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Effect of Body Image on Self Esteem: A Systematic Literature Review and Future Implication

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Abstract

Objective This review article explores the connection between self-esteem and body image. It has been demonstrated that body image, particularly in respect to physical appearance, has a significant impact on how people perceive themselves and their level of confidence. Positive body image can result in increased confidence and general wellbeing can improve people's mental health and general quality of life., whereas a negative body image can result in self-talk and low self-esteem, Material and Method: A literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies and literature on the topic of body image and self-esteem. Electronic databases including PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar were searched using relevant keywords such as "body image", "self-esteem", "interventions", and "mental health". The search was limited to articles published in English between the years 2010 to 2021. This was performed using preferred reporting items for systematic review and the meta-analysis technique (PRISMA) exclusion and inclusion criteria. Thirty empirical research articles were included in the present study. Result: The article highlights therapies that have been effective in enhancing body image and self-esteem and examine the variables, such as societal influences and personal experiences, that lead to the emergence of body image disorders. Conclusion: Finding advances the understanding of mental health challenges and addresses body image issues, identify gap in research and propose future research direction. Research must focus on tools innovation and assessment of body image.
Effect of Body Image on Self Esteem: A Systematic Literature Review and Future Implication
Section A-Research Paper
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Effect of Body Image on Self Esteem: A Systematic Literature
Review and Future Implication
Raghav Aggarwal,1 Dr. Rohit Ranjan2 Rupali Chandola3*
Department of Psychology, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Phagwara, Punjab,
India
ABSTRACT
Objective
This review article explores the connection between self-esteem and body image. It has been
demonstrated that body image, particularly in respect to physical appearance, has a significant impact
on how people perceive themselves and their level of confidence. Positive body image can result in
increased confidence and general wellbeing can improve people's mental health and general quality of
life., whereas a negative body image can result in self-talk and low self- esteem,
Material and Method:
A literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies and literature on the topic of body image
and self-esteem. Electronic databases including PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar were searched
using relevant keywords such as "body image", "self-esteem", "interventions", and "mental health". The
search was limited to articles published in English between the years 2010 to 2021. This was
performed using preferred reporting items for systematic review and the meta-analysis technique
(PRISMA) exclusion and inclusion criteria. Thirty empirical research articles were included in the
present study.
Result:
The article highlights therapies that have been effective in enhancing body image and self-esteem and
examine the variables, such as societal influences and personal experiences, that lead to the emergence
of body image disorders.
Conclusion:
Finding advances the understanding of mental health challenges and addresses body image issues,
identify gap in research and propose future research direction. Research must focus on tools innovation
and assessment of body image.
KEYWORDS: Body Image, Self-esteem, physical appearance, societal influences, mental health,
quality of life.
INTRODUCTION
An individual's perspective, thoughts, and feelings about their physical appearance are all part of the
complex construct known as body image. Excessive concern about body image, body image
misconception are leading to dissatisfaction, disturbed eating patterns, affecting the nutritional status
and also leading to depression and anxiety disorders. This concept of body image has been less
explored in Indian context, especially among young girls. Numerous elements, such as societal
pressures, individual experiences, and cultural conventions, have an impact on it. Self-esteem, which is
Effect of Body Image on Self Esteem: A Systematic Literature Review and Future Implication
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characterised as a person's total sense of self-worth and confidence, is directly related to body image.
Negative self-talk and low self-esteem that result from having a bad body image can have a detrimental
effect on one's mental health as well as general wellbeing. A good body image, on the other hand, can
result in increased self-esteem and confidence, which can improve one's general quality of life. This
review article examines the connection between body image and self-esteem, as well as the causes of
concerns with body image and the interventions that have been effective in enhancing both. In order to
promote a healthy body image and better mental health outcomes, people and healthcare professionals
can seek to grasp the intricate interactions between self-esteem and body image.
A person's perception, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes towards their own body, including its size,
shape, and appearance, are referred to as body image. It is influenced by several things, including
personal experiences, cultural values, individual traits, and societal standards of beauty. A person's
self-esteem, mood, behaviour, and general well-being can all be impacted by their body image, which
can be positive, negative, or neutral.
Body image is a multidimensional construct that encompasses perceptual, affective, cognitive, and
behavioural components, and reflects an individual's attitudes, beliefs, and experiences related to his
or her own body, as well as his or her idealized or desired body. (Cash F Thomas.;2017) This quote
by Thomas F. Cash explains that body image is a complex concept that involves how a person
perceives, feels, thinks, and acts in relation to their own body, as well as their idealized or desired
body. It encompasses various dimensions, such as perception, emotions, thoughts, and behaviours, and
is influenced by personal attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and societal norms and standards. Overall,
body image is an important factor in a person's mental health and well-being.
Self-esteem is the subjective assessment of one's own competence, worth, and value as a person. It is
based on a variety of elements, such as one's skills, accomplishments, character traits, and social
comparisons. Self-esteem can influence a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and can be
either positive or negative. While those with low self-esteem may experience more self-doubt,
anxiety, and depression, those with high self-esteem typically exhibit greater levels of confidence,
resiliency, and optimism.
"Self-esteem is the disposition to experience oneself as being competent to cope with the basic
challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness." (Branden) This quote by Nathaniel Branden
defines self-esteem as a person's overall evaluation of themselves and their ability to cope with the
challenges that life presents. It involves a sense of confidence in one's skills and worthiness to
experience happiness. Self-esteem is not just about having positive thoughts about oneself, but it is
also reflected in one's emotions, behaviour, and attitude towards oneself and others. When a person has
high self-esteem, they are more likely to feel capable and successful in various aspects of life, while
low self-esteem can lead to feelings of insecurity and self-doubt.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Moving from adolescence to adulthood is a significant developmental transition. This transition was
well-structured for most until the mid-20th century but has recently shifted to being unstructured
(Schwartz et al., 2015) The strong connection between the two constructs has been highlighted by
numerous studies that have looked into the relationship between body image and self-esteem. In
contrast to those with positive body images, those with negative body images, according to a study by
Cash and Pruzinsky (2018 ), had lower self-esteem and higher levels of anxiety and depression.
Tiggemann and Slater (2014) discovered a similar relationship between a negative body image and
lower self-esteem and a positive body image and higher self-esteem and general well-being.
Body image issues have been linked significantly to societal pressures, including unrealistic beauty
standards portrayed in the media (Fardouly et al., 2015). The internalisation of these standards and the
subsequent perception that one's own appearance falls short can lead to negative self-talk and a
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decrease in self-esteem. Negative body image and low self-esteem have also been linked to individual
experiences, including trauma, chronic illness, and bullying (Tylka & Sabik, 2010).
Interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem have been developed and tested with
varying degrees of success. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been found to be effective in
improving body image and reducing negative self-talk (Frisén et al., 2016). Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy (ACT) has also shown promise in reducing body image concerns and improving
self-esteem (Tylka et al., 2015). In addition, interventions that focus on promoting positive body
image, such as media literacy programs and body positivity campaigns, have been found to be
effective in improving body image and self-esteem (Fardouly et al., 2015; Swami et al., 2018).
Overall, the research indicates a connection between negative body image and low self-esteem, as well
as a link between these two factors and poor mental and physical health. To find effective methods for
fostering a positive body image and enhancing mental health outcomes, more research is required.
However, interventions aimed at enhancing body image and self- esteem have shown promise.
METHOD
The preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines and
checklist were followed for this present study PRISMA techniques help the authors ensure transparency
and complete reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Authors had developed the PRISMA
statement and its explanations paper to researchers in reporting abroad range of systematic reviews, to
assess the benefits and risks of a variety of health conditions. This present article is a systematic
review of body image and self-esteem, which intends to collate the crux of the existing empirical
literature pertaining to it: mainly with respect to investigated the relationship between body image and
self-esteem and interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem. As this is a review
article, a systematic literature search was conducted to identify relevant studies and literature on the
topic of body image and self- esteem. Electronic databases including PubMed, PsycINFO, and Google
Scholar were searched using relevant keywords such as "body image", "self-esteem", "interventions",
and "mental health". The search was limited to articles published in English between the years 2010 to
2022. During the search process, Boolean operators (i.e., and, or, not) were used to obtain relevant
papers related to body image and self-esteem. Searches for each keyword and phrase; body image,
mental health consequences of low self-esteem etc. were conducted separately, and the conjunction
‘in’ was also used in the search keywords to retrieve articles representing various related dimensions
of self-esteem and body image.
The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were used in this study to select articles of importance
for the review purpose. After the initial search, articles were screened based on their relevance to the
topic and inclusion criteria, which included studies that investigated the relationship between body
image and self-esteem and interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem. Studies that
were not relevant or did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Data from the included studies
were extracted and synthesized to provide a comprehensive review of the literature on body image
and self-esteem. The findings were organized and presented according to the themes that emerged
from the literature, including the relationship between body image and self-esteem, the factors that
contribute to the development of body image, and interventions aimed at improving body image and
self- esteem. Guided by the objective of the review and the inclusion-exclusion criteria, a literature
search from several databases was conducted that yielded 500 articles. Following the removal of
duplicates, 200 articles were kept for preliminary evaluation. By examining the titles and abstracts of
the 200 publications, 165 articles were removed on the basis of the exclusion criteria. This was due to
most of the 165 articles having one or two variables related to body image, self-esteem articles were
found to be beyond the scope of the objective and inclusion criteria of this paper and were excluded
from the study. Articles not available in full text, reviews, case studies, and qualitative investigations
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were excluded from the analysis. Thirty- five articles that had the word “body image and self-esteem
either in the abstract or in their title were incorporated into the current review. The empirical studies
included in this study have a variation in sample size (ranges from 10 to 1800) and were mostly
conducted as descriptives, cross-sectional, survey methods, and online or web surveys. Overall, the
method used for this review article involved a systematic search and synthesis of the literature, and a
critical analysis of the findings to provide insights into the relationship between body image and self-
esteem, as well as strategies for promoting positive body image and improving mental health outcomes.
Result:
A systematic review was carried out for summarize key concepts and findings from the selected papers
on body image and self-esteem. with the intention of identifying and mapping the available empirical
evidence on relation between body image and self-esteem. The available literature was segregated
into different sections, accordingly, to present body image and self- esteem from multiple
perspectives; such as: the Development of Body Image, Self-esteem, Relationship between body
image and self-esteem, Interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem, Comorbidities
and mental health issue and consequence.
Body image: Obese people report discrimination and social exclusion. trouble in finding clothes, and
public ridicule (Dhillon & Dhawan, 2011) .body image is measured by different psychometric Studies
reported that obesity is also linked with low self-esteem, appearance evaluation, and dissatisfaction.
Thus, obesity creates an enormous psychological burden on an individual. It is well established in the
literature that preoccupation and self-classified weight. obesity impacts psychological well-being,
overall evaluation and satisfaction with one's looks. Several studies have shown a relationship between
negative body image, depression, and lowered self-esteem among obese male and female students. Both
the gender report body image issues, but their body images are qualitatively different. Females of all
age groups only follow thin ideal whereas males are divided into two categories one of having will of
losing weight and other of having a will of gaining weight (Wong & Say, 2013) Male body
objectification is popular in current mass media. This objectification leads to increased body
dissatisfaction in males too (Bergeron, 2007). Prior studies reported the fact that body image issues
are more common in female than in male student.
Dehghani et al (2012). reported that depression, anxiety, and tension are significantly negatively
correlated with the decrease in body image obese adolescent female students. Students with a normal
or slim body feel physical attraction and were more contentment with their appearance and body .
Karaca et al. (2017) reported that the body image of femal students becomes more negative with the
increase in their weight another study by Parent et al. (2018) found that adolescent girls reported
higher levels of body dissatisfaction also had higher levels of symptoms of depression and anxiety
Body dissatisfaction affects both male and female college students. In a recent study, male college
students report some level of body dissatisfaction, but are more satisfied with their bodies than female
college students (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006) Females typically desire a thinner body, while men desire
a more muscular and leaner structure (Gillen, & Lefkowitz, 2006). Emerging adults in college usually
aspire to adhere to the social representations of ideal physical appearance (Grossbard et al., 2008).
Typically, individuals compare their bodies to the ideal body, as well as the bodies of those around
them (Chang & Suttikun, 2017).
Relationship between body image and self-esteem:
Sociocultural perspectives on body image propose that gender differences in body dissatisfaction
likely represent different cultural standards for ideal body types: for females, a thin figure represents
attractiveness and for males, a more muscular, mesomorphic build symbolizes power and success. At
some point many students struggle with their own body image. In fact, up to 90% of college students
say they are concerned about their own body image and these body image concerns are considered
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normal for college women (Chang & Suttikun, 2017) Evidence suggests that Western society
associates idealized physical qualities with greater occupational competence in adults, as well as
academic and social competence in children (Jackson 2002). Furthermore, adolescents who perceive
pressure to lose or gain weight from the media, parents, and peers are more likely to engage in
dangerous body-change strategies, and are at greater risk for developing eating disorders than those who
do not perceive such pressure (McCabe and Ricciardelli 2003; Smolak et al. 2005).
Cognitive and personality variables such as perfectionism, fear of negative evaluation, and low self-
esteem are also associated with body dissatisfaction in both females and males (Davis et al. 2005;
Stice 2002) self-esteem and body image concerns demonstrate that greater contingent self-esteem is a
risk factor for engaging in appearance-related social comparisons, a process whereby individuals
gather information that they use for self-evaluation (Bergstrom et al. 2015)
Interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem. if weight stigma is identified as
influencing the relationship between body image and self-esteem, then professionals can work to
counter the effects of weight stigma. This would ultimately help the overall well-being of many
emerging adults.
Comorbidities and mental health issue : Self-esteem levels and body image satisfaction have been
studied extensively in college students. Being dissatisfied with your body is associated with multiple
negative outcomes such as low self-esteem, depression, unhealthy eating behaviors, and eating
disorders (Grossbard, Lee, Neighbors, & Larimer, 2008) When combined, body dissatisfaction, low
self-esteem, and experiencing weight stigma can have lasting negative physical and mental health
consequences into adulthood. c (Major, Hunger, Bunyan, & Miller, 2014). From 2014, 70.7% of
adults aged 20 or older were overweight or obese, and obesity in emerging adults has doubled in the
past 30 years (Obesity and Overweight, 2017). Although obesity is becoming common with increased
prevalence rates, those who are overweight experience myriad negative outcomes (Langdon et al.,
2016) These range from physical (i.e.: Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, stroke) to emotional (i.e., higher
depression, anxiety, low self-esteem), and social (i.e.: peer rejection, weight-based discrimination;
(Djalalinia, Qorbani, Peykari, & Kelishadi, 2015) When an individual experiences weight stigma, they
are likely to have increased depression, body dissatisfaction, and lower self-esteem (Chang & Suttikun,
2017; Vartanian & Novak, 2010). People, regardless of gender, experience weight stigma, and
therefore, are vulnerable to these consequences
DISCUSSION
The literature review that was just presented demonstrates how closely self-esteem and body image are
related. Positive body image has been linked to increased confidence and wellbeing, whereas negative
body image has been linked to lower self-esteem and general mental health issues. The literature also
emphasises the various aspects of negative body image development, such as societal pressures and
individual experiences like bullying and chronic illness.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), and media literacy
initiatives are a few of the interventions that have been created and tested with the goal of enhancing self-
esteem and body image. These interventions have had varying degrees of success; some studies have
found that after intervention, body image and self-esteem significantly improved.
There are some limitations to take into account, despite the fact that the literature offers insightful
information about the connection between body image and self-esteem. First off, the majority of the
studies that made up this review were cross-sectional or long-term observational studies, which do not
have the ability to prove causality. Consequently, it is challenging to ascertain how body image and
self-esteem are related. Second, there is a lack of diversity in the study samples, which restricts the
applicability of the findings to populations with a wider range of backgrounds.
Despite these drawbacks, the literature offers a useful framework for comprehending the intricate
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connection between body image and self-esteem. It is evident that having a poor body image can have a
negative impact on a person's mental health and wellbeing, underscoring the importance of developing
efficient interventions to enhance body image and foster positive self-esteem. According to the research,
a multifaceted strategy that incorporates both individual and societal-level interventions may be most
successful in addressing the intricate causes of poor self-esteem and a negative body image. In order
to promote a positive body image and enhance mental health outcomes, more research is required in
order to create and test effective interventions, particularly in more diverse populations.
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, the literature reviewed in this article highlights the close relationship between body
image and self-esteem, with negative body image consistently associated with decreased self-esteem
and mental health concerns. The literature also highlights the various factors that contribute to negative
body image, including societal pressures and personal experiences.
Several interventions aimed at improving body image and self-esteem have been developed and tested,
with varying degrees of success. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment
Therapy (ACT), and media literacy programs have shown promise in promoting positive body image
and improving self-esteem.Overall, the findings suggest that a multi-faceted approach, including both
individual and societal-level interventions, may be most effective in addressing the complex factors that
contribute to negative body image and low self-esteem. However, there are limitations to the studies
included in this review, including the lack of diversity in the samples and the inability to establish
causality in observational studies.
Future research is needed to develop and test effective interventions, particularly in more diverse
populations, to promote positive body image and improve mental health outcomes. Additionally,
continued efforts to challenge unrealistic beauty standards and promote body positivity may also be
effective in reducing the prevalence of negative body image and improving self-esteem.
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... L'image corporelle renvoie à l'expérience psychologique multi-composante de l'incarnation, qui englobe les attitudes liées au corps et les perceptions de soi, y compris les pensées, les croyances, les sentiments et les comportements, sans être exclusivement liée à l'apparence physique (Cash, 2004 ;Cash, 2012 ;Grogna, 2006). Fortement associé à l'estime de soi (Aggarwal et al., 2023 ;Orbach & Mikulincer, 1998), l'investissement dans le rapport au corps constitue une dimension d'importance essentielle dans le bien-être psychologique et la santé perçue des individus (Carraça et al., 2011 ;Wilson et al., 2013). Cependant, peu d'études ont examiné les liens entre l'incarcération et l'investissement corporel chez les délinquants, et la grande majorité d'entre elles se sont concentrées sur l'étude de ces considérations auprès de populations exclusivement féminines. ...
... A l'inverse, plus l'individu perçoit son sommeil comme étant altéré, plus il met en oeuvre des comportements de soin et de protection du corpsafin de répondre à la fragilité induite par les problèmes de sommeil. Cette étude contribue à mettre en évidence l'importance cruciale de l'investissement émotionnel de l'individu dans la relation qu'il entretient avec son corps pour le bien-être psychologique et la santé perçue(Carraça et al., 2011 ;Wilson et al., 2013), ainsi que son association avec l'estime de soi(Aggarwal et al., 2023 ;Orbach & Mikulincer, 1998). Toutefois, même si de nombreuses preuves significatives ont été recueillies concernant les jeunes adultes, ces associations apparaissent moins évidentes auprès des adultes âgés. ...
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Prisons are responsible not only for punishing offenders sentenced to deprivation of liberty, but also for ensuring their safety and respect for fundamental rights, while promoting their social reintegration and combating recidivism. Prisons are also responsible for the medical and psychological care of prisoners who require specialized assistance. This is a mission that the institution is currently having difficulty fulfilling. A number of national and international studies have shown that the mental health of prisoners is much worse than that of the general population. However, few studies have focused on the cognitive and emotional specificities of prisoners. The scientific literature in health psychology and cognitive psychopathology shows the essential role played by these cognitive and emotional processes in the emergence and maintenance of psychopathological states. This doctoral project had two main objectives: 1) To assess how prisoners perceive their health status and how they rate certain dimensions of psychological well-being, according to their age and recidivism status. An initial study was carried out with young and elderly adult prisoners, who completed scales of perceived health (NHP, Mental Health Analog Scale), self-esteem (Rosenberg scale) and body investment (BIS). 2) To assess the role of transdiagnostic cognitive-emotional processes involved in the emergence and maintenance of psychopathological states in detention. A second study examined the links between dimensions of the impulsivity construct and the production of cognitive distortions. Participants, young adults in detention and a comparison group from the general population, completed an impulsivity scale (UPPS) and a cognitive distortions assessment scale (EDC-A).A third study examined the type and nature of cognitive emotion regulation strategies in relation to anxiety and depressive symptomatology. Participants, young adults in prison and a comparison group from the general population, completed questionnaires and scales on cognitive emotion regulation (CERQ) and anxiety and depressive symptomatology (HADS).The results show that prisoners of all ages perceive their state of health to be worse than that of individuals of the same age from the general population. In addition, there are age-related specificities. Indeed, health problems perceived by young inmates are mainly associated with body-related concerns, whereas they are more closely linked to psychological and mental concerns among older inmates. Furthermore, individuals in a situation of recidivism are characterized by a greater perception of emotional difficulties and better perceived mental health. Secondly, the results indicate that inmates display significantly more cognitive distortions, particularly negative ones. Impulsivity was also found to be positively correlated with positive and negative distortions. Nevertheless, a significant moderating effect of the length of detention on these relationships highlights their attenuation with time spent in prison. At the same time, in order to regulate their negative emotions, it appears that prisoners make greater use of dramatization and positive centration than individuals from the general population. Finally, the results highlight specific and distinct cognitive regulation profiles according to the type and intensity of anxiety and depressive symptomatology, in the prison population and in the general population.
... This relation seems bidirectional, as upward social comparison appears to lower self-esteem, but also people with low self-esteem and negative mood tend to engage in upward social comparisons [19,20]. Additionally, physical appearance is recognized as one of the most prominent aspects of self-esteem, especially among teenagers and young adults [69]. Thus, having an association between higher PACS-R and lower self-esteem and psychological distress might fall under this bidirectional relation. ...
... Thus, having an association between higher PACS-R and lower self-esteem and psychological distress might fall under this bidirectional relation. Moreover, upward social comparisons have also been associated with additional adverse outcomes, such as depressive symptoms [26,70,71] and self-esteem has been demonstrated to partially mediate the relationship between depressive symptoms and upward social comparisons [69,72]. ...
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Background Physical comparison may be a factor in body dissatisfaction and related issues, like eating disorders and depression. The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale-Revised (PACS-R) is a scale developed to assess the frequency of physical comparison. Because there is no validated scale for body comparison in Arabic, this study aims to address this gap by validating the PACS-R in the Arabic language. Methods The PACS-R was translated to Arabic following a conventional forward-backward translation procedure, and was administered to a sample of 359 Lebanese adults along with The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) for convergent validity. The factor structure was studied by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and composite reliability was assessed using McDonald’s omega and Cronbach’s alpha. Results Results suggested a one-factor structure of the Arabic PACS-R, with good internal consistency (McDonald’s ω = 0.97 / Cronbach α = 0.97). Measurement invariance was established across sex groups, with no significant difference being reported between males and females in terms of PACS-R scores (15.42 ± 10.64 vs. 13.16 ± 11.88; t(357) = 1.84; p = .066). Finally, adequate convergent validity was tested and found to be adequate, with PACS-R scores found to be correlated negatively with self-esteem and positively with psychological distress. Conclusion The present findings preliminarily establish the Arabic PACS-R as an effective instrument for researchers and practitioners aiming to explore the physical comparison among Arabic-speaking populations, thus contributing to research and clinical work in the Arabic community.
... This showed that although both groups of subjects had average values within the reference values, when we analyzed the relationship with the maximum value, we found that self-esteem was 66% of the maximum value, with a higher degree in males than in females. This aspect agreed with the results reported by Aggarwal [23]. A positive body image was linked to increased confidence and wellbeing, whereas a negative body image was linked to lower self-esteem. ...
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The elements of body composition and their correlation with physical activity, body image, and self-esteem are aspects that require in-depth studies. This link should be seen in the context of the percentage of adipose tissue, which can be modeled via physical activity. The objective of this study is to evaluate the relationships between the parameters that define body composition, self-esteem, body image, and physical activity according to gender. This study included 100 females and 100 males with an average age of 22 years. The evaluation included anthropometric parameters, body composition, self-esteem, physical activity index, and body image perception assessment. The results show that the males exhibited a higher percentage of exceeding the upper limit of normal and average weight; in contrast, there were two times more females exhibiting normal weight than those exceeding the upper limit. Therefore, obesity was higher among males. The average fitness score values were 69.07 for females and 76.53 for males, and the mean fitness was within normal limits. Regarding body image, according to the BSQ, we observed that both groups were not satisfied with and were concerned about their body shape. With respect to the Rosenberg self-esteem scale, the average score for females was 20.27, and for males, it was 19.60; the mean self-esteem value was 66% of the maximum value. In terms of the perceived ideal body size assessed with the Silhouette scale, most of the females were placed at level 3, and the males were placed at level 4. Regarding the physical activity index, females carried out on average 1.5 days of intense physical activity over 7 days, and males were involved in intense physical activity for 2 days. Conclusions: The degree of obesity and therefore the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome were higher in males than in females. Although males have a higher degree of obesity, self-esteem is quantified at a higher level of confidence.
... In addressing body image concerns, schools and health programs should promote positive body image and self-acceptance among adolescents, encouraging healthy weight management without contributing to harmful body ideals. Promoting body diversity in media representations and fostering environments that support self-esteem and body confidence can mitigate the adverse effects of societal pressures on body image [24,27]. ...
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1) Background: In the face of global concerns regarding unhealthy lifestyles among youths, understanding dietary habits, physical activity, and weight management strategies among third-cycle students in Portugal becomes essential. This study aims to evaluate the extent to which middle school students adhere to the Mediterranean diet and assess their physical activity habits and overall weight perceptions. (2) Methods: This study is a cross-sectional observational study. Using self-reported data from a sample of 232 students aged between 12 and 18, this study delved into their dietary patterns, engagement in physical activities, perceptions of weight, and weight management approaches, measured by the KIDMED and YRB questionnaires. (3) The results demonstrated that adolescents engaged in a varied diet, and 65.5% had recently engaged in physical activity. However, 25% reported exercise-related injuries, suggesting potential safety gaps. Extreme weight management practices were minimal, but a disparity in weight perception and weight loss desire emerged, hinting at underlying societal and media influences. Gender differences in certain habits were minimal. (4) Conclusions: While students were generally inclined towards healthy habits, there are evident areas of concern, particularly regarding safety in physical activities and weight perceptions. In the future, interventions should be implemented to increase students' literacy and raise awareness of the Mediterranean diet and physical well-being.
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Background Physical comparison may be a factor in body dissatisfaction and related issues, like eating disorders and depression. The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale-Revised (PACS-R) is a scale developed to assess the frequency of physical comparison. Because there is no validated scale for body comparison in Arabic, this study aims to address this gap by validating the PACS-R in the Arabic language. Methods The PACS-R was translated to Arabic following a conventional forward-backward translation procedure, and was administered to a sample of 359 Lebanese adults along with The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES) for convergent validity. The factor structure was studied by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and composite reliability was assessed using McDonald’s omega and Cronbach’s alpha. Results Results suggested a one-factor structure of the Arabic PACS-R, with good internal consistency (McDonald’s ω = .97 / Cronbach α = .97). Measurement invariance was established across sex groups, with no significant difference being reported between males and females in terms of PACS-R scores (15.42 ± 10.64 vs 13.16 ± 11.88; t(357) = 1.84; p = .066). Finally, adequate convergent validity was tested and found to be adequate, with PACS-R scores found to be correlated negatively with self-esteem and positively with psychological distress. Conclusion The present findings preliminarily establish the Arabic PACS-R as an effective instrument for researchers and practitioners aiming to explore the physical comparison among Arabic-speaking populations, thus contributing to research and clinical work in the Arabic community.
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The centrality of attractiveness to social evaluations of women puts women at particular risk of body dissatisfaction. However, it is less clear who these social standards most affect and the situations in which they are most salient. Women whose self-esteem is more contingent on standards of attractiveness (ACSE) should be particularly vulnerable to body dissatisfaction, particularly in contexts that provide negative attractiveness-relevant feedback such as romantic rejection. The current research tested whether women higher in ACSE experienced greater body dissatisfaction in the context of naturally-occurring experiences of romantic rejection. In Study 1, women (N = 168) identified and recalled a range of prior rejection experiences and reported their body dissatisfaction. Women higher in ACSE recalled greater body dissatisfaction in the context of romantic rejection. In Study 2, women (N = 101) recorded daily experiences of romantic rejection and body dissatisfaction (N = 885 daily records). Women higher in ACSE experienced greater within-person increases in body dissatisfaction on days they reported romantic rejection. The results emphasize the relevance of romantic rejection for understanding women's body dissatisfaction and help explain inconsistencies in the literature by illustrating that higher ACSE is associated with greater body dissatisfaction in contexts that provide negative attractiveness-related feedback.
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In the current paper, two different studies were designed to investigate body image dissatisfaction and perception of the attractive female body in Chinese and Croatian women and men using the correlational and experimental study research approach. Study 1 comprised 266 Chinese (160 women; 106 men) and 261 Croatian participants (161 women; 100 men). Women from both countries were asked to complete the measures of the Contour Rating Scale, SATAQ – 4, Body Area Scale and demographic data, while men were asked to complete the measures of the Contour Rating Scale and demographic data via online surveys. The obtained results indicated that thin internalization predicted body image dissatisfaction in both samples. Besides, while both samples scored relatively high on thin-ideal internalization, Chinese women, who were also in general less satisfied with their body image, had higher scores. Chinese women also scored higher on musculature internalization and felt more pressure from family, friends, and media to conform to standard beauty norms compared to Croatian women. The samples also differed in their perceptions of preferable body size, where Chinese women had a more negative perception of their actual body size. The obtained results furthermore revealed that Chinese men preferred thinner women compared to Croatian men. Moreover, both samples misjudged what their female counterparts found attractive, thinking that women wanted to have even thinner bodies than they actually reported. Similarly, women from both cultures revealed a preference for thinner figures than the ones selected as the most attractive by the opposite sex. Finally, in Study 2, experimental manipulation of thin-ideal was used to examine whether thin priming affected body image dissatisfaction. The obtained results revealed that when primed with thin-ideal women from both countries felt lower satisfaction with their body size. The observed effect was stronger for Chinese participants. Limitations of the current study are discussed in the conclusion.
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The prevalence of obesity is increasing globally and is linked with poor body image perception. The aim of the present study was to identify the relationships of body image (BI) and body mass index (BMI) with weight control practices among university students. A cross-sectional study on a sample of 308 university students (150 males and 158 females) aged between 18 and 25 years was carried out. Face-to-face interviews were conducted based on a questionnaire that included socio-demographic, physical activity, the Figure Rating Scale (FRS) and body image dissatisfaction (BID) questions. The majority of the participants (81%: 58.2% females and 41.8% males) were dissatisfied with their BI. Females desired to lose weight and preferred diet to exercise, while males desired to gain weight and preferred exercise to diet (p < 0.001). About 56%, 39.5%, and 4.5% of the participants were normal, overweight/obese, and underweight, respectively. There was a significant, strong correlation (R 2 = 0.84, p < 0.001) between perceived BMI and actual BMI. Actual BMI showed a significant strong correlation with the BID (r = 0.57, p < 0.001). The results highlighted the need to increase awareness of the importance of healthy eating behaviors and regular physical activities to improve body size, shape perception, and satisfaction among college males and females.
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The human body has a complex meaning and role in everybody's life and experience. Body image has two main components: body percept (the internal visual image of body shape and size) and body concept (the level of satisfaction with one's body), whose specific alterations may lead to different conditions, such as overestimation of one's own body dimensions, negative feelings and thoughts towards the body, body avoidance and body checking behavior. Moreover, body dissatisfaction can be associated with a variety of other mental health and psychosocial conditions, but only a few studies have explored the body image construct in orthorexia nervosa (ON). ON is a condition characterized by concern and fixation about healthy eating, with mixed results available in the literature about the presence of body image disorders. The aim of this manuscript is to present the main findings from the literature about the psychopathology of body image in ON. Summarizing, while theoretically the presence of body image disturbances should help clinicians to differentiate ON from eating disorders, further research is needed to confirm this finding. It is not clear whether the body image disorder in ON depends on an altered body percept or body concept, and the relationship between the disordered eating behavior and body image disorder still needs to be disentangled. Further studies regarding the relationship between ON and body image could be helpful to better understand the relevance of body image as a transdiagnostic factor and its potential value as target for treatment interventions.
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This online experimental study examined the impact of viewing disclaimer comments attached to idealized social media images on 18- to 25-year-old American women’s (N = 164) body dissatisfaction, mood, and perceptions of the target. Furthermore, this study also tested whether thin ideal internalization or appearance comparison tendency moderated any effect. Viewing idealized images taken from social media had a negative influence on women’s body image, with or without the presence of disclaimers. Disclaimer comments also had no impact on women’s mood. They did, however, impact perceptions of the target, with women forming a less positive impression of the target if she attached disclaimer comments to her social media images. Thus, the results of this study suggest that the use of disclaimer comments or labels on social media may be ineffective at reducing women’s body dissatisfaction.
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