Have the new hires connected with employees outside their training group or
sales team? How did this happen?
4. How have the new hires become part of the organizational family?
RQ3a1: What was the new hire's understanding of the organization’s espoused
beliefs and values during COVID-19?
173
1. Prior to COVID-19, how did you convey the value system and belief system
of the organization?
2. How did this change during COVID-19?
RQ3a2: How have the new hire sales trainees established a learning cohort during
COVID-19?
1. How have the new hires established connections within their new hire group?
2. In what ways did the organization adapt to help new hires establish a cohort?
3. Describe how the behavior of the cohorts prior to COVID-19 are different
from the cohorts during COVID-19.
RQ4: How can the company continue to monitor and mitigate risks to organizational
culture in anticipation of future exogenous events?
1. In what ways could the organization have been better prepared to handle COVID-19’s
impact on the culture?
2. How would you describe ways to prepare for extreme changes in the organization?
174
Appendix D
Semi-Structured Interview Protocol
At any time, you can stop this interview and be asked to be removed from the study if
you are uncomfortable.
This research study is being done as a dissertation for my doctorate. The study is
examining the way your organization was impacted by COVID-19 from an organizational
culture view. I will be asking questions about the organization’s culture.
I will be asking at least 10 questions and I ask that you share with me your lived
experience and opinion and share as much as you are comfortable. After this interview, you will
receive a transcription and be asked to verify that this is a real transcription. You can make
changes if you need to. Once you send it back your name and all organizational identifiers such
as company or products will be removed and replaced with non-identifiers. No one will know
your answers to the questions except me. If you feel any reason to delete the transcription, please
let me know and I will follow your wishes. This is required by our IRB Committee. Please make
sure you sign and return the consent form attached to the invite.
There are about 10 questions, but these are just guides to keep our conversation on track.
There are two one-word answer questions.
The first section will be questions about understanding the organization’s culture. The
second section focuses the discussion on the new hires training and organizational culture.
This is the first section.
Tell me about the organizations culture prior to 2020.
1. In what ways do you feel the organization has demonstrated its value system during
COVID-19?
175
2. How did the organization culture adjust to market changes during COVID-19?
3. In what ways did the organization’s communications change during COVID-19? Has this
become a permanent change?
4. Can you give me a one-word description for the culture prior to 2020?
As a person responsible for new hires training, the training on a high level consists of
product training, sales process training, and organizational culture training. The following are
questions related to your experience with the new hires during COVID-19.
5. In what ways did you see COVID-19 affecting new hire sales training of the
organization’s culture?
6. During COVID-19 how did your new hires establish relationships within the
organization?
7. In what ways do you feel the organization has made people hired during COVID-19 feel
part of the culture?
8. How did you manage training new salespeople during COVID-19?
9. What would be a one-word description for the culture today?
10. Now that we have discussed the culture of your organization, how did discussing this
topic make you feel?
176
Appendix E
Results From Survey
Question
Response
1
Response
2
Response
3
Response
4
Response
5
Total
responses
Total
Neutral
Total
negative
Total
positive
% Nuetral
%Negative
% Positive
chitest
Pvalues
Total
without
Neutral
Negative Postive %Negative %Positive
Chitest
Pvalues
I am an employee hired after
September 2019 and before June
2022
16 016
I consent to taking this survey as
a confidential participant
understanding the organization I
work for is not identified nor will
it be. My answers are shared
freely to aid in the research.
15 015
Pvalue
using all
responses
Pvalue
removing
Neutrals
I was able to be engagaed in the
training and onboarding
0 1 0 10 415 0 1 14 0.000 6.667 93.333 0.000 15 114 6.667 93.333 0.000789
My training cohort is like
extended family
1 3 5 5 1 15 5 4 6 33.333 26.667 40.000 0.819 10 4 6 40.000 60.000 0.527089
I feel I have a relationship with
the training team during
COVID-19
0 4 3 8 0 15 3 4 8 20.000 26.667 53.333 0.247 12 4 8 33.333 66.667 0.248213
I had a supportive
mentorduring COVID-19
1 1 2 3 8 15 2 2 11 13.333 13.333 73.333 0.005 13 211 15.385 84.615 0.012555
I felt like I fit in with the
organization during COVID-19
0 0 2 7 6 15 2 0 13 13.333 0.000 86.667 0.000 13 013 0.000 100.000 0.000311
My manager attended virtual
meetings with me and is an
active participant during
COVID-19
1 0 0 2 12 15 0 1 14 0.000 6.667 93.333 0.000 15 114 6.667 93.333 0.000789
My mentor attends/attended
virtual meetings with me and
was an active participant
during COVID-19
2 1 2 1 9 15 2 3 10 13.333 20.000 66.667 0.022 13 310 23.077 76.923 0.052204
I am given information in a
timely way to do my job during
COVID-19
0 3 5 4 3 15 5 3 7 33.333 20.000 46.667 0.449 10 3 7 30.000 70.000 0.205903
The organization emphasized
trust, openness, and
participation during COVID-
19
3 0 4 3 4 14 4 3 7 28.571 21.429 50.000 0.407 10 3 7 30.000 70.000 0.205903
The organization encouraged
innovation, trying new things
and creating new challenges
during COVID-19
2 3 3 3 4 15 3 5 7 20.000 33.333 46.667 0.449 12 5 7 41.667 58.333 0.563703
The organization emphasized
winning in the marketplace and
achieving targets during
COVID-19
0 1 1 5 8 15 1 1 13 6.667 6.667 86.667 0.000 14 113 7.143 92.857 0.001341
The organization emphasized
stability, control, and smooth
operations during COVID-19
3 3 4 5 0 15 4 6 5 26.667 40.000 33.333 0.819 11 6 5 54.545 45.455 0.763025
The organization defined
success based on people
development, teamwork,
employee commitment, and
concern for employees during
COVID-19
1 2 6 5 1 15 6 3 6 40.000 20.000 40.000 0.549 9 3 6 33.333 66.667 0.317311
The organization defined
success by having unique
products and innovation during
COVID-19
0 0 2 5 8 15 2 0 13 13.333 0.000 86.667 0.000 13 013 0.000 100.000 0.000311
The organizations goals were
realistic and achievableduring
COVID-19
0 2 1 11 115 1 2 12 6.667 13.333 80.000 0.001 14 212 14.286 85.714 0.007526
I openly talk(ed) with my
manager during COVID-19
0 0 0 4 11 15 0 0 15 0.000 0.000 100.000 0.000 15 015 0.000 100.000 0.000108
Managers removed the barriers
to success during COVID-19
0 2 3 3 7 15 3 2 10 20.000 13.333 66.667 0.022 12 210 16.667 83.333 0.020921
The leadership made good
decisions during COVID-19
1 2 4 8 0 15 4 3 8 26.667 20.000 53.333 0.247 11 3 8 27.273 72.727 0.131668
The leadership in the
organization was nurturing and
exemplifies mentoring during
COVID-19
2 5 2 5 1 15 2 7 6 13.333 46.667 40.000 0.247 13 7 6 53.846 46.154 0.781511
The leadership exemplified
innovation, risk taking, and
entrepreneurship during COVID-
19
1 2 4 7 1 15 4 3 8 26.667 20.000 53.333 0.247 11 3 8 27.273 72.727 0.131668
The leadership in the
organization was results-oriented
and aggressive during COVID-19
0 1 4 5 5 15 4 1 10 26.667 6.667 66.667 0.015 11 110 9.091 90.909 0.006656
The leadership in the
organization understood the job I
was doing during COVID-19
3 4 2 5 1 15 2 7 6 13.333 46.667 40.000 0.247 13 7 6 53.846 46.154 0.781511
The leadership of the
organization exemplified
efficiency, organizing, and
coordination during COVID-19
4 3 4 3 1 15 4 7 4 26.667 46.667 26.667 0.549 11 7 4 63.636 36.364 0.365712
I openly talk with leadership
during COVID-19
4 3 2 4 2 15 2 7 6 13.333 46.667 40.000 0.247 13 7 6 53.846 46.154 0.781511
Combined pos and neg and removed neutrals
Red is > 60% Negative Green is > 60% Positive
177
I openly talk with leadership
during COVID-19
4 3 2 4 2 15 2 7 6 13.333 46.667 40.000 0.247 13 7 6 53.846 46.154 0.781511
Senior leadership took the time
to reach out to me to reward my
success during COVID-19
4 5 3 0 2 14 3 9 2 21.429 64.286 14.286 0.046 11 9 2 81.818 18.182 0.034808
Senior leaders listed
constructively to ideas and
criticism during COVID-19
3 4 5 1 2 15 5 7 3 33.333 46.667 20.000 0.449 10 7 3 70.000 30.000 0.205903
The organizations customers liked
the organization during COVID-19
2 5 4 3 0 14 4 7 3 28.571 50.000 21.429 0.395 10 7 3 70.000 30.000 0.205903
The organizations customers liked
me during COVID-19
0 1 4 4 5 14 4 1 9 28.571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
Employees had a clear
understanding of the
organization’s goals during COVID-
19
2 3 4 2 3 14 4 5 5 28.571 35.714 35.714 0.931 10 5 5 50.000 50.000 1
The organization supported my
work -life balance during COVID-
19
3 1 4 4 2 14 4 4 6 28.571 28.571 42.857 0.752 10 4 6 40.000 60.000 0.527089
I was rewarded by leadership for
my work during COVID-19
3 0 2 5 4 14 2 3 9 14.286 21.429 64.286 0.046 12 3 9 25.000 75.000 0.066651
I feel my career in this
organization is progressing as it
should since COVID-19
1 1 3 6 3 14 3 2 9 21.429 14.286 64.286 0.046 11 2 9 18.182 81.818 0.034808
I feel like I fit into the
organization
0 0 2 8 4 14 2 0 12 14.286 0.000 85.714 0.000 12 012 0.000 100.000 0.000532
The organization defines success
by out selling the competition
0 1 2 6 5 14 2 1 11 14.286 7.143 78.571 0.002 12 111 8.333 91.667 0.003892
The organization defines success
by delivering products with
efficiency
1 3 2 4 4 14 2 4 8 14.286 28.571 57.143 0.136 12 4 8 33.333 66.667 0.248213
The organization is very
structured with formal
procedures for my daily work
1 3 5 3 2 14 5 4 5 35.714 28.571 35.714 0.931 9 4 5 44.444 55.556 0.729639
People who work hard in this
organization are rewarded
2 1 0 6 5 14 0 3 11 0.000 21.429 78.571 0.001 14 311 21.429 78.571 0.032509
People in the organization are
competitive with each other
0 2 2 6 4 14 2 2 10 14.286 14.286 71.429 0.010 12 210 16.667 83.333 0.020921
People in this organization are
encouraged to take risks
2 2 2 8 0 14 2 4 8 14.286 28.571 57.143 0.136 12 4 8 33.333 66.667 0.248213
The organizations top concern is
getting the job done
0 1 6 5 2 14 6 1 7 42.857 7.143 50.000 0.109 8 1 7 12.500 87.500 0.033895
All things considered; I have faith
in the leadership of my
organization
2 1 3 8 0 14 3 3 8 21.429 21.429 57.143 0.168 11 3 8 27.273 72.727 0.131668
Senior leadership takes the time
to reach out to me to reward my
success
3 4 2 3 2 14 2 7 5 14.286 50.000 35.714 0.258 12 7 5 58.333 41.667 0.563703
I trust the leadership to make
good decisions in the future
1 1 6 6 0 14 6 2 6 42.857 14.286 42.857 0.319 8 2 6 25.000 75.000 0.157299
How interested are you in your
current role
0 0 3 7 4 14 3 0 11 21.429 0.000 78.571 0.001 11 011 0.000 100.000 0.000911
How challenging would you say
your current role is
0 0 4 10 014 4 0 10 28.571 0.000 71.429 0.004 10 010 0.000 100.000 0.001565
If I could find an equal paying job,
I would leave this organization
4 4 4 2 0 14 4 8 2 28.571 57.143 14.286 0.136 10 8 2 80.000 20.000 0.05778
I am committed to this
organization
0 0 3 7 4 14 3 0 11 21.429 0.000 78.571 0.001 11 011 0.000 100.000 0.000911
How happy or unhappy are you
with this company as a place to
work
0 1 4 7 2 14 4 1 9 28.571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
How likely are you to be working
at this company two years from
today
0 2 1 7 4 14 1 2 11 7.143 14.286 78.571 0.002 13 211 15.385 84.615 0.012555
The organization is like an
extended family
1 1 5 5 2 14 5 2 7 35.714 14.286 50.000 0.258 9 2 7 22.222 77.778 0.095581
I would recommend this
organization to friends
1 0 4 7 2 14 4 1 9 28.571 7.143 64.286 0.030 10 1 9 10.000 90.000 0.011412
178
178
Appendix F
Interview Participant Demographic Information
Job Title
Years
Tenure
Gender
Age
Director Clinical Solutions
10
Male
50-60
Senior Director US Sales Development
7
Male
40-50
Manager Sales Development
5
Female
30-40
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
6
Male
30-40
VP Global Sales Development
4
Male
50-60
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
8
Female
40-50
Senior Director EMAE Sales Development
6
Female
40-50
Senior Territory Sales Mentor
4
Male
30-40
Regional Sales Director
5
Male
40-50
Regional Sales Director
6
Male
40-50
Director Field Sales Development
5
Female
40-50
179
Appendix G
Visual comparison of two interview questions for coding
180
Appendix H
Categorical Organization/Code Book
Category 1: How an Organizational Culture is Manifested
Name
Files
References
building a culture
3
6
building a relationship with the organization
2
4
connecting with people
2
2
culture before covid
9
27
feeding the culture
1
1
highly skilled employees
2
5
negative culture
2
2
no transparency
1
1
personal innovative culture
1
1
personally accountable professionals
1
1
percoid culture
1
1
pride in the company
2
3
recognizing people for success
1
1
team oriented
1
1
unable to speak freely
2
6
Category 2: Importance of Organizational Culture to Strategy
Name
Files
References
adapting the strategy
2
3
authenticity
1
1
did the best they could to take care of customers
1
1
essential business covid testing supplier
1
13
focused on self and not the org
1
1
greedy
1
1
hiring social people
1
1
innovative strategy
2
2
insecure
1
1
integrity transparency and open communication
3
3
layoffs
2
2
leadership transparency
1
1
loss of focus
4
5
loss of well being
1
1
lost strategy
3
7
181
managing strategy through culture
1
1
market forced to adapt
3
3
reactive to market No control
1
2
return to strategy after smoke cleared
1
1
revenue driven
1
1
revenue focused
2
4
short sighted strategy
5
11
skilled employees question their niche in the new org
culture
1
1
straining the individual contributors
2
2
strategy to hire less skilled
1
1
trying to supply for everyone
1
2
uncertainty
3
6
unpredictable
1
1
using the situation to get customer commitment
1
1
Category #3: How Organizational Culture Adjusts
Name
Files
References
adjusting to environment
2
2
change the way employees interact
1
1
chaos
2
2
connecting difficult through virtual
1
1
culture change in value of work
1
2
culture during cov
1
1
customer centric
2
2
daily work
4
11
diluted culture due to rapid growth
1
1
empty promises
1
1
engagement survey results
1
1
growth
2
2
lack of transparency
3
6
lost family culture - trust
1
1
managing engagement
1
1
strained infrastructure
5
16
uncertainty
1
1
Category #4: How did Organizational Culture Shift During COVID-19
Name
Files
References
182
ambiguity
1
1
authenticity
1
1
bringing it back to a culture of innovation
1
1
broken culture
4
4
brought in new technology
2
3
can't connect the many changes
1
1
change in way people worked
3
4
change to improved technology
3
5
connecting people more relaxed
2
2
diluted skills
5
13
disrupted culture
1
1
emotions during cov
1
1
employee well being
3
8
exhausted employees
2
2
expanding too quickly
1
4
fast adjustment
3
3
fluff communication
1
1
hiring overqualified
1
1
hopeful the org culture will shift to more transparent
1
1
how made culture
2
2
integrity
1
1
integrate cultural components from new hires
1
1
lack of trust
2
4
leaders disengaged
4
4
leaders not engaged
1
1
leadership fell to middle managers
2
3
leadership focused on themselves
1
1
less care for employee well being
1
2
less transparency from leaders
2
2
loss due to reorg
1
1
lost faith
2
2
maintaining business structure
1
1
moving forward
2
2
negative or lack of communication becomes status quo
2
3
no interactive training for new people
2
3
no longer a family culture
1
1
no real answers for employees
1
1
patient centric
1
1
183
permanent loss of communication from leaders
2
3
positive personal accountability
2
3
positive time to work with others
1
1
post cov new hires less engaged with culture
1
1
protecting the impact on shareholders
1
1
rapid change caused transparency issues
1
1
rapid loss of org value system
2
3
rapid market growth
2
5
rebuild the culture
1
1
shift in espoused values
2
2
still like in person
1
1
strained customer relationships
1
1
survival mode
1
2
transparency with customers
3
3
trying to change post covid culture
1
1
trying to create change after
2
2
trying to rebuild
2
2
uncertainty poor communication
1
3
unconfident
1
1
virtual world
4
5
Category #5: How did the Organizational Culture Adapt During COVID-19
Name
Files
References
burden on mentors
1
1
burnout
2
2
changed the way they worked
1
1
communication loops
2
2
communication was bad before but just became obvious
during cov
1
1
daily work changed
2
2
harder
2
2
leadership tried to be transparent at first
1
2
learned to expect the adaptions
1
1
loss of employees adding burden
1
1
loss of old culture
1
1
lost faith tired
2
2
new hire bring innovation
1
1
not sustainable
2
2
184
post cov culture
1
1
post covid communication with departments improving
1
1
rapid change cause cultural change
1
1
rapid hiring to meet market demand
1
1
rapid hiring to meet market need
1
1
rapid market growth unmet demand for product
1
1
rebuild
1
1
rebuilding the org culture
1
1
shift in strategy
2
4
shifting the culture after covid
1
1
small, localized culture vs broad org culture
3
9
strained and stressed org culture
2
2
transparent with customers
2
2
trust
6
13
unable to find niche
1
1
unsustainable
1
2
virtual work
3
5
Category #6: Impact of New Hire Sales Training of the Organizational Culture
Name
Files
References
adapting to virtual
3
5
adjusting training
4
10
celebrating success
1
1
difficult time to join a org when the culture is in flux
1
1
lack of connection for new hires
1
1
lack of leadership engagement in new hires
1
1
learning how to communicate
2
3
less skilled new hires strain the training
1
3
manager could not give new hires attention
1
1
mentors
3
7
no connection with mothership
3
6
no time to do culture for new hire
1
1
people saw this as a great place to work and make money
1
1
Positive exposure to culture
1
2
post cov lack of org exposure
1
1
rapid market growth
3
3
retraining needed
3
7
185
slower effectiveness
2
2
supporting the new hire
2
2
they don't know the culture
1
1
understanding who is who and feeling connected
1
1
using connection outside org to help adjust
2
3
virtual meetings
5
21
virtual sales training
5
20
virtual sales training (2)
3
7
Category #7: New Hires Understanding of Espoused Values
Name
Files
References
attempted new hire recognition
2
3
cannot get deeper exposure
2
4
challenging through virtual tools
1
1
changing to a mixed format for training
1
1
choosing to leave or reorg
1
1
connecting with the org
4
8
culture exposure in person
1
1
culture the reason employee came to org
2
2
customer demands
1
1
developing rapport
1
1
diluted culture
5
6
employee well being
3
6
growth and innovation
2
3
helping each other
2
2
Inclusivity
1
1
lack of leadership engagement
2
3
lack of transparency
1
2
less care for employee well being
1
2
listen to the customer
1
1
managers developed the culture or trained it
1
1
moving forward
1
1
networking
1
1
never met boss and customers angry
2
2
new hires exposure to culture
3
4
no communications from leadership
3
3
owning responsibility
1
1
186
personally accountable for the cultural perception
1
1
post cov lack of cultural understanding
2
2
Sales skill
1
4
strong concern during downsizing
1
1
survival mode
1
1
trusting of employee commitment
1
1
unable to connect in person
1
1
unable to define culture
1
1
unable to have the watercooler conversations
1
2
virtual
3
3
Category #8: How Have the New Hires Established a Cohort
Name
Files
References
Cohort
3
6
connecting mentor with new hire
2
2
culture established at a local level
1
1
do not know who to go to for help
1
1
lack of engagement
2
2
negative cohort
1
4
not a member of org culture
2
4
rapid market growth
1
1
187
Appendix I
Anova Results with Cronbach’s Alpha
188
Appendix J
Combined Interview Coded Data with Survey Analyzed Data
189
190
Appendix K
Qualitative Data from the Surveys Open Script Question
Additional data from the survey free text area
Headed in the right direction!
Fragmented
I feel that my company is working to catch up from the pandemic demand. Though it's not
where it should be, I think that the company understands that and is wanting to make it
better. My teammates and my director has make this easier to navigate and the onboarding
process would've been much worse if I didn't have them. I'm excited for the future here and I
want to grow within my career and in the company to make a bigger impact and contribute to
improving culture.
I feel that leadership wants to do the right things but so many are from outside the "lab"
industry it makes it difficult in carrying out some decisions that are made. My biggest
struggle is with all the admin work the sales team is expected to do. In previous roles at other
companies the corporate teams such as contracting, pricing, national accounts, sales
operations, etc...would handle the bulk of admin related to a customer however here the TSE
is expected to do the majority of paperwork, reporting, data entry, etc... This takes away
from our time to be with customers and help grow revenue. I question many times why we
have all the people within the different "operations" areas since we end up doing so much of
the work. This is the main reason for my frustration with my position.
Onboarding was a train wreck, nothing was prepared prior to starting, I had to call around
and ask multiple folks within the organization on where to find things, company vehicle, cell
phone, business cards (which are still not right) demo equipment.
Training didn’t attend to vital aspects of our business and daily responsibilities, we needed
more salesforce training,
We need someone who is directly connected with internal operations who we can call or
communicate with to get simple answers.
Email etiquette internally is very difficult as they continue to forward multiple emails
without a simple phone call to discuss what is needed.
There isn’t any transparency from the internal team.
