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Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results ¦ Volume 13 ¦ Special Issue 10 ¦ 2022
5109
An Estimation Of Pluralistic Traumatic Reading In
Select Works Of Temsula Ao
Sonali Dudihalli1 , Prof. (Dr.) Pramod Kumar2
1Ph.D. Scholar, Sharda School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida.
2Sharda School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida.
DOI:
10.47750/pnr.2022.13.S10.626
Memories and experiences create a vital impression on the mind of an individual. These impressions create an outline on which an
individual’s life is shaped. Impressions may be happy, sad or in some cases traumatic. Traumatic incidences harvest both conscious and
sub conscious reactions in individuals which manifest in ways which are most unpredictable and varied in individuals. Likewise, the
ways and means used to cope with these incidences are may also vary from individual to individual. This paper traces the meaning of
trauma and the pluralistic approach in dealing with it based on the select novels of North East Indian writer Temsula Ao. In her two short
story collections, ‘Laburnum for my Head’ and ‘These Hills Called Home: Stories from the War Zone’ has highlighted the distressing
experiences faced by the people of Nagaland. These characters and their struggle to cope with their traumatic experiences is an interesting
study.
Introduction
The North-East part of India is one of the few parts which is most isolated and cut-off from the rest of India. There are
seven states which are collectively called ‘The Seven Sisters’, namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. After the independence in 1947, and the subsequent partition, left these areas completely
landlocked and isolated from the mainland. Also, the region has been one of the world’s most used migratory routes passing
through different countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, China, Myanmar, Thailand, Bangladesh and Pakistan. As a result,
these areas have been a meeting place of varied ethnic groups and tribes which amount to diversity in history, culture and
traditions. Many of the tribes and communities living there continue to uphold the social, cultural and even economic
relations with the neighbouring countries. Another important reason is that the indigenous people or tribes of these regions
belong to the Mongolia race, making their physical appearance different from the mainland Indians, and more similar to
the people belonging to the border countries. They have also been termed as ‘outsiders’ by their own countrymen. These
reasons have created a need of separatism among these states. Of these seven states, Assam and Nagaland have been more
in conflict and struggle zones for their demand of a separate political identity. This led to the formation of many insurgent
groups such as United Liberation Front of Assam ULFA, Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland NSCN (IM) & NSCN
(N)Mizo National Front MNF, United National Front of Manipur UNFM and others.
These insurgent groups initially started as a people’s movement but later on started getting ammunitions and become
military groups which began to fight with the Indian army. They began to carry out retributive killings, bank robberies,
providing justice in areas where the government’s presence was minimal. This led to the growth of military insurgents,
especially in Assam and Nagaland. The locals began to fear them due to their harsh cruelty and killings. Due to the regional
poverty, isolation and illiteracy the local tribes of these regions began to face innumerable conflicts from both the insurgents
and the Indian army. The locals were harassed, tortured, killed, humiliated and women were raped. Those who witnessed
and faced this violence had their lives transformed to a great extent. They lived in constant fear and trauma. For six decades
this violence continued. Only in the recent years, we are seeing the political situation calming down.
Nagaland is one of the states which faced most conflicts and war crimes. The last two decades have seen many writers
from this area expressing the struggle and sufferings faced by the natives. Writers such as Temsula Ao, Easterine Kire,
Monalisa Changkija, Kaka D. Kire from Nagaland have used literature to outpour the trauma and anxiety caused by the
Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results ¦ Volume 13 ¦ Special Issue 10 ¦ 2022
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violence witnessed by the locals. They reveal the struggles faced by the men, the women and the youth caused by terrorism,
insurgency and military shootouts. Beyond the scenic and beautiful mountains lie the cries of trauma of these people.
Trauma, the term refers to a severely disruptive incident or experience that affects an individual’s concept of self and the
perception of the external world. “Trauma studies explores the impact of trauma in literature and society by analysing its
psychological, rhetorical, and cultural significance.” (Balaev, 2018). It analyses the complex psychological and social
factors that influence an individual’s perception of the traumatic experience and the way it shapes an individual’s
experience with the help of language. The origin of trauma studies can be traced from the 1990’s. Sigmund Freud’s
psychoanalytic theories on memory and traumatic experiences define the concepts that create a guideline for this theory.
“Freud’s early theories in ‘Studies on Hysteria’ (1895) written with Joseph Breuer, and especially his adapted theories later
in his career in ‘Beyond the Pleasure Principle’ (1920), dominate trauma’s conceptual employment by literary trauma
critics today.” (Balaev, 2018)
In ‘Studies of Hysteria’ (1895), Freud and Breuer, insist that many a times the actual event in itself is not traumatic, but
only its memory. Till this actual event lingers, creating harm, it is imperative to understand the reasons and events of the
past in order to get rescued from its grasp. The traumatic event is understood only after a period of gap which many a times
delays the meaning and effects of the past incident. Thus, trauma can be defined in relation to the action of remembering
which harbours ill feelings in the subconscious mind.
During, the 1990’s many scholars tried to examine the idea of trauma and its place in literature and society. One such noted
scholarly work was done by Cathy Caruth in her work ‘Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, History’ (1996). Cathy
has created a trauma model where it is viewed as an incident that breaks the consciousness into small bits or fragments and
does not allow a direct representation through language. It highlights the severity of suffering by suggesting that the
traumatic incident can harm the self or soul of an individual. The traumatic experience creates a negative pathological
effect on the consciousness and memory of the individual that does not allow the person to come out of the narrative. This
model insists that the suffering caused by an external source makes internal changes in the mind of an individual and
completely changes his identity and life. “The event is absent in normal consciousness but preserved just beyond the limits
of understanding in a timeless, wordless state and continues to inflict pain on the psyche.” (Balaev, 2018)
This traditional model developed by psychoanalysts like Cathy Caruth had its limitations and many alternative
methodologies were formulated to understand the effect of traumatic experience on the consciousness. “The history of the
concept of trauma is filled with contradictory theories and contentious debates, leaving both psychologists and literary
scholars the ability to work with varying definitions of trauma and its effects” (Balaev 2014).In few alternative approaches,
first define trauma and then start analysing the possibilities or reasons for its existence. It allows them to challenge the
existing classical model and also gives them an opportunity to come to different conclusions. Contemporary theories try to
imbibe the psychoanalytic theories along with semiotic theories that help in restructuring the function and effect of trauma
in literature. “By focusing on the rhetorical, semiotic, and social implications of trauma, contemporary critics have
developed neoLacanian, neoFreudian, and new semiotic approaches.” (Balaev 2014) These critics concentrate on
combining psychoanalytic theory with post-colonial theory or cultural studies. They focus more on social and cultural
components that are hidden in the traumatic experience. Because of their wide and varied nature, these approaches are
combined under the term ‘Pluralistic Model of traumatic experience’.
Pluralistic approach is thus, understanding an individual’s traumatic experience and applying specific approaches that will
focus on individual’s need to cope and overcome that suffering. “The move to emphasize trauma’s specificity according
to a particular personal or historical event indicates the versatility of psychoanalytic trauma theory.” (Balaev, 2018) The
pluralistic model argues that though traumatic memories may be hurtful or disruptive, they may not lead to pathological
symptoms that affect the physical existence of the individual. The pluralistic model shows the diversity of values and how
it changes over time, simultaneously, changing the impact of trauma on an individual or a group. The impact of trauma,
then can be obvious or subtle. How one copes with it depends on the historical, cultural, social parameters present around
that event or individual. The focus then shifts from the internal to external factors.
There are varied interpretations regarding the place of trauma in literature. Many scholars interpret it as ‘theory of trauma
in literature’ or ‘trauma literature’. A general interpretation of trauma literature is that it refers to the way in which writers
bring out the problematic incidents with a degree of intensity with the help of narrative. Trauma literature concentrates on
the ways through which contemporary novelists use the theme of trauma in their writing. Michelle Balaev has coined the
Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results ¦ Volume 13 ¦ Special Issue 10 ¦ 2022
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term ‘trauma novel’, which basically refers to the literary works that convey intense loss or fear at an individual or collective
level. An important feature then of trauma novel or fiction is the process of transformation that takes place internally as a
result of the external terrifying incident that ultimately result in the forming of new perceptions of the self and the world.
As a result of their historical and cultural past, the North East Indian writing of select authors can be classified under
‘trauma novel or trauma fiction’. With this understanding, we now trace the significance of trauma in the select novels of
Easterine Kire and Temsula Ao.
Temsula Ao, is a poet, short story writer and ethnographer from Nagaland, born in 1945. She grew under difficult
circumstances and her poems and short stories reflect them. She is one of the most popular voices of the north east India,
receiving the Padma Shri award in 2007. She has also received the Governor’s Gold Medal, from the Meghalaya
Government, in 2009. In 2013, she was the recipient of the Sahitya academy Award for her short story collection
‘Laburnum for my Head’ (2009). Her works have been translated in many regional languages and in German and French
too.
‘These Hills Called Home: Stories from a War Zone’, published in 2006, is a collection of ten stories, was her first book.
These stories give us a view of the common people caught in violence and terror, during the insurgency and military fear.
They are simple stories which are intertwined with the underground movement or insurgency as a backdrop. These stories
show us that in such conflicts, there are no winners or losers, only victims, who carry their traumatic experiences and learn
to cope with them, in most cases.
The pluralistic traumatic effect can be seen in the reactions of the three characters in one of the most poignant stories from
the collection, These Hills Called Home: Stories from a War Zone’, ‘The Last Song’. The story is set in a small village of
Naga and in the times when the underground rebels and the army were at severe crossroads. The Army was on a lookout
for rebels and the villagers who helped these underground rebels with food and other taxes. The story revolves around a
young girl Apenyo and her mother Libeni, a widow. As she grew, Apenyo turned into a charming and beautiful girl. She
had a beautiful voice and she used to sing in the church choir. One evening, when the villagers had planned a grand
reopening of the new church they had built, the army decides to enter the village and arrest the villagers who had helped
the rebels. As the opening function begins, the first gun shots are heard in the background. The choir singing dilutes the
sound of the gunshots. But now they could be heard just outside the church. The pastor and other village ‘gaonburas’
stopped the celebration and asked the congregation to be together and silent. The army Captain and his men came inside
the church to speak to the elders.
In the story, Apenyo, who had never before faced any traumatic or terrifying situation in her life had no idea how to deal
with such a situation. Her carefree life, had made her bold and fearless. Her reaction to the situation was to continue singing.
This made the Captain notice her. He gets angry at this humiliation and disrespect, which eventually leads to her brutal
rape. If she had stopped singing, she would not have been noticed. Trauma thus, affects individuals differently.
On the other hand, Libeni, “The mother, crazed by what she was witnessing, rushed forward with a animal-like growl as if
to haul the man out off her daughter’s body.” (Ao 2006) She know what trauma and suffering her daughter must have gone
through. Her reaction was to first safeguard her daughter, as she had always done in her life. And so, without thinking she
runs forward like an tigress saving her cub. When a soldier grabs her and pins her on the ground and begins to unzip,
Libeni, realizes what was to follow next. “…she spat on the soldier’s face and tried to free herself from his grasp…he
bashed her head on the hard ground several times knocking her unconscious…”(Ao 2006)She fights back in spite of the
haunting incident she had seen. Even then her limp body was raped. By this time the villagers had reached the site and
witnessed the incident. Noticing the villagers had witnessed the crime he starts “Yelling at the top of his voice, the Captain,
now appeared to have gone mad…his hands were shaking; he thought he could still hear the young girl humming as he
was ramming himself in her virgin body, while all throughout, the girl’s unseeing eyes were fixed on his face….He slumped
down on the ground.” (Ao 2006) Knowing that he had committed a gruesome crime, he now wanted to hide or wash it
away by killing all those who witnessed it. In his traumatic reaction he burns the church with the villages locked inside.
Even the readers are left with a traumatic feeling at the end of the story.
The traditions and culture of the community play an important role in the way one reacts to traumatic situations. They
decide the reactions and the ways to cope with the same. A woman is always subjugated and needs a protector in North
Eastern traditional society. She needs to be married and have children who will carry forward the name of the father. In the
story, ‘The Night’, Inmala, the young peasant girl, is beautiful, charming, and a good weaver who took care of her house.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results ¦ Volume 13 ¦ Special Issue 10 ¦ 2022
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At the time of her marriage, she was wooed by many, but one ardent proposer who belonged from a well-known clan and
was a junior engineer was accepted as a groom. When he proposed to Inmala for physical intimacy before marriage, Inmala
was scared of getting pregnant. But she could not refuse as they would be getting married in any case. After a few months,
when he was absent for a longer duration, it was found out that the man had joined the underground rebels. In the meantime,
Inmala was pregnant. In the council meeting the prospective groom, further refuses to acknowledge his child. Inmala was
thus, devastated, her life ruined. But she faces this trauma boldly, even to the extent of going against her clan. Inmala finds
courage to stand against the whole clan and decides to take care of her child. The same traumatic plight of the daughter,
affects her father and mother differently. The mother, who had till then never questioned the father or the daughter, reacts
differently to this trauma. For the first time, she gets angry on her husband. “The wife retorted, ‘You tell her yourself. Isn’t
she your daughter too? And that rascal. Wasn’t he your partner?’ The old man was taken aback by the vehemence of her
retort. This was the most direct accusation that his wife had hurled at him.” (Ao 2006) The father, on the other hand,
considered to be the protector of the family, blamed himself for bringing home this man. He cursed himself for trusting
this man. He knew the consequences of the council meeting where his daughter could face worse kind of abuse from
chopping of hair to stripping of clothes. The traditional community of north east expects the clan or family head to bow to
the decisions of the village Council, however harsh they may be.
Circumstances and situations faced by an individual based on a particular personal or past incident helps in understanding
the diversity in traumatic reactions. Trauma survivors become resilient and develop coping strategies which are appropriate
to the situation or for themselves. Another short story from the collection, ‘These Hills Called Home: Stories from the war
Zone’, named ‘The Jungle Major’, where the protagonist Khatila, faces a traumatic situation when her husband, Punaba, a
major in the underground rebels, comes to meet her in the village after a gap of many months. He is wounded and he
needed time to rest. But the army were on a lookout for Punaba, the jungle major. That morning, news spread fast that
Punaba had come to meet his wife. By dawn, the army soldiers were heading towards the hut where Khatila and Punaba
lived. Punaba’s sergeants informed him that the soldiers were approaching very fast and he needed to escape. Punaba knew
he could not run because of his wounds. He would surely be shot at like an animal. However, at such a terrifying moment,
Khatila faced it very bravely. Most of her life she lived on her own, took care of her fields and was also an active informer
for the underground troops of which her husband was a major. She therefore, had the presence of mind to act quickly. She
removed his clothes and gun and threw it away, dressed him in spoiled clothes, put ash on his face and made him look like
a servant. When the young Captain knocked on the door, he could hear Khatila abusing and telling the servant to fetch
water. When the officer started to stop the servant Punaba, she says, “Sahib, no use talking to him, he cannot talk. What do
want with a servant?” (Ao 2006) She pushes Punaba out of the house and saves his life.
Power and knowledge too help in facing traumatic situations intelligently. Trauma always creates situations that seem
unresolvable. It is the conditioning and past knowledge that helps the most in overcoming such situations. Temsula Ao’s
second short story collection with eight stories, ‘Laburnum for My Head’ (2009), also brings out the pluralistic model of
trauma. In the short story, ‘A Simple Question’, the woman named Imdongla, an illiterate village woman, faces an army
officer when her husband and few villagers are taken to the army camp, as they used to help the underground rebels by
paying taxes and passing on information. Imdongla was a wise and worldly woman who had knowledge about the politics
and knew the history of her village. She goes to the camp where her husband was kept and asks her husband to be released.
She knew what would embarrass the army officer and so she agrees to remove her clothes in front of the army officer. As
per tradition this was the utmost insult and humiliation a Naga woman would face. The officer is embarrassed and leaves
her husband.
Conclusion:
Finally, this paper concludes that contemporary study in psychoanalytic theories have made people aware of the various
scholarly interpretations which can improve the depiction of trauma in literature. Literature is the depiction of characters
and events of real life and literary theory provides a means of understanding these characters and events. Cognition plays
an important role in character development in literary genres. As a result, psychoanalytic theories have played a major role
in understanding and analysing them. The pluralistic traumatic approach not only helps a critic in interpreting a literary
work but it provides the depth to the writer while planning his characters. The works of Temsula Ao provide an ample field
to study and interpret, using these theories.
References:
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1. Ao, T. (2006).‘These Hills Called Home: Stories from a War Zone’. (ed 1st). New Delhi. Zubaan Books.
2. Ao, T. (2009). ‘Laburnum For My Head’. (ed 1st). New Delhi. Zubaan Books.
3. Balaev, M. (2008). ‘Trends in Literary Trauma Theory’. ‘Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal’. June 2008. Vol. 41. No. 2.University of
Manitoba. Pages 149-166. Viewed 14th May. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/44029500>
4. Balaev, M. (2018). ‘Trauma Studies’. Richter, H.D. (2018). ‘A Companion to Literary Theory’. (ed. 1st). U.K. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Pages 360-
371.
5. Balaev, M. (2014). ‘Literary Trauma Theory Reconsidered’. Balaev, M. (2014). ‘Contemporary approaches in literary trauma theory’. (ed 1st). U.K.
Palgrave Macmillan. Pages 1-14.
6. Das, S. K. (2007). ‘The Conflict and Peace in India’s Northeast: The Role of Civil Society’. (ed 1st). Washington. East -West Centre Washington.
Viewed 12th May. <https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/48414/ps042.pdf>