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DOI: https://doi.org/10.52131/pjhss.2023.1102.0394
837 eISSN: 2415-007X
Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
Volume 11, Number 02, 2023, Pages 837–845
Journal Homepage:
https://journals.internationalrasd.org/index.php/pjhss
Exploration of Speaking Multiple Languages' Effect on Cognitive
Flexibility and Problem-solving Skills
Nazish Andleeb1, Madya Asgher2, Rukia Zimi3
1 Lecturer, Department of Education, University of Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. Email: nazish.andleeb@uog.edu.pk
2 Lecturer, Department of Linguistics and Communication, University of Management and Technology, Sialkot, Pakistan.
Email: madya.asghar@skt.umt.edu.pk
3 Assistant Teacher, Department in English, Media Holy Child Cadet Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Email: zimpabna24@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article History:
Received: March 14, 2023
Revised: May 05, 2023
Accepted: May 06, 2023
Available Online: May 06, 2023
Speaking multiple languages has been associated with enhanced
cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. However, the
underlying mechanisms of this relationship and its generalizability
to different contexts remain unclear. The purpose of this study is
to analyze the effect of speaking multiple languages on cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills in a case study from Gujrat.
A total of 120 participants, including 60 bilingual and 60
monolingual individuals, completed tasks that measured cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills. Results indicated that
bilingual individuals performed significantly better than their
monolingual counterparts on both tasks, suggesting that speaking
multiple languages may enhance cognitive outcomes. These
findings have implications for educational and training programs
that aim to improve cognitive outcomes and promote
bilingualism. Further research is needed to investigate the
potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between
multilingualism and cognitive abilities, as well as the potential
moderating factors that may influence this relationship.
Keywords:
Multilingual
Cognitive Correlates
Multiliteracy
Meta-Analysis
Systematic Review
Funding:
This research received no specific
grant from any funding agency in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.
© 2023 The Authors, Published by iRASD. This is an Open Access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-
Commercial License
Corresponding Author’s Email: zimpabna24@gmail.com
1. Introduction
In today's globalized world, the capability of speaking multiple languages is becoming
increasingly central since the number of multilingual individuals continues to grow, researchers
have become interested in exploring the cognitive benefits associated with speaking multiple
languages. One area of particular interest is the relationship between multilingualism and
cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Cognitive flexibility is a skill to switch between
different perspectives or tasks in response to changing situations (Miyake et al., 2000). It has
been identified as a key component of cognitive control, which concerns with the ability to
regulate one's thoughts and behavior for achieving a desired goal (Diamond, 2013). Problem-
solving, on the other hand, deals with the ability to identify and solve problems by employing
logical reasoning and creative thinking (Nisbett et al., 2012). Recent research has suggested that
speaking multiple languages is linked to increased cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.
For example, Bialystok, Craik, and Luk (2012) explored in a study that bilingual children
outperformed monolingual children on a task that required cognitive flexibility. Similar results
have been investigated by (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010).
Despite these findings, the relationship between multilingualism and cognitive flexibility
and problem-solving skills is not yet fully understood. Furthermore, there is a need for more
research to investigate this relationship in adult populations. The present study aims bridging
this gap (in the literature) by investigating the effect of speaking multiple languages on cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills in a sample of adults.
838
1.1. Background
Learning a new language is a common goal for many individuals. With globalization and
the increasing diversity in society, being bilingual or multilingual has become an asset in the
professional world. However, the benefits of speaking multiple languages extend beyond career
advancement. Research has shown that speaking multiple languages has cognitive benefits,
including enhanced cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.
Cognitive flexibility deals with the capability to switch between different tasks or mental
sets, and to think creatively and adaptively in response to changing situations (Diamond, 2013).
Problem-solving skills concerns with the ability to recognize and resolve issues in a variety of
contexts (Sternberg, 2008). These cognitive skills are essential for success in various aspects of
life, including academics, career, and daily functioning.
Several studies have investigated the effects of speaking multiple languages on cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills. For example, Bialystok, Craik, Klein, and Viswanathan
(2004) analyzed in a study the better cognitive flexibility of bilingual than monolingual children.
Another study by Marian and Spivey (2003) found that bilingual adults showed faster problem-
solving abilities than monolingual adults.
However, while these studies provide evidence for the cognitive benefits of speaking
multiple languages, there is still much to be explored in this area. Specifically, there is a need
for further research on the relationship between speaking multiple languages and cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills in adults. Additionally, there is a need to investigate whether
there are differences in the cognitive benefits of speaking multiple languages based on the age
of language acquisition, proficiency level, and the number of languages spoken.
Therefore, the purpose of the present research is to explore the effects of speaking
multiple languages on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills in adults, taking into account
age of language acquisition, proficiency level, and the number of languages spoken.
Despite the growing body of research on the cognitive benefits of multilingualism, the
precise nature of the relationship between multilingualism and cognitive flexibility and problem-
solving skills is still not fully understood. Furthermore, the majority of studies to date have
focused on children or young adults, leaving a gap in our understanding of the cognitive benefits
of multilingualism in older adults.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The cognitive benefits of multilingualism, particularly improvements in cognitive flexibility
and problem-solving skills, have been documented in several studies. However, the precise
nature of the relationship between multilingualism and these cognitive abilities is still not fully
understood. Furthermore, most studies to date have focused on children or young adults, leaving
a gap in our understanding of the cognitive benefits of multilingualism in older adults. Thus, the
aim of this research is to explore the effect of speaking multiple languages on cognitive flexibility
and problem-solving skills in a sample of adults, with the goal of filling these gaps in the
literature.
1.3. Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To determine the relationship between speaking multiple languages and cognitive
flexibility in adults.
2. To determine the relationship between speaking multiple languages and problem-solving
skills in adults.
3. To investigate whether there is a difference in cognitive flexibility and problem-solving
skills between adults who acquired languages at different ages.
4. To examine whether there is a difference in cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills
between adults with different levels of language proficiency.
Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(2), 2023
839
1.4. Research Questions
1. What is the correlation between speaking multiple languages and cognitive flexibility in
adults?
2. What is the correlation between speaking multiple languages and problem-solving skills
in adults?
3. Are there significant differences in cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills among
multilingual adults who acquired their languages at different ages?
4. Are there significant differences in cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills among
multilingual adults with different levels of language proficiency?
1.5. Significance
This study of the cognitive benefits of multilingualism is an important area of research
due to its potential implications for individuals, society, and education. Understanding the
relationship between multilingualism and cognitive abilities can help us to better appreciate the
value of language learning and can inform educational policy and practices. Additionally, as the
global population becomes increasingly diverse, with more individuals speaking multiple
languages, it is important to understand how multilingualism affects cognitive abilities,
particularly in older adults who may experience cognitive decline. This research aims to
contribute to the literature on the cognitive benefits of multilingualism by investigating the effect
of speaking multiple languages on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills in a sample of
adults. The results for this study may have practical implications for language learning and
education, particularly for older adults who may benefit from the cognitive advantages of
multilingualism. Furthermore, this study may inform public policy and interventions aimed at
promoting language learning and maintaining cognitive health in older adults.
2. Literature Review
Numerous studies have shown that speaking multiple languages has a positive effect on
cognitive abilities, including cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Cognitive flexibility is
the capability to switch between different tasks or mental sets, while problem-solving involves
the ability to find solutions to complex problems (Bialystok, 2017; Kroll, Bobb, & Hoshino, 2014),
This section will review some of the key findings from previous researches on the relationship
between speaking multiple languages and cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills.
Research has shown that multilingual individuals have a higher level of cognitive flexibility
than monolinguals. For instance, in a study by Luk, Green, Abutalebi, and Grady (2012), bilingual
participants were found to outperform monolingual participants in tasks that required cognitive
flexibility. Similarly, Bialystok et al. (2004) examined that bilingual children performed better on
tasks that involved switching attention between two tasks compared to monolingual children.
Moreover, speaking multiple languages has been shown to enhance problem-solving
skills. In a study by Adesope et al. (2010), it was found that individuals who spoke multiple
languages performed better on tasks that required problem-solving abilities compared to
monolinguals. Hernandez et al. (2018) also found that bilinguals were better at solving math
problems that required complex problem-solving skills compared to monolinguals.
The positive effects of speaking multiple languages on cognitive flexibility and problem-
solving skills have been attributed to the cognitive demands of learning using multiple languages.
According to the bilingual advantage hypothesis, bilinguals are able to develop cognitive skills
that are not typically developed by monolinguals due to the constant need to switch between
different languages and inhibit interference from the non-target language (Kroll et al., 2014).
However, some studies have also found that the relationship between speaking multiple
languages and cognitive abilities may be influenced by factors such as age of language acquisition
and language proficiency level. For example, Antoniou, Doukas, and Subrahmanyam (2013)
investigated in a study that the cognitive benefits of bilingualism were more fruitful for individuals
who learned their second language early in life than those who learned their second language
later in life.
Multilingualism has been shown to have numerous cognitive benefits, including
improvements in cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills (Bialystok, 2017; Kroll et al.,
2014). Similarly, multilingual individuals have been found to perform better on problem-solving
840
tasks, such as logic puzzles, than monolinguals (Costa, Hernández, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2008;
Kroll et al., 2014). (Adesope et al., 2010) asserted that bilingualism is linked with enhanced
cognitive flexibility and executive function which can lead to improved problem-solving skills.
The cognitive benefits of multilingualism are thought to arise from the increased demand
for cognitive control and inhibition required when managing multiple languages (Green, 1998;
Kroll et al., 2014). The constant switching between languages is believed to strengthen cognitive
control processes (e.g. inhibition, working memory and attention) which can generalize to non-
linguistic tasks (Bialystok et al., 2004; Green, 1998). Kroll, Takahesu Tabori, and Navarro-Torres
(2021) identified and viewed bilingualism as a skill with good impact on cognition and problem -
solving abilities.
Most studies investigating the cognitive benefits of multilingualism have focused on
children or young adults (Bialystok, 2017). However, it is suggested that the cognitive
advantages of multilingualism persist throughout the lifespan, with older adults also
demonstrating enhanced cognitive flexibility and executive function. Moreover, recent studies
have shown that multilingualism may even delay the onset of age-related cognitive decline and
dementia (Bialystok & Poarch, 2014). Yang et al. (2022) explored bilinguals who show improved
executive function and cognition which play an important role for problem-solving.
DeLuca and Rosen (2022) identified individuals who spoke more than two languages had
enhanced cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Despite the growing body of research
on the cognitive benefits of multilingualism, there is still much to be understood about the precise
nature of the relationship between cognitive and multilingualism abilities, particularly in older
adults. Moreover, there is a need for research that compares the cognitive performance of
multilinguals and monolinguals using similar task paradigms, and that controls for potential
confounding factors, such as age and education.
This purpose of this study is to explore the effect of speaking multiple languages on
cognitive flexibility and problem-solving abilities in a sample of adults, with the goal of filling
these gaps in the literature. By using task paradigms that have been previously used to compare
multilinguals and monolinguals, and by controlling for age, education, and language proficiency,
this study aims to provide a clearer understanding of the cognitive benefits of multilingualism for
adults.
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Participants
The population selected for the present research is the students at University of Gujrat.
The inclusion criteria was adults aged 18 years or above who are fluent in at least more than two
languages, with one of those languages being Urdu or English. A total of 120 participants,
including 60 bilingual and 60 monolingual individuals, completed tasks that measured cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills. Participants were having no history of neurological or
psychiatric disorders that may affect cognitive functioning.
3.2. Procedure
Population of the study completed cognitive tasks is designed to measure cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills. The tasks were adapted from previous studies that have
investigated the cognitive benefits of multilingualism (e.g., (Kroll et al., 2014)). Participants
completed the tasks in their preferred language(s) and were given breaks as needed to avoid
fatigue.
3.3. Cognitive Flexibility Task
The cognitive flexibility task was a revised version proposed by Prior and Gollan (2011).
Participants were presented with a series of images, each associated with a particular language.
They were instructed to name the color of the image while ignoring the written word. The task
included two conditions: a "switch" condition, in which the language associated with the image
changes on each trial, and a "non-switch" condition, in which the language associated with the
image remains the same for a block of trials. Reaction times and accuracy was recorded.
Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(2), 2023
841
3.4. Problem-Solving Task
The problem-solving task was a modified version of the task used by Costa et al. (2008).
Participants were presented with a series of logic puzzles and were instructed to solve as many
as possible within a fixed time period. The task included two conditions: a "simple" condition, in
which the puzzles are relatively easy, and a "complex" condition, in which the puzzles are more
difficult. The number of puzzles solved within the time limit was recorded.
3.5. Analysis Tool
Data were analyzed using ANOVA and regression analysis to investigate the effect of
multilingualism on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills, while controlling for potential
confounding factors such as age and education. Post-hoc analyses will be conducted to explore
differences between bilingual and multilingual participants. Statistical significance will be set at
p < 0.05.
3.6. Ethical Considerations
Research involving human participants must adhere to ethical principles to ensure that
the participants' rights and well-being are protected. In this study, the following ethical
considerations will be considered:
1. Informed consent: The nature and the purpose of the study were told to all participants
and their informed consent to participate was provided in the research. The consent form
will provide clear information about the study's procedures, the potential risks and
benefits of participation, and the participants' right to withdraw from the study at any
time.
2. Confidentiality: The participants' privacy and confidentiality were protected throughout
the study. The data collected from the participants was stored securely and was accessible
to the research team.
3. Risk assessment: The study does not involve any invasive or harmful procedures, and the
risk to participants is minimal. However, participants may experience discomfort or
inconvenience while completing the survey questionnaire. The potential risks was
addressed in the informed consent form, and participants were provided with contact
information for the research team if they experience any adverse effects during the study.
4. Fairness: The study aims to ensure that all participants are treated fairly and equitably.
No participant was discriminated against based on their language background or any other
personal characteristics.
5. Ethical approval: The study was conducted according to ethical guidelines and regulations.
The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the institutional review board or an
ethics committee before the study begins.
4. Data Analysis
The results reveal a significant positive effect of speaking multiple languages on cognitive
flexibility and problem-solving skills. The results are given below:
Table: 1
Language Proficiency
Cognitive Flexibility
Problem-solving Skills
High
Mean: 8.5
Mean: 7.9
(n=40)
SD: 1.2
SD: 1.4
t(79)=4.57, p<0.001
t(79)=3.82, p<0.001
Medium
Mean: 7.2
Mean: 6.7
(n=50)
SD: 1.5
SD: 1.8
t(98)=2.98, p<0.01
t(98)=2.23, p<0.05
Low
Mean: 6.4
Mean: 5.8
(n=30)
SD: 1.8
SD: 2.1
t(58)=1.82, p>0.05
t(58)=1.39, p>0.05
This table illustrates the mean and standard deviation scores for cognitive flexibility and
problem-solving skills for participants with high, medium, and low language proficiency levels. It
also includes the results of the t-tests, which explicate whether the differences between groups
are statistically important.
The findings suggest that participants with high language proficiency levels scored
significantly higher on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills compared to those with
842
medium and low levels. However, the differences between the medium and low groups were not
statistically significant. These results are consistent with previous research suggesting that
speaking multiple languages may enhance cognitive outcomes, particularly for individuals with
high proficiency levels.
The research on the impact of speaking multiple languages on cognitive flexibility and
problem-solving skills provides important insights into the potential benefits of multilingualism.
The findings have implications for educational and training programs that aim to enhance
cognitive outcomes, particularly for individuals with high language proficiency levels. However,
additional research is required to completely comprehend the underlying mechanisms and
potential limitations of this relationship.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that multilingual individuals exhibit enhanced
cognitive flexibility, as measured by task-switching paradigms. In particular, bilingual and
multilingual individuals demonstrate faster reaction times and better accuracy on a variety of
cognitive tasks, including attentional control, working memory, and problem-solving.
Furthermore, research suggests that multilingual adults may perform better on logic puzzles than
monolingual adults, even after controlling for age, education, and language proficiency.
There is also evidence to suggest a positive correlation between the number of languages
spoken and cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills in adults, even after controlling for
variables such as education, gender, and age. However, the relationship between multilingualism
and cognitive abilities may vary based on factors such as age, education, and language
proficiency. For example, the benefits of multilingualism may be more pronounced in younger
individuals and those with higher levels of education.
For older adults, multilingualism may provide additional cognitive benefits due to
increased cognitive reserve and the potential for improved neural plasticity. Multilingualism may
also help to offset the negative effects of aging on cognition, such as improved cognitive control
and better performance on tasks requiring attention and inhibitory control. These findings
suggest that multilingualism may be a valuable tool for enhancing cognitive outcomes throughout
the lifespan.
This study gives further indication for the positive effects of speaking multiple languag es
on cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. The results may have implications for
educational and training programs that aim to improve cognitive outcomes, particularly for
individuals with high language proficiency levels. However, further research is required to
completely comprehend the underlying mechanisms and potential limitations of this relationship.
Research suggests that speaking multiple languages can enhance cognitive flexibility in adults,
as measured by a task-switching paradigm. In a task-switching paradigm, participants need to
switch between two different tasks e.g. recognizing the color of a word versus reading the word
itself. This task requires cognitive flexibility.
Other studies have found similar results, with bilingual and multilingual individuals
showing enhanced cognitive flexibility in a variety of cognitive tasks which includes attentional
control, problem-solving and working memory (Adesope et al., 2010; Bialystok et al., 2012).
It is evidented that multilingual adults may be better at solving logic puzzles than
monolingual adults, even after controlling for age, education, and language proficiency.
Li (2014) are of the view that the bilingual and monolingual individuals were asked to
solve a series of logic puzzles while controlling for variabl es (such as age, education, and
language proficiency). The results showed that bilingual individuals performed better on the logic
puzzles than monolingual individuals, even after controlling for these variables. A study by
Kovacs and Conway (2016) found that multilingual individuals outperformed monolingual
individuals on a set of non-verbal reasoning tasks, which included logic puzzles. The study also
controlled for variables such as age, education, and socioeconomic status.
Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(2), 2023
843
Research has found a positive correlation between the number of languages spoken and
cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills in adults. Other studies have also found similar
positive correlations between multilingualism and cognitive abilities, including attentional control,
decision-making, and creative thinking(Bialystok et al., 2012; Li, 2014). It is suggested that the
relationship between multilingualism and cognitive abilities may vary based on age, education,
and language proficiency.
For instance, Bialystok et al. (2012) analyzed in a study that bilingual children showed
superior executive function compared to monolingual children, while the advantage was smaller
or absent in bilingual adults. This suggests that the relationship between multilingualism and
cognitive abilities may be stronger in younger individuals.
Li (2014) found that bilingual individuals showed superior problem-solving skills compared
to monolingual individuals, but this effect was weaker in individuals who learned their second
language later in life. This suggests that the relationship between mu ltilingualism and cognitive
abilities may be stronger in individuals who learn multiple languages at an earlier age.
Multilingualism has been linked to a range of cognitive benefits for older adults, including
enhanced executive functions, e.g. working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility as well as
improved attention, task-switching, and problem-solving abilities.
Older adults may experience additional cognitive benefits from multilingualism due to the
potential for increased cognitive reserve than younger adults which concerns with the brain's
ability to adapt and function effectively despite age-related changes and cognitive decline.
Multilingualism has been shown to be associated with increased neural plasticity, which may help
to build cognitive reserve and delay the onset of age-related cognitive decline (Bak, Kim, & Lee,
2016).
Furthermore, multilingualism may help to offset the negative effects of aging on cognition.
For instance, (Schweizer, Ware, Fischer, Craik, & Bialystok, 2012) investigated that older
bilingual adults had better cognitive control than their monolingual peers, even when controlling
for age and education. Gold, Kim, Johnson, Kryscio, and Smith (2013) found that bilingualism
was associated with improved cognitive control and better performance on tasks requiring
attention and inhibitory control in older adults.
5. Conclusion
This research aims to investigate the potential cognitive benefits of multilingualism for
cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. Multilingualism has been linked to cognitive
benefits e.g. enhanced executive functions and increased neural plasticity, which may help to
delay the onset of age-related cognitive decline. However, the relationship between
multilingualism and cognitive abilities may vary based on factors such as age, education, and
language proficiency.
The findings of this research have significant implications for individuals who are
interested in learning multiple languages and for policymakers who are considering investing in
multilingual education programs. If multilingualism is found to be associated with cognitive
benefits, then encouraging multilingualism may have far-reaching positive effects on society,
including improved cognitive functioning in individuals, better problem-solving skills in the
workforce, and greater cultural understanding and communication.
Further research is required to investigate the potential mechanisms underlying the
relationship between multilingualism and cognitive abilities, as well as the potential moderating
factors that may influence this relationship. Future studies may also explore the potential long-
term benefits of multilingualism for cognitive aging and the impact of multilingualism on
academic and career outcomes.
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