ArticlePDF Available

The Missing Link

Authors:
  • Ulster Institute for Social Research

Abstract

This article evaluates the relationship between inequality in cognitive test scores across countries and income inequality. By meta-analyzing the standard deviations in PISA results from 2000 to 2018, the authors construct a measure of intelligence inequalities across countries. They then test this measure to investigate if it has any association with income inequality as measured by the gini index. Across all models and subsam-ples, the authors do not find a positive association between intelligence inequality and income inequality. In models where the coefficient is statistically significant, the direction is unexpectedly negative, implying greater intelligence inequality is associated with lower income inequality. This is contrary to theoretical predictions of a positive association between these variables. Finally, the authors also find some evidence that greater mean intelligence is associated with lower levels of income inequality. Keywords intelligence inequality-income inequality-intelligence Supplementary Materials Our complete data set can be accessed at: www.osf.io/vfcsp.
Published with license by Koninklijke Brill NV | doi:10.1163/15691330-bja10077
© Simon Wright and Emil O.W. Kirkegaard, 2023 | ISSN: 1569-1322 (print) 1569-1330 (online)
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
COMPARATIVE
SOCIOLOGY
brill.com/coso
Intelligence Inequality and Income Inequality
The Missing Link
Simon Wright | 󰂹󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆻󰄀󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰄀󰇀󰇁󰇀󰆽󰄀󰇀󰇃󰆼󰆾
r,UK
simonwright50392@protonmail.com
Emil O. W. Kirkegaard | 󰂹󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆻󰄀󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆼󰄀󰇀󰇁󰆻󰇂󰄀󰆻󰆾󰆽󰆼
,n,UK
emil@emilkirkegaard.dk
Abstract

  󰂺  󰄀  
󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰆕󰆓󰆔8,
s.   
x.󰄀
ples,
󰂺t,󰄀
   e,     
lower󰂺
s.󰂶 
󰂺
Keywords
󰄍󰄍
Supplementary Materials
󰂹󰂺 s󰂺󰃈p.
󰆽󰇄󰇄
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
1 Introduction
 󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆓s, s,     
m,󰂶
   x,  s,   e,    
󰃍󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂺n,󰄀
e.
     
󰆔󰆓󰈱󰈺󰆓󰂺󰆚󰆜󰆕󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆓 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃍 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺 e,
   
󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆓
󰃍󰆔󰃎󰃍󰄀󰆕󰆓󰆔6;󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰃎.
t,l,
s,󰄀
     󰃍  󰂺 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎   
󰄀 󰃍󰂶 i,  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎
󰃍s,
x,󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂺
e,t,󰂶󰄀
n.
 󰄀
  ,
t,e,
    󰂺     
s.
󰆼 󰂶󰄍
󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆛󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖
󰄀󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆼󰇁󰃎
󰆾󰆻󰆻 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
       󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓 s,   󰄀
    󰂶t,
          
s,  
  󰂺n,     
s,󰂺
󰆚󰆓      
       󰄀
    x.       

s.
2 Literature Review
          󰄀

 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂷󰂶
s,   󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰂷  󰆕󰆓󰆔6;  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰃎󰂺
           󰃍
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂷󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂶
  e,    󰂶   
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺
  s,
󰃍
󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂷󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃎󰂺
s.󰄀
       p. 󰂶
   e,   
income,      e,  
4󰆓󰄍󰆘󰆓󰈱󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎.
󰄀e,󰄀
s,󰄀
e,        󰂶   

󰂺
󰄘e,
n,󰂺
    󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎     
    s, 
 󰄀        
󰆾󰆻󰆼
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
 󰃍󰂶e,  󰃎󰂺

s,r,
n.
       
  󰃍    
 󰃎       
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺 
󰂺 n,

   
󰂺
󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃎     
       s,  
            󰄀
󰂺󰄀
 ,
s.󰄀
men󰄘
󰃍n,m,󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂶n,
n,p.
  
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎
   󰂶      
    󰂺  󰄀  󰄀
  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰃎󰂶   
l/e      󰄀
󰂺      
 ,         
      󰃍inesen, r, 
ø󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰃎.
3 Data and Methodology
3.1 Simulation
󰄀
󰄀
ment.󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰆔
󰄘    󰃍 󰆔󰃎󰂺
󰎤󰆛󰆘
󰆾󰆻󰆽 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰆔󰆓󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂶
󰆔󰆕󰆔8.󰄀

󰃍󰃎󰂺󰃍󰃎
󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎
 󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆕5,           m.
󰂶  󰄘
n,󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰃎󰄀
       
e.󰆔󰂺󰂶
n,  
󰄘l,
󰄘󰃍i󰃎󰂶󰃍i󰃎.
log(income)ij = IQ_slopeiIQij + National_IQi/13 + ui + uij 󰃍󰆔󰃎
         
󰃍󰆕󰆖󰃎󰄀
s.
󰄀
s.
gini = β0 + β1IQ_SD + u 󰃍󰆕󰃎
gini = β0 + β1IQ_SD + β2log(mean_income) + β3meanIQ + u 󰃍󰆖󰃎
e,     󰆚󰆓   󰄀
     t.   󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓
󰆼
 mean  Income
gini
Income
ratio
󰆞󰆝󰆦󰆝
Mean
income
Median
income
 income
correlation
(r)
ln
Income
min 󰆢󰆠󰂺󰆤󰆤󰆡 󰆞󰆟󰂺󰆝󰆝󰆡 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆥󰆢 󰆣󰂺󰆞󰆥󰆠 󰆞󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆣󰆠󰆣 󰆞󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆟 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆞 󰆢󰂺󰆟󰆦󰆞
 󰆞󰆟󰆠󰂺󰆝󰆤󰆤 󰆞󰆤󰂺󰆦󰆦󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆤󰆠 󰆞󰆤󰂺󰆤󰆦󰆝 󰆥󰆥󰆦󰆟󰆞󰆢󰆞󰂺󰆢󰆤󰆞 󰆢󰆟󰆣󰆣󰆟󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆟󰆡󰆤 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆢󰆤 󰆞󰆣󰂺󰆝󰆝󰆞
 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆤󰆠󰆡 󰆞󰆡󰂺󰆦󰆞󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆡󰆡 󰆥󰂺󰆡󰆣󰆥 󰆞󰆟󰆢󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆤󰆞󰆝 󰆥󰆤󰆤󰆥󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆥 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆢󰆟 󰆦󰂺󰆡󰆠󰆥
 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆦󰆥󰆝 󰆞󰆡󰂺󰆦󰆡󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆢󰆝 󰆦󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆝 󰆢󰆥󰆝󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆟󰆦󰆝 󰆠󰆣󰆥󰆞󰆠󰂺󰆢󰆟󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆟󰆝 󰆦󰂺󰆡󰆥󰆠
 󰆦󰂺󰆦󰆝󰆡 󰆞󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆡 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆣 󰆟󰂺󰆡󰆥󰆠 󰆠󰆝󰆞󰆝󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆠󰆣 󰆞󰆤󰆦󰆢󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆥󰆝󰆞 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆣󰆡󰆣
󰆾󰆻󰆾
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
   󰆚󰆓      
  󰆕󰆖n.    
󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂶󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘
t.
3.2 Empirical Evidence
󰂶
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂺
s,
󰆔󰆙󰄀󰄀󰆚󰆓s.
s,󰄀
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎 󰂶 󰄀
s.󰄀
󰃍   󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰂷 󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂶  

e.󰄀
       󰆕󰃎     
t,󰄀     
           
󰃍󰈺 󰆓󰂺󰆜󰆜󰆜󰆜󰃎󰂺e, 
        
󰃍󰆖󰃎󰂺  r,     󰄀

󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰃍󰆗󰃎.
󰆽 󰂶
󰆾󰆻󰆿 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄

  󰃍  󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺       
e.         
x󰄀󰄀󰂺󰄀
  󰂶   󰆕󰆘󰈱      󰆕󰆘󰈱 
e,󰆘󰆓󰈱󰆘󰆓󰈱󰂶
4󰆘󰄀󰂺s,
 󰆗󰆘󰄀e,      
      n. 
   󰆗󰆘 
󰆗󰆘e,
󰆾 

󰆾󰆻󰇀
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰆓󰆔󰃍󰆓󰈱󰆔󰆓󰆓󰈱󰂶
󰂺     
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎.
     󰃍  󰃎   
󰄀
it󰂺 
󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂶 
󰆿 󰂺󰄙
s”󰂶
s.󰄙󰂶
s;
󰂺n,
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎.
󰆾󰆻󰇁 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰃍󰃎󰂺
󰄀

󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺󰄀
  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂶     
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎s,
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜
c.
         
󰂺
m,

󰂺r, 
      󰄀
          󰄀
    l.
   
󰂺
            

e.
󰂶
󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎
x.󰄀


s. 󰆕󰄀
d,󰆖
t.󰂶
     m,     t.
t,󰄀
s,s,
󰄀
dom.󰆕󰆖󰂺
gini = β0 + β1PISA_SD + β2log(GDP.c) + β3N.IQ + β3QOG + u 󰃍󰆕󰃎
gini = β0 + β1PISA_SD + β2log(GDP.c) + β3N.IQ + β3QOG +
β4QOGPISA_SD + u 󰃍󰆖󰃎
󰆾󰆻󰇂
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
           
 r. r,   

        󰄀
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎󰂺t,e,

󰃍󰆖󰃎󰂺󰄀
    s,     
󰂶 
  e.   󰄀
󰂺e,
d,󰎤
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓8;󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎.
󰆽 
 .gini Econ.Freedom  ln.GDPc 󰂺
min 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆢󰆠 󰆟󰆠󰂺󰆟󰆝 󰆡󰆤󰂺󰆠󰆝 󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆝󰆞 󰆤󰆥󰆣󰆢 󰆤󰆢󰂺󰆠󰆢
 󰆞󰆞󰆟󰂺󰆞󰆝 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆟󰆝 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆟󰆝 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆤󰆥 󰆞󰆞󰆤󰆠󰆡󰆟 󰆞󰆝󰆡󰂺󰆦󰆣
 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆝 󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆟󰆝 󰆣󰆥󰂺󰆝󰆢 󰆢󰆤󰂺󰆡󰆝 󰆠󰆞󰆥󰆤󰆢 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆢󰆥
 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆤 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆟󰆥 󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆤󰆦 󰆣󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆡 󰆠󰆢󰆟󰆡󰆡 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆞󰆥
 󰆣󰆥󰂺󰆥󰆝 󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆠󰆠 󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆤󰆡 󰆟󰆣󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆢 󰆡󰆟󰆢󰆟󰆠󰆣󰆠󰆠󰆥 󰆡󰆤󰂺󰆡󰆡
 󰆥󰂺󰆟󰆦 󰆣󰂺󰆣󰆣 󰆥󰂺󰆟󰆠 󰆞󰆣󰂺󰆞󰆠 󰆟󰆝󰆣󰆟󰆞 󰆣󰂺󰆥󰆦
Note󰂹   󰂶󰂺  ,  
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺
󰆾
Region Mean  Mean income gini
 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆢󰆠 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆢󰆝
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆞󰆠 󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆡󰆠
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆤󰆟 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆡󰆤
 󰆦󰆟󰂺󰆦󰆣 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆠
 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆝󰆠 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆠󰆝
󰆾󰆻󰇃 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
   
     󰃍󰄀 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺    
        s,  
   
󰆗󰂺
   󰄘  󰃍  󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎
s,󰄀
󰃍 󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂺 
8, 󰆛 
s.󰄀
󰂺
  l,
       󰂶    

  󰂶      󰂺

󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎.
󰄀
n,s,
t.
gini = β0 + β1PISA.SD + β2log(GDP.c) + β3N.IQ + β3QOG + ρWgini + u 󰃍󰆗󰃎
4 Results
4.1 Simulation Results
            󰆗󰂶 
         
󰃍󰃎
󰂶e.
󰆚󰆓󰆘󰂺
󰆔󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓
5󰈱 l,  󰆕󰆔󰂺󰆖󰈱
󰆔󰆗󰂺󰆘󰈱          󰂶
    
󰂺
       󰄀
e,󰅦
󰆾󰆻󰇄
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎s,
n.
4.2 Empirical Results
󰆙󰂺
         
  󰂺 r,󰄀
e,   󰄀
󰂶i.e.󰂶
   t.    
󰆕󰄍󰆘  n,
󰆔󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰄀
e.

 ,    
  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺
e.  󰄀
         m,
󰆿 
Predictor/Model 󰆞 󰆟 󰆠
󰃍ntercep󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝󰃎 󰆟󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰆝󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆠󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
l󰃍󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆦󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆟󰆡󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
󰆟󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆡 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆡 󰆝󰂺󰆣󰆦󰆞
󰆞󰆝󰆝󰆝 󰆞󰆝󰆝󰆝 󰆞󰆥󰆞
Note󰂹s.󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂷󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂷󰃻󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂺
󰇀 
Controls 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰈱 󰆞󰈱 󰆢󰈱 Positive
 󰆟󰆞󰂺󰆡󰈱 󰆢󰆠󰂺󰆠󰈱 󰆤󰆥󰂺󰆤󰈱 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆦󰈱
Yes 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆤󰈱 󰆣󰆠󰂺󰆟󰈱 󰆥󰆢󰂺󰆢󰈱 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆦󰈱
󰆾󰆼󰆻 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄

󰂺
󰂶x,s.
󰆚
  n,       󰃍  󰂺
󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂶󰆛
󰂺
󰄘󰂺 
    󰂶
󰄘󰂺
models,t,
󰄀
   s.     
󰂹
  l,     
,
󰆘󰈱s.
󰆜s,
 t, 
    
5󰈱l.      
󰇁 󰂶󰄀

Predictor/Model 󰆞󰆟󰆠󰆡󰆢
󰃍ntercep󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆡󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆟󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆢󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆟󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆦󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆢󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆣󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆟󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆝󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆢󰃎
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆝󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆣󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆥󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆦󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆝󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆡󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆥󰃎
l󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆦󰆟󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆦󰆤󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆣󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆤󰃎
󰃻 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰆝󰃎
󰂺reedom 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆣󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆦󰃎
󰃻con.
reedom
󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆠󰃎
󰆟󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆣󰆥 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆢󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆣󰆤 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆣
󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝
Note󰂹      ,󰂺   ,    
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺s.󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂷
󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂷󰃻󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂺
󰆾󰆼󰆼
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰇂 󰂶󰄀

Predictor/Model 󰆞󰆟󰆠󰆡󰆢
󰃍ntercep󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃎
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃻󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆥󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃻󰃻󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃎
lo󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃎
󰃻 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰃎
󰂺reedom 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃎
󰃻co󰂺reedom 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃎
 󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆥󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰃻󰃻󰃻󰃎
Note󰂹      󰂶󰂺   ,   
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺s.󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂷
󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂷󰃻󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂺
󰇃 
Model Direct Indirect Total
󰆞 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆥󰆤 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆡󰆡 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆠󰆞
󰆟 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆥 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆣󰆡 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆦󰆟
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆦󰆢 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆣󰆞󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆝󰆢
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆣 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆣 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰆟
l󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆟󰆟 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆤󰆤
󰆠 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆢 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆢󰆤 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆥󰆟
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆦󰆟 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆣󰆝󰆟 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆥󰆦󰆡
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆦 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰆦
l󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆠 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆞󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆣󰆥
󰃻 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰆞 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆟󰆟 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆠
󰆡 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆤󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆝󰆝
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆝󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆣󰆟󰆞 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆟󰆞
󰂺reedom 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆣󰆠 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆠
l󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰆥 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆝󰆥 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆢󰆣
󰆢 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆣 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆣 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆝󰆟
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆝󰆣 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆣󰆣󰆝 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆣󰆣
󰂺reedom 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆢󰆥 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆢 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆥󰆠
󰆾󰆼󰆽 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
Model Direct Indirect Total
l󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆠󰆠󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆦󰆞
󰃻co󰂺reedom 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆦󰆠 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆟󰆦
Note󰂹󰂶󰂺,󰄀
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺
s.
󰇃 󰃍cont.󰃎
󰇄 
Predictor/Model 󰆞󰆟󰆠󰆡󰆢
󰃍ntercep󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆞󰆞󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆢󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆤󰆟󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆥󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆠󰆢󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆤󰆟󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆦󰆞󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆞󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆣󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆢󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆝󰆤󰃎
 󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆟󰆥󰃎 󰆞󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆤󰆝󰃎 󰆞󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆤󰆣󰃎 󰆞󰂺󰆟󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆠󰆢󰃎 󰆞󰂺󰆢󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆤󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆟󰆟󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆢󰆥󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆝󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆡󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆡󰆞󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆡󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆦󰆦󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆟󰆤󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆦󰆥󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆥󰆝󰆡󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆣󰆠󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆤󰆦󰆞󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆟󰃍󰆞󰂺󰆝󰆝󰆠󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆢󰃍󰆞󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆠󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆞󰂺󰆝󰆢󰆣󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆠󰃍󰆞󰂺󰆝󰆠󰆣󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆡󰆟󰃍󰆞󰂺󰆝󰆡󰆞󰃎
󰂺 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆡󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆟󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆦󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆠󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆠󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆟󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆠󰃎
 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆠󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆣󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆠󰆣󰃎
lo󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰆢󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰆦󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰆢󰃎 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆣󰆢󰃎
󰃻 󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆞󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆟󰃎
󰂺reedom 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆢󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆢󰃎 󰈵󰆝󰂺󰆝󰆤󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆟󰆣󰃎
󰃻co󰂺reedom 󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆡󰃍󰆝󰂺󰆞󰆞󰆝󰃎
󰆟󰂺 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆠󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆡󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆠󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆡󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆢󰆢
󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝
Note󰂹      󰂶󰂺   ,   
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺s.󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂷
󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂷󰃻󰃻󰃻󰈽󰆓󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂺
s,
   s,    r. 󰂶 
4.
5 Discussion
 t,
     
󰆾󰆼󰆾
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
    e.  
  n. 
n,󰄀
      
  s.    
           
󰂶 
󰂺
   t,      󰆚󰆓   
t,

U.r,r,
󰂶
s,󰄘n.

󰃍󰃎󰄀
       
s.

t.󰄀
   c,   
 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃎 󰃍󰆕󰃎  e.  

s,

󰃍
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺󰄀
     
󰂺    

direction,n,󰄀
  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺    d,
   s,  󰄀
󰃍󰃎
l.t,
    s,
󰃍
󰃎󰂺  s.  

󰎤d.
󰆾󰆼󰆿 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰄀
  l,   l,      
e.

  󰂺  
           
s.󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰃎


n.     󰂶    
 󰄀
󰂺
 󰂶   
  󰄘   󰄀
    n. ,    
󰄀
e.e,
       
󰂺
󰄀
󰂺 
󰂶󰄀
  lo󰄀
󰂶 
e.
󰄀
󰂶󰄀
n.󰂶 

possible.
References
r,d.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜.“T󰄀󰃍󰆔󰂺󰆖󰂺󰆖󰃎.”
d,r,s,n,t,r,
n,ó󰄀,,i,,
e,  i,  i,  ,  ,  o,
e,  󰄀, ür,  s,  o,
.󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕.󰂹s.”
󰆾󰆼󰇀
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
d,.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖.T󰂹
e.󰄛󰆔󰆙󰃍5󰃎󰂹󰆜󰆕󰆖󰄍󰆖󰆓.
n,󰂺󰂶󰂺m,e.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖.
   󰂹   󰄀.󰄛 
󰆜󰆕󰃍󰆔󰃎󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆜󰄍󰆗󰆓.
l, . 󰆕󰆓󰆔5.    󰄀   m?󰄛
󰆗󰆜󰂹󰆔5󰆜󰄍󰆚󰆓.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃈󰂺ntel󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆘󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂺󰆓󰆓8.
d. 󰆕󰆓󰆔6.   󰂹     x.󰄘󰄛 
s.   󰆕󰆛, 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕 󰃍󰂺 s.or󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃈󰆓󰆔󰃈󰆖󰆔󰃈󰄀
󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰄀󰃎.
 s, ,  󰂺󰂺󰂺 x,   󰂺󰂺  t. 󰆕󰆓󰆓8.
󰄀        
.󰄛55󰃍5󰃎󰂹654󰄍󰆛󰆕.
o,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚.“Is.󰄛
󰆙󰆔󰃍󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂹84󰆜󰄍󰆘󰆕.
n,d,r,ø.󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓.
󰂹󰄀.󰄛
󰆕󰆖󰃍󰆔󰃎󰂹44󰆔󰄍65.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆔󰆗󰆙󰃈󰄀󰄀󰆓󰆘󰆕󰆜󰆔󰆛󰄀󰆓󰆕󰆓󰆚󰆓8.
e,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓8.“T.󰄛󰆖󰆙󰃍6󰃎󰂹4󰆜5󰄍5󰆓󰆔.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔6
󰃈󰂺ntel󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰂺󰆓󰆔󰂺󰆓󰆓4.
s.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕.󰂺󰃊e.󰄛󰄀
opers.   󰆔󰆗, 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕 󰃍ttp󰂹//d󰂺e.co󰃈󰄀
/docs/cl/cs_cs󰃎.
󰂶 󰂶  d,  r,   r. 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺
“I󰂺󰄛󰄀󰆔󰄍󰆜󰂺
,  󰂺󰂶   n. 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕.    
󰂿  s,  s,  n.󰄛   󰄀
󰆔󰆚󰃍4󰃎󰂹󰆕6󰆚󰄍󰆖󰆕󰆔.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆚󰃈󰆔󰆓󰆛󰆛󰆚󰄀󰆓󰆔󰆕󰄀󰆜󰆓󰆛󰆔󰄀󰂺
r,s.󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕. 󰄀 󰂹󰄀e. n.
n󰂹s.
l,r,󰂺t.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔.   
   .󰄛󰆖󰆜󰃍5󰃎󰂹󰆖󰆓󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆓. 󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃈󰂺ntel󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂺󰆓󰆘
󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆔󰂺
d,  e,  󰄀,  r,  
n,n.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜.“T 
        󰂹 
.󰄛󰆔4󰆜󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆚.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔6
󰃈󰂺󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂺󰆓45.
n,i,s,n,n.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰂺󰄀
e.r.󰆕󰆕󰆘󰆖󰆕󰆙4.r,Y󰂹 
󰂺
󰆾󰆼󰇁 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
s,t.󰆕󰆓󰆔5.󰂹󰄘
n.s.
s,t,W.r.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓.  󰂹 
s.󰄛48󰃍󰆖󰃎󰂹󰆚4󰆖󰄍55.
n, d. 󰆕󰆓󰆔5.    󰂹   s.
d,n.n,󰂹s.
n,d,r.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜.s.n,󰂹
.
n,d,.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓.
󰆔󰆓󰆛s.󰄛󰆖󰆛󰃍4󰃎󰂹󰆖5󰆖󰄍󰆙󰆓.
s,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕.l,
󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆜󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆚U
.󰄛󰆜󰆗󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆔󰆙󰆛6.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃈󰂺ntel󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆔󰆙󰆛6.
r,󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔.󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆓
󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓  󰄘  t?󰄛    
󰆔󰆓󰆚󰃍󰆔󰃎󰂹󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆕.
, d. 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚.    󰂿󰄛
󰆗󰆚󰃍4󰃎󰂹󰆖.
,s.󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕.    
s.󰄛󰆖󰆖󰆜󰄍󰆗󰆖.
,  t,  i,   󰂺 e. 󰆕󰆓󰆔8.
“I    󰄀󰂹     󰄀
.󰄛󰆕󰆚󰃍󰆖󰃎󰂹5󰆚󰆚󰄍󰆜󰆙.
.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜.󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃍󰃎󰂹o.
l, m,󰂺 s,,r,󰂺Kt,
  d. 󰆕󰆓󰆔8.“I   󰂹   
󰄀s.󰄛
󰆔󰆚󰃍󰆔󰃎󰂹󰆚󰆙󰄍󰆛󰆜.
, r, 󰂺 s,   i. 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕.  
󰄘           
  s?󰄛     󰆔󰆔4󰃍5󰃎󰂹󰆔󰆔󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆘. 󰂹
󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆖󰆚󰃈󰆓󰆓󰆓󰆓󰆙󰆛󰆚󰂺
o,,󰂺á.󰆕󰆓󰆔8.󰂶
  d?     s.󰄛
󰆘󰆜󰂹󰆜󰆕󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆕.
n, r. 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆚.“T 󰄁     󰄀
󰂹  ,,  󰄁 
s.󰄛󰆕󰆔󰃍5󰃎󰂹66󰆚󰄍󰆚󰆓6.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃈er.6󰆖4.
n,r.󰆕󰆓󰆔8. 󰂹   
s.e,m;󰂶Y󰂹e.
r,x,󰄀.󰆕󰆓󰆔6.“I.󰄛.
󰆾󰆼󰇂
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰄀. 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚.      .󰄛 
󰆕󰆜,󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃍󰂺co󰂺c.ed󰃈󰅦b/󰃈󰅨󰅨󰂺tml󰃎.
Teorell,n,öm,ö,n,n,
i.󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕.“Tt,
󰆕󰆕.
n,󰂺󰂶  󰂺 t. 󰆕󰆓󰆔8.“T 
󰂹s,󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆔5.󰄛
󰆔8󰆔󰃍󰆖󰃎󰂹󰆕86󰄍󰆖󰆓6.󰂹󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆔󰆔󰆚󰆚󰃈󰆓󰆓󰆗󰆖󰆛󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰆛󰆚󰆜󰆜󰆗󰆕5.
. 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓.   󰄍 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓 e.󰄛  󰄍   󰄀
e. 󰆔󰆖,󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕 󰃍ttp󰂹/󰃈i󰂺orl󰃈󰄀󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰄀
󰄀󰃎.
. 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔.W  󰃊  x.󰄛 󰄀
ber 󰆔󰆕, 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕 󰃍ttp󰂹//d󰂺󰂺r󰃈󰃈󰂺O󰂺 I/?e󰈺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔
󰈺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰈺p󰃎.
.󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕.W󰃊 .󰄛󰆕󰆛,
󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰎛󰃍ttp󰂹//d󰂺󰂺r󰃈eport󰂺spx?s󰈺󰆕󰈺󰂺
.󰂺󰂺󰈺󰆒󰃎󰂺
Appendix
󰂹󰂺 s󰂺󰃈p.
󰆼 
 󰅨󰅨 gini Econ.Freedom  GDP󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆞󰆦 󰂺
 󰆦󰆞 󰆠󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆡󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰆠󰆦󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆡 󰆥󰆟󰂺󰆠
 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆞 󰆟 󰆟󰆣 󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆟 󰆤󰆞󰆞󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆤 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆞
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆢󰆝󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰆟󰆦󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆡 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆦
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆢 󰆢󰆞󰆤󰆡󰆥󰂺󰆡 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆦
 󰆦󰆣󰂺󰆠 󰆞 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆤󰆠󰂺󰆥 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆟 󰆢󰆥󰆝󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆠
 󰆤󰆦 󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆣󰆞󰂺󰆣 󰆢󰆟󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰆢󰆝󰆢󰆞󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆞
 󰆞󰆝󰆠󰂺󰆠 󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆤󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆢󰆡󰆟󰆤󰆥󰂺󰆡 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆣
 󰆞󰆝󰆡 󰆟 󰆡󰆝󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆞 󰆡󰆢󰂺󰆦 󰆟󰆡󰆡󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆣 󰆦󰆡
 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆠 󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆠󰆠 󰆣󰆠󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰆢󰆤󰆞󰆞󰂺󰆟 󰆦󰆟󰂺󰆞
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆟󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆠 󰆢󰆣󰂺󰆥 󰆟󰆝󰆝󰆦󰆟󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆣󰂺󰆢
 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆡󰆥󰂺󰆦 󰆢󰆠󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆥󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰆢󰆠󰆢󰆥󰂺󰆞 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆡
 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆥 󰆡󰆦󰆟󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰆝󰆞󰂺󰆟
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆞 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆟 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆤 󰆤󰆟󰆝󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰆝󰆝󰂺󰆠
 󰆥󰆢󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆦 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆣󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆟󰆢󰆠󰆟󰆟󰂺󰆤 󰆥󰆥󰂺󰆞
󰆾󰆼󰇃 
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
 󰅨󰅨 gini Econ.Freedom  GDP󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆞󰆦 󰂺
 󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆣 󰆟 󰆠󰆥󰂺󰆟 󰆡󰆥 󰆢󰆣󰂺󰆤 󰆞󰆣󰆣󰆢󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰆝󰆠󰂺󰆡
 󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆤 󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆡󰆝 󰆞󰆢󰆣󰆤󰆠󰂺󰆞 󰆥󰆞󰂺󰆢
 󰆤󰆠󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆡󰆦󰂺󰆠 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆢󰂺󰆠 󰆟󰆟󰆣󰆠󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆠
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆟 󰆠󰆞󰂺󰆟 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆦 󰆣󰆞󰂺󰆤 󰆡󰆟󰆠󰆠󰆥󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆣
 󰆦󰆣 󰆞 󰆟󰆢󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆡󰆟󰆥󰆡󰆤 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆟
 󰆞󰆝󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰆞󰂺󰆤 󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆞 󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆟 󰆢󰆢󰆣󰆢󰆟󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆞
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆤󰆥 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆥󰆤󰆝󰆞 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆣
 󰆤󰆢 󰆟󰂺󰆤 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆣󰆠 󰆠󰆢 󰆞󰆦󰆞󰆦󰆝 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆣
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆠 󰆣󰆥󰂺󰆟 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆤 󰆡󰆞󰆣󰆦󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆦󰆣󰂺󰆥
 󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆦 󰆞 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆥󰆝 󰆤󰆢󰂺󰆟 󰆠󰆤󰆥󰆢󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆞󰆝󰆝󰂺󰆣
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆤󰆥󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆢󰆝󰆠󰆟󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰆝󰆞󰂺󰆢
 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆦 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆤 󰆡󰆦󰆝󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆠
 󰆦󰆣󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰂺󰆟 󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆤 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆟 󰆡󰆦󰆝󰆡󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰆝󰆝
 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆤󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰆢󰆣󰆟󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆥󰆤
 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆤 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆞 󰆣󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆢󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆝󰆠󰆢󰆣󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆢󰂺󰆢
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆢 󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆟󰆥󰂺󰆦 󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆣 󰆡󰆥󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆝󰆢󰆡󰆠󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆞
 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆣 󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆝 󰆣󰆣󰂺󰆦 󰆡󰆥󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆠󰆢󰆞󰆡󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆡
 󰆤󰆠󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆤󰂺󰆠 󰆣󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆟󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰆟󰆠󰆞󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆠
 󰆥󰆥󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆟 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆦 󰆥󰆤󰆠󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆤
 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆦 󰆞 󰆟󰆣󰂺󰆞 󰆤󰆤 󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆦 󰆢󰆥󰆟󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆞 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆞
 󰆞󰆞󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰆥󰂺󰆣 󰆣󰆥 󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆡󰆝󰆝󰆝󰆡 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆡
 󰆦󰆢󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆡 󰆢󰆠 󰆡󰆡󰆠󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆟 󰆦󰆥
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆠󰂺󰆤 󰆣󰆝󰂺󰆞 󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰆝󰆡󰆦󰆣󰂺󰆡 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆣
 󰆦󰆢󰂺󰆠 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰆟󰂺󰆦 󰆣󰆦󰂺󰆦 󰆥󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆡󰆟󰆟󰆥󰆟󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰆝󰆡
 󰆥󰆝 󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆟󰆤󰆡󰆣󰆡 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆥
 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆠󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆣 󰆢󰆥 󰆡󰆟󰆦󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆡 󰆞󰆝󰆢
 󰆞󰆝󰆠󰂺󰆢 󰆡 󰆠󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆡󰆤󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰆢󰆞󰆝󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆥󰆟󰂺󰆦
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆢󰂺󰆥 󰆢󰆥󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆥󰆢󰆡󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆦󰆢
 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆟 󰆥󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰆞󰆤󰆠󰆡󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆤
 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆤󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆢󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆞󰆥󰆥󰆠󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆠
 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆢 󰆟󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆢󰆦󰂺󰆟 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆤󰆥󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆢󰂺󰆡
 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆟󰆣 󰆣󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆤󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰆠󰆢󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆣
 󰆥󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆡󰆢󰂺󰆡 󰆣󰆠󰂺󰆤 󰆠󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰆦󰆥󰆣󰆟󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆢󰂺󰆣
 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆠 󰆞󰂺󰆤 󰆠󰆠 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆤 󰆢󰆦󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰆤󰆢󰆡󰆣󰂺󰆡 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆢
 󰆞󰆞󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆞 󰆤󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆣󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆤󰆡󰆝󰆤󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆢
 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆡 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆣󰂺󰆥 󰆢󰆤󰂺󰆥 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆟󰆠󰆝󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆣 󰆥󰆥󰂺󰆠
󰆼 󰃍cont.󰃎
󰆾󰆼󰇄
󰆽󰆽󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆾󰃎󰆽󰇄󰇃󰄍󰆾󰆼󰇄
 󰅨󰅨 gini Econ.Freedom  GDP󰂺󰆟󰆝󰆞󰆦 󰂺
 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆡󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆣󰆥󰂺󰆞 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰆦󰆣󰆟󰆞 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆞
 󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆟󰆦󰂺󰆟 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆢 󰆥󰆢 󰆢󰆦󰆝󰆝󰆡󰂺󰆠 󰆞󰆝󰆞󰂺󰆟
 󰆦󰆢󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆟󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆤󰆣󰂺󰆦 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆣󰆤󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆟 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆠
 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆠 󰆡󰆦󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆟󰆤󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆥󰆞󰂺󰆞
 󰆥󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆡󰆠󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆣󰂺󰆢 󰆡󰆟󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰆠󰆡󰆝󰆞 󰆥󰆞󰂺󰆤
 󰆤󰆤󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆡󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆣󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆡󰆟󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆟󰆦󰆞 󰆥󰆝󰂺󰆡
 󰆦󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆥󰂺󰆤 󰆣󰆟󰂺󰆟 󰆠󰆠󰆤󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆥 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆢
 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆠󰆟󰂺󰆥 󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆠󰆣󰆞󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆢
 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆢 󰆞󰂺󰆤 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆡󰆥󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆞󰆥󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆠 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆠
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰂺󰆟 󰆠󰆣 󰆢󰆣󰂺󰆞 󰆡󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆠󰆝󰆝󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆤 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆡
 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆠󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆣󰆢󰂺󰆟 󰆡󰆤󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰆥󰆥󰆟󰆟󰂺󰆡 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆞
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆥 󰆞 󰆟󰆠󰂺󰆟 󰆣󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆡󰆟󰂺󰆣 󰆠󰆞󰆦󰆣󰆣󰂺󰆣 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆟
 󰆦󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆝󰂺󰆥 󰆟󰆡󰂺󰆡 󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆢 󰆢󰆦󰂺󰆦 󰆡󰆝󰆣󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆦 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆦
 󰆦󰆤 󰆞󰂺󰆟 󰆟󰆦󰂺󰆠 󰆤󰆤󰂺󰆦 󰆥󰆡󰂺󰆢 󰆢󰆡󰆢󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆥 󰆦󰆦󰂺󰆥
 󰆤󰆦󰂺󰆤 󰆝󰂺󰆤 󰆠󰆢 󰆣󰆠󰂺󰆟 󰆡󰆦󰂺󰆣 󰆞󰆦󰆟󰆞󰆣󰂺󰆥 󰆥󰆦󰂺󰆤
 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆦 󰆞󰂺󰆡 󰆡󰆞󰂺󰆦 󰆢󰆣󰂺󰆦 󰆢󰆦󰂺󰆡 󰆟󰆣󰆥󰆣󰆤󰂺󰆢 󰆥󰆣󰂺󰆠
 󰆦󰆟󰂺󰆦 󰆞 󰆟󰆢󰂺󰆣 󰆢󰆡󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆤󰂺󰆞 󰆞󰆠󰆠󰆡󰆢󰂺󰆡 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆢
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆟󰂺󰆢 󰆡󰆝󰂺󰆟 󰆤󰆝 󰆤󰆝󰂺󰆞 󰆟󰆡󰆝󰆝󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆦󰆝󰂺󰆠
 󰆦󰆤󰂺󰆟 󰆞󰂺󰆠 󰆡󰆞󰂺󰆢 󰆤󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆤󰆞󰂺󰆥 󰆣󰆢󰆝󰆦󰆡󰂺󰆥 󰆦󰆥󰂺󰆣
 󰆤󰆥󰂺󰆟 󰆟󰂺󰆞 󰆠󰆢󰂺󰆤 󰆣󰆝󰂺󰆣 󰆡󰆣󰂺󰆥 󰆞󰆝󰆢󰆣󰆟 󰆦󰆠󰂺󰆣
󰆼 󰃍cont.󰃎
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This book serves as an accessible introduction into how meta-analyses can be conducted in R. Essential steps for meta-analysis are covered, including pooling of outcome measures, forest plots, heterogeneity diagnostics, subgroup analyses, meta-regression, methods to control for publication bias, risk of bias assessments and plotting tools. Advanced, but highly relevant topics such as network meta-analysis, multi-/three-level meta-analyses, Bayesian meta-analysis approaches, SEM meta-analysis are also covered. The programming and statistical background covered in the book are kept at a non-expert level. A print version of this book has been published with Chapman & Hall/CRC Press (Taylor & Francis). The complete book can be accessed online: https://bookdown.org/MathiasHarrer/Doing_Meta_Analysis_in_R/.
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Few issues in the social sciences are as controversial as the role of cognitive ability for educational and subsequent socioeconomic attainments. There are a variety of arguments raised to dismiss, discount or discredit the role of cognitive ability: socioeconomic background is the dominant influence; if cognitive ability appears important, that is only because important predictors have been omitted; the relative importance of socioeconomic background and cognitive ability cannot be ascertained; and cognitive ability is simply a function of socioeconomic background and, for post-education socioeconomic attainments, education. This study analyses the effects of cognitive ability and socioeconomic background on a chronological sequence of social stratification outcomes - school grades, SAT and ACT scores, educational and occupational attainment, income and wealth - in data from the 1979 and 1997 National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth. The coefficients for cognitive ability decline marginally with the addition of socioeconomic background measures, including family-of-origin income averaged over several years, and wealth. In contrast, socioeconomic background coefficients decline substantially with the addition of cognitive ability. Net of educational attainment, cognitive ability has sizable effects on occupational attainment and income. Net of socioeconomic background, education and occupation, a one-standard-deviation difference in ability corresponds to a sizable 43% difference in positive wealth at around age 35 in the older cohort and a 25% increase in the younger cohort. Therefore, contrary to dominant narratives, cognitive ability is important to a range of social stratification outcomes, and its effects cannot be attributed to socioeconomic background or educational attainment.
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International Large-Scale Assessments (LSA) allow comparisons of education systems’ effectiveness in promoting student learning in specific domains, such as reading, mathematics, and science. However, it has been argued that students’ scores in International LSAs mostly reflect general cognitive ability (g). This study examines the extent to which students’ scores in reading, mathematics, science, and a Raven’s Progressive Matrices test reflect general ability g and domain-specific abilities with data from 3,472 Polish students who participated in the OECD’s 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and who were retested with the same PISA instruments, but with a different item set, in 2010. Variance in students’ responses to test items is explained better by with a bifactor Item Response Theory (IRT) model than by the multidimensional IRT model routinely used to scale PISA and other LSAs. The bifactor IRT model assumes that non-g factors (reading, math, science, and Raven’s test) are uncorrelated with g and with each other. The bifactor model generates specific ability factors with more theoretically credible relationships with criterion variables than the multidimensional standard model. Further analyses of the bifactor model indicate that the domain-specific factors are not reliable enough to be interpreted meaningfully. They lie somewhere between unreliable measures of domain-specific abilities and nuisance factors reflecting measurement error. The finding that PISA achievement scores reflect mostly g, which may arise because PISA aims to test broad abilities in a variety of contexts or may be a general characteristic of LSAs and national achievement tests. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: This study analyzes Programme for International Student Assessment data from Poland to establish how much the achievement of secondary school students in reading, mathematics, science and in a Raven’s Progressive Matrices test reflects general ability and how much it reflects domain-specific abilities. Findings indicate that a scaling model that accounts for general ability, fit the data better than models typically employed in large scale assessments that ignore the influence of general ability on student achievement. The finding that students’ responses to PISA test items reflect general ability rather than domain-specific abilities, if replicated to other countries, could have important implications for the design of large-scale assessments and the interpretation of analyses of large-scale assessment data.
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The present register-based study investigated the influence of familial factors on the association of IQ with educational and occupational achievement among young men in Denmark. The study population comprised all men with at least one full brother where both the individual and his brothers were born from 1950 and appeared before a draft board in 1968–1984 and 1987–2015 (N = 364,193 individuals). Intelligence was measured by Børge Priens Prøve at age 18. Educational and occupational achievement were measured by grade point average (GPA) in lower secondary school, time to receiving social benefits at ages 18–30, and gross income at age 30. The statistical analyses comprised two distinct statistical analyses of the investigated associations: A conventional cohort analysis and a within-sibship analysis in which the association under investigation was analysed within siblings while keeping familial factors shared by siblings fixed. The results showed that an appreciable part of the associations of IQ with educational and occupational achievement could be attributed to familial factors shared by siblings. However, only the within sibling association between IQ and GPA in lower secondary school clearly differed from the association observed in the cohort analysis after covariates had been taken into account.
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One of the most important economic trends of the past 30 years has been the escalating levels of within-country income inequality. Much of the developed world is currently experiencing large increases in income inequality. Indeed, income inequality in the United States now exceeds the previous highs of the 1930s. Recent research has found that increases in income inequality can produce a wide variety of societal ills. This article examines the effects of economic inequality on educational outcomes. Drawing on data provided by the World Bank and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) from 2000 through 2015, we find that a country’s level of economic inequality has large, negative effects on its student academic achievement. The effect sizes are largest in math. We examine a variety of potential solutions to lessen within-country economic inequality.