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Anticipation and decision-making
... Underpinning our understanding of expert perceptual-cognitive skill in sports is the robust research base emphasizing the malleability of these skills with appropriate training (Williams and Ford, 2008). Differences between expert athletes and lesser skilled performers have been identified in several areas of perceptual skill (for an overview compare Williams et al., 2011;Williams and Abernethy, 2012). Several studies have shown that skills like decision making (Put et al., 2013) and anticipation (Murgia et al., 2014) can be trained. ...
... Perhaps most relevant for the current investigation, one of the most consistently noted skills has been the ability to recall patterns of domain specific information (cf. Williams and Abernethy, 2012). For example, in team-based interactive sports, experts have been shown to have superior recall of the offensive and defensive structure in their sport than lesser skilled performers . ...
In sport, perceptual skill training software is intended to assist tactical training in the field. The aim of this field study was to test whether “laboratory-based” pattern recall training would augment tactical skill training performed on the field. Twenty-six soccer players between 14 and 16 years of age from a single team participated in this study and were divided into three groups. The first received field training on a specific tactical skill plus cognitive training sessions on the pattern recall task. The second performed only the field training while the third group served as a control group and had field training on other topics. The task on the pre-, post-, and retention-tests was to recall specific soccer patterns displayed on a computer screen. Results showed significant changes between pre- and post-test performance. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests but the effect size was large. From pre- to retention-test, there was a significant difference between tests and an interaction between groups and tests, but no main effect difference between groups. On the basis of significance testing only retention was affected by the additional training, however, descriptive results and effect sizes from pre- to post-test were as expected and suggested there were learning benefits. Together these results indicate that augmented perceptual-cognitive training might be beneficial, but some limitations in our study design (e.g., missing field test, missing placebo group, etc.) need to be improved in future work.
... The program was designed on the following theoretical basis: (i) high-intensity explosive technical actions are the 7-9% of the total match activity 10 and have a huge impact on performance; (ii) dynamic unipedal balance is required in soccer for the main technical skills; in many disciplines, the more proficient athletes display greater balance ability, which is strictly task specific 7,30 ; (iii) expertise results from the development of domainspecific skills acquired through the adaptation to extended exposure to unique demands of practice and performance. 31,32 Hence, the more specific the training program, the more efficient. 18 The proposed program is an attempt to combine these issues in a single methodology. ...
... The key point of the proposed program was probably to act simultaneously on the physical, technical, and perceptual corners of soccer performance, thus optimizing the training process. Since receiving highquality training and being exposed to a variety of training stimuli is important for a player to ultimately reach the highest level, 32 we believe that the methodological implication of this study should be regarded as potentially helpful in improving youth soccer training effectiveness. ...
High-intensity actions with high technical demands heavily influence soccer game outcomes. While performance factors have been traditionally trained separately, a program combining agility and technique training was proposed, structured on artificial constraints (tapes) creating spatiotemporal restrictions.
This repeated-measures study involved an experimental and a control group: 20 Under-12 sub-elite male soccer players were tested before and after a 22-weeks differentiated training intervention or the traditional training schedule.
The proposed program produced higher performance improvements, compared to traditional training, in the Shuttle Sprint Test (two-way analysis of variance, factors: Group and Time, significant Group × Time interaction, P < 0.05) and in the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test execution time (−4.8%, P < 0.05). Both groups improved Slalom Dribbling Test performance (P < 0.001).
We concluded that the proposed program could enhance performance in 180° change-of-direction and in the time to complete a controlling and passing dynamic task.
The methodological implications of this study could be beneficial in improving youth soccer training effectiveness.
... Anticipation is the ability to recognise the outcome of other athlete's actions prior to those actions being executed. Decision-making is the ability to plan, select and execute an action based on the current situation and the knowledge possessed (Williams & Ford, 2013). The majority of researchers have examined anticipation processes, with less research being conducted on decision-making or how experts acquire the skills underpinning these judgements. ...
... A related question for future research is whether perceptualcognitive skill training that does not involve a movement response can lead to improved performance in the field. One advantage of perceptual-cognitive skills training is that athletes can engage in it when they are not able to physically practice, such as when injured, travelling to competition, resting at home or recovering from training (Williams & Ford, 2013). In cases where athletes are unable to physically respond, then perceptual-cognitive skills training without a movement response may be superior to other activities, acting as a form of observational learning (Horn, Williams, & Scott, 2002), albeit with greater cognitive effort (Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994). ...
Abstract Perceptual-cognitive skills training provides a potentially valuable method for training athletes on key skills, such as anticipation and decision-making. It can be used when athletes are unable to physically train or are unable to experience repeated key situations from their sport. In this article, we review research on perceptual-cognitive skills training and describe future research areas focusing on a number of key theories and principles. The main aim of any training intervention should be the efficacy of retention and transfer of learning from training to field situations, which should be the key consideration when designing the representative tasks used in perceptual-cognitive skills training. We review the principles that seek to create practice tasks that replicate those found in the field, so as to increase the amount of transfer that occurs. These principles are perception-action coupling, the contextual interference effect and contextual information, which suggest there should be a high level of similarity between training and real-life performance when designing perceptual-cognitive skills training. In the final section, we discuss the transfer of retained skill acquisition from perceptual-cognitive skills training to field performance, which we suggest to be the key area for future research in this area.
... Regarding preparatory actions, studies have indicated that counter movements and flexing of lower limb joints, thereby creating a pre-tensioned muscular state, enhance subsequent performance [15][16][17]. Numazu [18] defined a small vertical jump, commonly performed by GKs before executing a save, as a preparatory action. This action was frequently executed irrespective of the save success. ...
The kinetic demands of a football goalkeeper (GK) involve preventing opposing shots from entering the goal, which requires rapid and well-coordinated defensive actions. However, the biomechanics of these preparatory movements, particularly in response to diverse shot scenarios, remain insufficiently understood. Herein, the biomechanical characteristics intrinsic to the preparatory movements executed by GKs during defensive diving are elucidated. Three-dimensional coordinate data of the 10 GKs and 5 strikers were captured using two synchronized motion capture systems comprising cameras with an analog synchronization signal. A total of 172 trials were analyzed, during which GKs dived toward shots. GKs leaned forward, flexed their lower limbs, externally rotated and abducted the hips, and positioned their feet at 70–75% of leg length to respond quickly to shots. Preparatory takeoff occurred concurrently with the striker support leg contact, and GKs adjusted their movements after the striker-ground contact. These findings underscore the importance of effective preparatory movements for enhancing shot-stopping abilities, while also providing insights for optimizing training protocols to improve GKs adaptability and precision during matches.
... https://doi.org/10.70262/riesafd.v1i1.2024 7 instructores en las instituciones de formación deportiva (Vaeyens et al., 2007;Williams & Ford, 2013). ...
La sarcopenia, caracterizada por la pérdida de masa muscular, deteriora funciones clave como la velocidad de marcha, fuerza, equilibrio y movilidad en mujeres adultas sedentarias. El objetivo del estudio se centró en determinar la asociación entre actividad física y la sarcopenia e n mujeres adultas sedentarias. El estudio siguió la metodología de una investigación correlacional, para cuyo desarrollo se empleó el análisis bibliográfico, la entrevistas (Google Forms) y la estadística descriptiva. Intervino una muestra de 30 mujeres adultas entre 40 y 65 años, seleccionadas mediante un muestreo no probabilístico por criterios, de una población de 42 sujetos. Para evaluar la sarcopenia se utilizó la batería EWGSOP2, la cual establece tres criterios: resistencia física, fuerza de agarre y circunferencia de pantorrilla, la cual utiliza una escala validada que permite identificar: pre-sarcopenia, sarcopenia leve o severa. Los resultados mostraron que la sarcopenia y la actividad física son dependientes (p=0,000), por lo cual se acepta la hipótesis de asociación (Hi). Además, se confirmó una fuerte asociación inversa (V-Cramer=0,724) entre las variables (H0), evidenciándose sarcopenia severa únicamente en mujeres físicamente inactivas y mayores de 50 años. Estos hallazgos demuestran una asociación positiva y directa entre la actividad física y la sarcopenia, lo que resalta la importancia de promover un estilo de vida saludable, y activo desde la actividad física, para prevenir el sedentarismo, la obesidad, la disminución de la condición física y la masa muscular en las mujeres adultas.
... https://doi.org/10.70262/riesafd.v1i1.2024 7 instructores en las instituciones de formación deportiva (Vaeyens et al., 2007;Williams & Ford, 2013). ...
La presente investigación se centró en evaluar la velocidad de reacción en futbolistas en la categoría de 10 a 12 años. Metodología: el estudio que s presenta tiene un alcance descriptivo con enfoque trasversa, en el cual se empleó el método analítico sintético, inductivo deductivo, el análisis bibliográfico, la prueba (Test bastón de Galton y Test de Litwin), la medición y la estadística descriptiva con sus correspondientes análisis porcentuales y de frecuencia. Se inició con la sistematización teórica de la variable relevante: velocidad de reacción en futbolistas, en futbolistas de la academia Junior Balseca del cantón Baños de Agua Santa de Tungurahua. Resultados: La evaluación de la velocidad de reacción medite el test bastón de Galton determinó que un 5% de los evaluados se encuentran en un nivel de extremadamente pobre, mientras tanto que un 10% y 5% se encuentran en un nivel de muy bueno y extremadamente bueno. El test de Litwin demostró que entre un 10% y un 20% de los evaluados se encuentran entre el criterio de mal y bajo, mientras que un 30% se ubican en el criterio de medio, el 25% y el 15% se concentran en el criterio de bueno y excelente respectivamente. Conclusión: La comparación entre los test arrojó que existe un bajo número de evaluados que se encuentran entre los niveles mal y extremadamente pobre con un 10% y un 5%, lo que se traduce en dos evaluados y un evaluado respectivamente en cada uno de los test aplicados.
... Decision making is broadly defined as the process of choosing from a set of options, with the choice representing the final output, while judgment refers to a set of evaluative processes that individuals draw on when making decisions (Bar-Eli et al., 2011;Koehler & Harvey, 2004). Sometimes used with no strong conceptual distinction (Williams & Ward, 2007, p. 203), we distinguish decision making from anticipation, which has been described as an ability to foresee and recognize the outcome of one's actions prior to and during the action execution (Williams & Ford, 2013). Anticipation is therefore seen as one of the elements of the decision-making processes rather than its synonym (Janssen et al., 2023). ...
Athletes, sports officials, and coaches make decisions while facing varying levels of cognitive and motor demands. While classic judgment and decision-making (JDM) theories have focused on the cognitive demands, emerging approaches emphasize the interaction of cognitive and motor processes. As the theoretical understanding of JDM is not independent of the experimental tasks used to assess them, the present scoping review aimed to determine to what extent existing decision-making tasks in sports account for dynamic cognition–action interaction. Three databases were systematically searched. Studies were included if they comprised healthy participants, who completed a decision-making task with sport-specific stimuli, and decision-making parameters were assessed as main dependent variables. Upon screening, 430 studies were included, comprising 371 distinct decision-making tasks. The majority of the included studies examined decision-making processes in athletes (70.3%), followed by officials (26.7%) and coaches (3.0%). Despite the frequent use of video stimuli, the presentation of options was deemed rather static in the majority of the laboratory tasks (83.0%). The requisite responses in studies on sports officials and coaches were rather discrete (88.7%), largely constituting micromovements, while 66.4% of athletes’ responses were categorized as continuous, predominantly featuring whole-body movements. Understanding of the cognition–action interaction in JDM is currently undermined by relying on static rather than dynamic options, a focus on simulated rather than executed movements, and dependent variables that are not sufficiently sensitive to capture the cognition–action interaction. We encourage future research to tackle the identified limitations by making use of emerging theoretical approaches and technological developments.
... Successful and effective decision-making is a key part of athletes' performance. It is defined as the ability to use information from the current situation and knowledge about it to plan, select and carry out an appropriate action or set of actions aimed at a goal [1]. The decision-making process is considered an integral part of goal-oriented behaviour influenced by functional limitations in the scope of the environment-athlete relationship, and its quality selects elite players and can be improved during life [2,3]. ...
Background: The specific goal was to determine the level and differences in the performance of reactive agility (RA) depending on the type of visual stimulus and to identify the role of selected psychological patterns in the decision-making process. Method: 13 female basketball players (17.12 ± 1.09 years; mean BW 58.17 kg ± 7.68 kg; mean BH 1.73 ± 0.11, BMI 19.53 ± 3.86) playing top Slovak junior league. The diagnosis of specific game reactions was carried out using a Y-shaped reaction agility test. The stimulus for the action effect was a light direction indicator and a video sequence. Decision-making style was assessed using the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire (MDMQ). Results: The significance of the differences between offensive actions according to the type of stimulus was revealed by statistically significant differences between offensive reaction agility to a light stimulus and a stimulus with a contextual stimulus, and also in the case of defensive actions. Correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between offensive and defensive skills in the light stimulus, between the performance in offensive skills in the light stimulus, between the two types of defensive agility (light and video) and in the context stimulus, and a correlation between vigilance and both offensive activities was also found. Conclusion: The player's sensorimotor mechanisms are different depending on the type of stimulus, not on the type of actions, which leads to the conclusion that specific contextual information can lead to faster and more accurate decisions during the game 1:1 and improve the timing of action effects.
... Anticipation is defined as the ability to predict the outcomes of others' actions prior to the execution of those actions (Williams & Ford, 2013;Williams & Jackson, 2019). To anticipate, an athlete needs highly attuned perceptual-cognitive skills to locate, identify and process relevant kinematic and contextual sources of information and integrate this with their current motor capabilities to make an effective decision and execute the appropriate actions (Williams, Broadbent, Murphy, & Janelle, 2018b;Williams, Ford, Eccles, & Ward, 2011). ...
... Research suggests that it may not be the accumulation of football specific practice and match play during the junior and youth development years that distinguishes the high performing player from the lower performing player, rather, high performing players have accumulated more hours in football specific, non-coach led, play activity than less skilled players (Williams & Ford, 2013). ...
This book will outline a process of exploring, modifying, experimenting,
adapting and developing ‘thinking players’.
... Another dependent variable of the research is tactical skills. It is stated that in order to perform at a high level in competitive sports, the athlete must have advanced tactical skills along with technical and physiological parameters (Helsen, & Starkes, 1999;Nougier, & Rossi, 1999;Williams, & Ford, 2013). Tactical skills are seen in anticipation sports where the athletes compete against the opponent in the same action area during the game. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine the creativity and tactical skill levels of the athletes (n=259) who actively continued their sports life in handball in Turkey in the 2020-2021 season. In order to determine athlete’s creativity levels, we used the “Creativity Questionnaire for Athletes” and for tactical skills, we used the “Tactical Skills Questionnaire for Sports”. We examined the relationships between these two dependent variables and the independent variables of gender, sports age and league category. As a result of the regression analysis, it was determined that the creativity level of the athletes was predicted by tactical skills at a level of approximately 74%. In terms of the variable of the handball players' years of playing handball, a low positive correlation was found in the sub-dimensions of the Tactical Skills Questionnaire. This relationship is statistically significant in other sub-dimensions, except for the Knowledge of Ball Movements sub-dimension of the Tactical Skills Questionnaire. The same variable was examined in terms of the creativity level and a low level of positive correlation was found. This relationship was found to be statistically significant. Appropriate training settings and environments should be designed in order to develop the creativity skills of the athletes. The similarity of the training environment to real competition conditions can greatly contribute to the development and use of creativity and tactical skills in sports. Key Words: Creativity, Tactical skills, Handball.
... In terms of application, these results are very important as they show that the intellectualization of the process of teaching motor actions brings significant benefits to players. According to Williams and Ford [22], such teaching of the game affects not only the player's motor sphere but also his or her mental sphere, which greatly facilitates decisionmaking in the player's actions. The level of significance of differences between the 1st and 2nd examination in a given group. ...
Background: The paper is of an implementation (application) nature and addresses problems related to the concept of effective soccer training. Given that the actions in a sports game are based on conscious activities that require creative attitudes from players, the study proposes intellectual teaching, with an emphasis on the role of expertise. The purpose of the research was to determine an experimental method of teaching the game of soccer based on programmed support (teaching intellectualization). Materials and Methods: The pedagogical experiment method was used to evaluate the effectiveness (learning and teaching) of special motor skills. Experimental teaching was conducted over a period of 4 months in 2018-2019 among third-year physical education students of Polish sports universities (AWF Kraków and AWFiS Gdańsk). Thirty-two students who participated in soccer program classes were examined. Results: The experimental teaching (intellectualization), conducted among students of sports universities showed great advantages in more effective teaching. In the experimental groups, intellectual support led to better results (significant differences at p<0.05). Conclusions: The methodological procedure based on intellectual support of the player’s motor actions accelerates the teaching of soccer technique. Knowledge of action represents a significant disposition to efficient motor activity. It was also demonstrated that mental training used as reinforcement (in optimal proportions) can compensate for practical training.
... But, the main question is how a training task should be constructed to induce these simultaneous positive effects in all of dimensions, or at least, in more than one of them. As players try to find a response in game play, simultaneously considering the results of that every action, they are engaged in ongoing decision-making (Williams & Ford, 2013). Thus, designing training exercises for the tactical dimension is the dominant training component (Filetti et al., 2017). ...
Novel viewpoints have led to an understanding that good soccer performers are capable of continuous decision-making and performing excellent motor skills in a well-conditioned mental state. Our aims in this review were to (a) summarize the effects of different conditions and constraints on a soccer player’s response and (b) identify potential training designs for varied soccer tasks from a multivariate perspective, emphasizing tactical training. We performed a systematic literature review according to PRISMA guidelines and identified multiple different player constraints, including model strategies for play, drills designed for varied conditions, and training regimens for the dimensions of the physical demands soccer players will face. The use of match-sized training spaces may improve physical fitness and collective tactical behavior, while smaller spaces may contribute to improving tactical behavior from micro-structures (e.g., 1 vs. 1). Pre-session exercises that accelerate the appearance of fatigue during training may help delay the onset of match fatigue and boost players’ creativity. Pitch modifications (dimensions or boundary modifications), modification of game principles (defending strategies or team formations), and altering the number of players involved or coach instructions may contribute to different player improvements. Differential learning, as a non-linear pedagogy, may induce improvements in all dimensions, but especially in creative thinking.
... Third, we conducted interviews 141 (Interview A1) in order to gain an understanding of why coaches employed certain practice activities 142 when delivering coaching sessions. Fourth, we then delivered the CPD education workshop based on 143 the data from the systematic observations (SOA1), and evidence from the scientific literature on motor 144 learning, skill acquisition and expert performance (Ford & Williams, 2013). Fifth and sixth, following 145 the workshop, a second block of systematic observations (SOA2), and interviews (Interview A2), were 146 carried out (post-workshop). ...
We examined whether practice activities adopted by professional youth soccer coaches are modulated through the implementation of and engagement with cocreative evidence-based programs. Across two experiments, we used systematic observation to identify the practice activities of seven coaches across 134 sessions. In Experiment A, drill-based and games-based activities were recorded and quantified. To encourage behaviour change across the study, the systematic observation data were compared with skill acquisition literature to provide coaches with quantitative feedback and recommendations during workshops. Postworkshop systematic observation data indicated that practice activities used by coaches changed in accordance with the evidenced-based information (increase in games-based activities) delivered within the workshop. Interview data indicated that coaches typically stated that the workshop was a key reason for behaviour change. In a follow-up Experiment B, feedback and recommendations were delivered using an interactive video-based workshop. The systematic observation data indicated that coaches increased the use of soccer activities that contained active decision making with coaches citing the workshop as a key reason for behaviour change. These findings indicate that coaching practice activities can be supported and shaped through the implementation of cocreated workshops wherein coaches collaborate with sport scientists and researchers to bridge the gap between science and application.
... Soccer players obtain shorter TIB and TST after playing soccer games, compared to the night before the games. This may be attributed to the cognitive and emotional activity induced by soccer games (Williams and Ford, 2013;Nédélec et al., 2015b;Williams and Jackson, 2019), which likely disrupts the ability of the players to fall asleep. Moreover, increased NREM RPM occurs on nights of soccer games. ...
The current study investigated the associations between female perceived fatigue of elite soccer players and their sleep, and the associations between the sleep of players and soccer games. The sample included 29 female elite soccer players from the Norwegian national soccer team with a mean age of ~26 years. Perceived fatigue and sleep were monitored over a period of 124 consecutive days. In this period, 12.8 ± 3.9 soccer games per player took place. Sleep was monitored with an unobtrusive impulse radio ultra-wideband Doppler radar (Somnofy). Perceived fatigue was based on a self-report mobile phone application that detected daily experienced fatigue. Multilevel analyses of day-to-day associations showed that, first, increased perceived fatigue was associated with increased time in bed (3.6 ± 1.8 min, p = 0.037) and deep sleep (1.2 ± 0.6 min, p = 0.007). Increased rapid eye movement (REM) sleep was associated with subsequently decreased perceived fatigue (−0.21 ± 0.08 arbitrary units [AU], p = 0.008), and increased respiration rate in non-REM sleep was associated with subsequently increased fatigue (0.27 ± 0.09 AU, p = 0.002). Second, game night was associated with reduced time in bed (−1.0 h ± 8.4 min, p = <0.001), total sleep time (−55.2 ± 6.6 min, p = <0.001), time in sleep stages (light: −27.0 ± 5.4 min, p = <0.001; deep: −3.6 ± 1.2 min, p = 0.001; REM: −21.0 ± 3.0 min, p = <0.001), longer sleep-onset latency (3.0 ± 1.2 min, p = 0.013), and increased respiration rate in non-REM sleep (0.32 ± 0.08 respirations per min, p = <0.001), compared to the night before the game. The present findings show that deep and REM sleep and respiration rate in non-REM sleep are the key indicators of perceived fatigue in female elite soccer players. Moreover, sleep is disrupted during game night, likely due to the high physical and mental loads experienced during soccer games. Sleep normalizes during the first and second night after soccer games, likely preventing further negative performance-related consequences.
... DM, identified as an important ability for successful performance in team sports, consists of the use of information generated by the game situation, combined with the player's capacity to apply his/her knowledge about that same context to plan, select, and execute an action or a set of functional actions among a large number of possible actions, aimed at fulfilling the objective of the game (Williams, 2013;Araújo, 2019). The study of DM is not a normative and linear process, as not only DM but also the factors that influence it (biological maturation, level of practice or skill and knowledge of the game, among others), interact with the different specificities of the diversified and often unpredictable game contexts. ...
Decision-making (DM) is an important ability targeted in the formation of young football players that can improve by using small-sided games (SSGs). The main purpose of this study was to assess players’ DM in different balanced and unbalanced SSG formats keeping the play area constant. The sample was composed of 10 field players plus 2 goalkeepers (13.55±0.51 years). This study consisted of 3 sessions, one day for each session, with an interval of 48 hours apart between sessions. Three different SSG formats (4vs.4; 4vs.5; 4vs.6), in a play area of 40x30 meters, were selected. The outcome was the decision-making index (DMI), assessed with the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI). Results showed that on two of the three days, there were statistical differences in DMI across the three different SSG formats. In the 4vs.6 format a higher median score than in the 4vs.4 format was recorded on day 2 (U=13.0, z=-2.34, p=.025, r=.57) and day 3 (U=5.50, z=-2.98, p=.003, r=.72). In conclusion, the use of unbalanced SSG formats in the training may benefit DM development, and therefore may constitute an important factor to be considered in the formation of young football players.
... Anticipation has been described as the ability to recognise the outcome of others' actions prior to and during the execution of those actions (Williams & Ford, 2013). In sport, and a wide range of other domains, such as law enforcement, surgery and the military, experts have consistently demonstrated the ability to anticipate upcoming actions more quickly and accurately than their less skilled counterparts . ...
Expert performance across a range of domains is underpinned by superior perceptual-cognitive skills. Over the last five decades, researchers have provided evidence that experts can identify and interpret opponent kinematics more effectively than their less experienced counterparts. More recently, researchers have demonstrated that experts also use non-kinematic information, in this paper termed contextual priors, to inform their predictive judgments. While the body of literature in this area continues to grow exponentially, researchers have yet to develop an overarching theoretical framework that can predict and explain anticipatory behaviour and provide empirically testable hypotheses to guide future work. In this paper, we propose that researchers interested in anticipation in sport could adopt a Bayesian model for probabilistic inference as an overarching framework. We argue that athletes employ Bayesian reliability-based strategies in order to integrate contextual priors with evolving kinematic information during anticipation. We offer an insight into Bayesian theory and demonstrate how contemporary literature in sport psychology fits within this framework. We hope that the paper encourages researchers to engage with the Bayesian literature in order to provide greater insight into expert athletes’ assimilation of various sources of information when anticipating the actions of others in complex and dynamic environments.
... In invasion sports, the decision-making characteristics are fundamental to success because they involve the capacity to use the information available in any given game situation, and to possess the underlying fundamental game knowledge needed to select an appropriate response from a series of alternatives. Technical execution (TE) is essential because it refers to the ability to appropriately execute the action that has been decided upon [34]. The DM and the TE are essential because they determine the FR of the game action. ...
Football performance requires beginning learners to develop both technical skills and tactical awareness. The aim of this study was to examine and contrast the differences in the learning of football across two different teaching methodologies. A total of 35 students, distributed in two class-groups at the fifth-grade level of primary education participated in the study. Each class group participated in just one of the intervention programs (tactical program, n = 17; technical program, n = 18). The Instrument for the Measurement of Learning and Performance in Football was used to evaluate each student’s actions and in relation to specific performance indicators. For each one of the play actions analyzed, the Performance Index of Decision-Making, the Performance Index of Technical Execution, and the Performance Index of Final Results were calculated and these scores were summed to generate the Total Performance Index. The differences in technical and tactical learning between the class-groups were calculated using the Total Performance Index. For this assessment, various statistical tests were used: the Mann–Whitney’s U and the Wilcoxon’s T (for the non-parametric variables) and the T-test for Independent Samples, as well as the T-test for Related Samples (for the parametric variables). Likewise, a 2 × 2 ANOVA was conducted to determine whether the students’ previous experience had an effect on the level of learning. The results indicated improvements with both intervention programs; however, the tactical program provided a higher level of learning than the technical program between the assessment tests. The experience of the students had an effect on the play actions of dribbling the ball and in marking the player without the ball. Physical education teachers are recommended to implement comprehensive methods for technical and tactical football teaching at school.
... A key performance attribute that has been consistently shown to discriminate high-skilled football players from their less-skilled counterparts is the ability to anticipate and make effective decisions under pressure during match play (e.g., Williams and Davids 1998;Vaeyens et al. 2007;Roca et al. 2011Roca et al. , 2013. Research evidence has suggested that these 'game intelligence' skills are primarily acquired through activities in which practice has the same underlying structure as competition (e.g., Miller et al. 2017;Roca et al. 2012;Vickers, 2007;Williams and Ford 2013). That is, the conditions in practice are said to be effective to the extent that they engage processing demands (i.e., visual search, recognition, decision making) for the player that are the same as required in the transfer environment (i.e., competition) (e.g., transfer-appropriate processing, Schmidt and Lee 2011). ...
We examined the practice activities employed by 53 youth football coaches working in youth academy professional top-division clubs from England, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. This is the first study to explore the microstructure of coach-led practice in elite youth football across multiple countries. A total of 83 practice sessions from under-12 to under-16 age groups were collected in situ. Sessions were analysed for the proportion of time in ‘non-active decision-making’ (e.g., unopposed technical or tactical skills practices, fitness training) and ‘active decision-making’ activities (e.g., small-sided games, skills practice with opposition), with the latter deemed superior for the transfer of game intelligence skill to match play. More time was spent in active decision-making (M = 62%) compared to non-active decision-making activities (M = 20%) and transitioning between activities (M = 17%). Players from Portugal and Spain spent a higher amount of time in active decision-making activities compared to English and German players, whereas, English players spent more time in unopposed technical-based drills and German players in improving fitness aspects of the game without the ball. Findings extend previous research assessing coach-led youth football practice in single countries by demonstrating differences in training activities between countries in Europe.
... In our study, VMRT is considered as an indicator that encompasses temporal aspects affecting the perception of the game, the processing of information, and the elaboration of a response (decision making) and its execution, aspects that condition the speed of response and where the duration of each one has a different weight. In our view, decision making is the factor that most conditions the response time, which in this case should be understood as the player's ability to plan, select and execute a complex action within the context of the game, in addition to having knowledge about it and emerging situations (Williams & Ford, 2013). ...
This work proposes a neurocognitive training (NCT) programme that seeks to optimise the mechanisms of visual perception, the processing of information and decision making. Also, to evaluate the effects on visual-motor reaction time (VMRT) and effectiveness of response (ER). A system of analysis, evaluation and specific training was applied, followed by comparison using different tests to assess the players’ performance. We evaluated 8 male rugby seven players from the Chilean national team (age: 28.5 ± 2.2 years, height: 179.5 ± 6.5 cm, weight: 92.5 ± 7.8 kg). The results showed that in the two variables, the players show statistically significant average improvements in the RTs of the total actions (total VMRT: 5.1%, 95%CI: 17.3–69.24, p=0.006, ES: 0.49) and in the RTs of attempts that were considered effective (effectiveVMRT: 9.3%, 95%CI: 22.77–77.08, p=0.003, ES: 0.66). In the case of ER, a slight improvement in the quality of the actions is detected (4.1% increase in effectiveness and 4.3% decrease in failed attempts), although the changes are not statistically significant. In conclusion, it can be stated that the neurocognitive training programme used led to an improvement in the performance of the variables VMRT and ER, with a differing degree of effectiveness.
... The acquisition of tactical abilities is an important issue in sport and educational contexts (Causer & Ford, 2014;Sánchez-Mora, García, del Valle, & Solera, 2011;Williams & Ford, 2013). Acquiring tactical and motor skills in sports is directly related to numerous benefits on its practitioners, not only in sport settings. ...
The “alternated teaching units” (ATU) is an innovative proposal that consists of delivering two related contents alternatively during the Physical Education (PE) classes, making students aware that both contents are based on the same learning’s principles, increasing the students’ global learning time and making the students perceive one unique learning. This study aimed to compare the use of ATU with traditional teaching units (TTU) on the achieved tactical learning for invasion team sports in primary school students. The sample consisted of 104 students (49 girls and 55 boys; average age = 10.62 ± 0.62 years). Ten PE lessons of soccer and basketball were consecutively (TTU) and alternatively (ATU) delivered. Results showed that the ATU participants had a statistically significant increase in the scores of adjust, guard/mark and general performance indices in basketball, soccer and overall invasion sports compared with the TTU participants (r = 0.24 to 0.64; p < 0.05). Additionally, the ATU participants had a statistically significant higher change of scores in decision-making index in overall invasion sports than the TTU participants (r = 0.25; p < 0.05). ATU applied to related sports should be considered instead of delivering consecutively and unconnectedly blocks of teaching in PE.
... This is very much in line with the good game design theory of digital games we described earlier. In this paradigm, the skilled performer is not necessarily the player with the "best" technical model but the one with more accurate anticipation and perceptiondecision making ability, and a technique that holds up to the performance demands (Williams & Ford, 2013 Through an application of ecological thinking, we argue that coaches may use designed game spaces as the site for perception-decision development whereby the "openness" of the player as a complex system to perceiving environmental energy or information which may regulate movement (Davids et al., 2008). Environmental influences (or constraints) influence the direction of behaviour, and therefore, movement objectives are not entirely a product of a learner's will, but are also inextricably limited to the possibilities afforded by the environment of the game. ...
Desde hace tiempo se sabe que los juegos de ordenador y, ahora, los juegos digitales en línea se han convertido en una parte importante del ocio de los jóvenes (ver, por ejemplo, Kirriemuir y McFarlane, 2004). Basándonos en la hipótesis de que los juegos digitales y los deportes comparten la intención de que los participantes disfruten aprendiendo difíciles y estructuradas forma de juego, consideramos el modo en que los diseñadores de juegos digitales activan el compromiso en el aprendizaje, y si los entrenadores deportivos pueden aprender algo del intencional diseño pedagógico adoptado por los diseñadores de juegos digitales. En este sentido, mediante ejemplos de entrenamiento, se muestran distintas aplicaciones de ricas tareas de participación basadas en los principios educativos del “buen” (Gee, 2007) diseño de juegos digitales. Concluimos proponiendo seis perspectivas pedagógicas para el entrenamiento deportivo a fin de mejorar la práctica como un espacio de aprendizaje basado en el diseño de juego intencional.
... Currently, numerous studies are conducted on the tactical learning acquired by players on sports teams over the course of intervention (Causer & Ford, 2014;Causer & Williams, 2013;Williams & Ford, 2013) or through ex post facto research design (Fernández-Echeverría, Moreno-Arroyo, Gil-Arias, Claver-Rabaz, & Moreno-Arroyo, 2014;Serra-Olivares, 2014). However, beyond learning the sport itself, acquiring tactical and motor skills in sports is directly related to perceived sports competency (Viciana, Mayorga-Vega, & Blanco, 2014), an enormously important variable in physical self-concept (Mayorga-Vega, Cocca, Viciana, & de Rueda, 2012) also directly related to how much physical activity individuals get in their free time. ...
Tactical skills in sport are the basis for current models of invasion team sports instruction, and relate to other psychological variables that exert a mediating influence on people’s normal physical activity. This study aimed to validate the Spanish adaptation of the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports by Elferink-Gemser, Visscher, Richart, and Lemmink (2004) and verify its factorial invariance. The sample included 540 participants 12.89 ± 1.73 years of age (10 to 17 years old; 333 males and 207 females). The adaptation and translation of the original questionnaire followed the methodological steps established by the International Test Commission. Then two measurement models with the original questionnaire’s four-factor structure were compared. Confirmatory analyses were conducted using the software AMOS 21 and maximum likelihood estimation. Results indicated a four-factor structure (positioning and deciding, knowing about ball actions, knowing about others, acting in changing situations) was viable and showed goodness of fit to the data, with adequate indices of reliability (α between .72 and .86) and validity (GFI = .955; RMSEA = .044; CFI = .974), and strong evidence of stability in the factor structure. Moreover, factorial invariance was observed between participants who do and do not practice team sports, with practitioners scoring higher than non-practitioners on all factors (
p
< .001; effect sizes between .97 and 1.08).
... Les analyses du temps de réponse à la fin de l'intervention ont souligné l'amélioration des performances pour les deux groupes d'entraînement comparé au groupe contrôle. Ainsi, ces résultats suggèrent l'intérêt d'utiliser l'entraînement basé sur la vidéo pour optimiser le temps de récupération des athlètes pendant une période de convalescence, entre deux phases de travail ou pendant le trajet vers un lieu de compétition (Williams & Ford, 2013). Spécifiquement, il existerait un lien entre le niveau d'expertise et le couplage perception/action pendant l'entraînement. ...
This literature review examines both the effectiveness of simulation training video to improve decision-making of athletes and secondly, the benefits of explicit, implicit and guided instructions used during video-based perceptual training. Thus, it is shown that video-based perceptual training improves cognitive and perceptual skills resulting in decrease in decision time and increase in decision's accuracy in simulations and field. Furthermore, the benefits of explicit approaches in early stage of learning to promote rapid acquisition of knowledge is highlighted. On the other hand, it is suggested that implicit approaches will be more conducive to the experts to ensure that they "reinvest" their knowledge in stressful situations. Finally, it is envisaged that guided approaches are relevant alternatives to explicit and implicit approaches.
Researchers investigating expertise in soccer goalkeepers have overwhelmingly focused on anticipation of penalty kicks and identifying kinematic cues that are used to anticipate action outcomes. In this study, we took a novel approach to exploring ‘game reading’ skills in soccer goalkeepers. Specifically, we investigated whether and by what point during an attacking sequence in open play, elite goalkeepers can identify the opposition shot taker, a skill that is likely to facilitate organisation of the defensive line and interception of forward creative attacking passes. We used a moving window temporal occlusion paradigm to present elite, sub-elite, and amateur goalkeepers with 11-vs-11 attacking sequences that were divided into progressive segments. After viewing each segment, participants identified the player they thought would shoot at goal at the end of the attacking sequence. Elite goalkeepers identified the opposition shot taker earlier and more accurately than sub-elite and amateur participants. Findings suggest that elite goalkeeping is underpinned not only by anticipation of action outcomes but also game-reading skill that enables identification of the player most likely to carry out those actions.
Sinkholes are among karst forms and their formation is continuous and their identification is essential in several fields of life, such as water resources management, environmental hazards management, and tourism. This study aimed to identify the sinkholes and the sinkhole susceptibility in the Bistoon-Parav karst region, Iran. Ten sinkhole causative factors, precipitation , temperature, evaporation, lithology, soil type, slope, latitude, fault, stream and vegetation were involved in the sinkhole susceptibility model applying the best worst method, and we also determined the importance of the factors. The final sinkhole susceptibility map was produced by the weighted summing up the factors based on the variable importance. Lithology was the most important factor with 31.52% in the formation of sinkholes. The validation step was executed with a sinkhole database based on visual interpretation of high-resolution imagery. Finally, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC), completeness, correctness and quality index were applied to validate the performance of the sinkhole susceptibility map model. According to the validation parameters, the value of the ROC, completeness, correctness and quality was 81.90%, 100%, 59.41% and 59.41%, respectively. Thus, it can be said that the produced model shows acceptable performances for sinkhole susceptibility mapping. Also, this model showed that almost 7.4% of the region has the potential to become a sinkhole in the future.
Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate the effect different levels of exercise intensity and arousal has on the speed and the accuracy of decision making among expert female soccer players. Methods: Sixteen expert female soccer players with at least 8 years competitive background were selected voluntarily participate in this study. Soccer experiment images were displayed on a screen where the participants had to choose a response from three options (shoot, pass, and dribble) in order to assess the decision making performance. The test experiments were designed in three arousal and three exercise intensity levels. In order to examine any significant effect of the levels of different situations, a One-Way ANOVA with Repeated Measures was performed to find the effects of mentioned variables on the accuracy and the speed of decision making. Results: The results obtained from the present study did not reveal any significant effect of level of arousal on the speed of decision making (p>0.05). The accuracy of decision making, however, was significantly affected by the exercise intensity (p<0.05). With increasing the exercise intensity, the players' speed of decision making showed an improvement with no spectators and the presence of inactive spectators at different levels of arousal. It was only at the exercise intensity level of 80% max HR that the best accuracy of decision making was observed at the presence of inactive spectators. Conclusion: The present findings suggest that the level of arousal and the exercise intensity affect each of decision-making components separately.
Keywords Abstract Arousal Exercise Intensity Decision Making Expert Soccer Players Objective: The aim of this study is to investigate the effect different levels of exercise intensity and arousal has on the speed and the accuracy of decision making among expert female soccer players. Methods: Sixteen expert female soccer players with at least 8 years competitive background were selected voluntarily participate in this study. Soccer experiment images were displayed on a screen where the participants had to choose a response from three options (shoot, pass, and dribble) in order to assess the decision making performance. The test experiments were designed in three arousal and three exercise intensity levels. In order to examine any significant effect of the levels of different situations, a One-Way ANOVA with Repeated Measures was performed to find the effects of mentioned variables on the accuracy and the speed of decision making. Results: The results obtained from the present study did not reveal any significant effect of level of arousal on the speed of decision making (p>0.05). The accuracy of decision making, however, was significantly affected by the exercise intensity (p<0.05). With increasing the exercise intensity, the players' speed of decision making showed an improvement with no spectators and the presence of inactive spectators at different levels of arousal. It was only at the exercise intensity level of 80% max HR that the best accuracy of decision making was observed at the presence of inactive spectators. Conclusion: The present findings suggest that the level of arousal and the exercise intensity affect each of decision-making components separately.
Expert performance in highly dynamic and time pressured team sports such as soccer is underpinned by successful decision-making. Little research exists examining whether these decision-making skills associated with defensive scenarios can be transferred across similar and dissimilar sports. A shortened participation history questionnaire was used to identify 98 soccer players, 35 invasion sport players (e.g., rugby) and 52 other sport players (e.g., swimming), as well as skill level (hours of engagement/competition level). These participants completed a video-based temporal occlusion test designed to measure decision making in 11 vs. 11 defensive soccer scenarios. Results indicated that the skilled soccer players were more accurate than the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport players and skilled and less-skilled other sport players. Skilled soccer players were also more accurate than the less-skilled soccer players, with less-skilled soccer players exhibiting similar accuracy to both the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport and other sport players indicating that processes associated with decision-making in defensive scenarios may be specific to their sport.
In soccer, it is relevant to understand the roles of Systems 1 (intuitive) and 2 (deliberative) in perceptual-cognitive processes and how they influence response time when making decisions. The aim of this study was to analyse how response time in decision making managed by Systems 1 and 2 is associated to the perceptual-cognitive processes of young soccer players. Ninety young soccer players participated. Perceptual-cognitive processes were assessed through visual search strategies, cognitive effort, and verbal reports. Participants wore a mobile-eye tracking system while viewing 11-aside match play video-based soccer simulations. Response time in decision making was used to create two subgroups: faster and slower decision-makers. Results indicated that players with faster response time in decision making employed more fixations of shorter duration, displayed less cognitive effort, as well as a greater number of thought processes associated with planning. These results reinforce that there are differences in the way of using the perceptive-cognitive processes from the priority system in the decision-making process. It is concluded that faster decision making, managed by System 1, implies greater ability to employ visual search strategies and to process information, thus enabling increased cognitive efficiency.
Study aim. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of long-term football training on the morphological-rheological properties of the blood.Study material. The study was conducted among a group of 16 footballers playing for the Hutnik Nowa Huta Club. The aver-age age of subjects was 22 years. Practices are held 5 times a week, all year round with the exception of the last 3 weeks of December and the last 2 weeks of June. In addition, championship or sparring matches are played every weekend. Venous blood was collected at the end of the football season, in the morning on an empty stomach. Examination of morphological-rheological parameters of the blood was performed in the footballers and the control group.Results. Compared to the control group, a statistically significant decrease in RBC, HGB, HCT, MCV, PLT and plasma viscos-ity were found for the footballer group. And a statistically significant increase in fibrinogen and MCHC as well. There were no statistically significant changes in the amount of WBC and MCH. Significant changes were also noticed in erythrocyte aggregation and elongation for the footballers. AI reduced, while AMP and T½ increased. Elongation index at shear-stress for the range of 0.30–1.13 [Pa] significantly increased, while for the value ranges of 2.19–59.97 [Pa], a decrease was observed in this parameter.Conclusions. Long-term, regular football training does not cause pathological changes in the morphological-rheological prop-erties of the blood
Practice makes perfect' is a traditional statement, and practice hours, including training background, are used as an explanatory factor for success. Studies however show that hours of practice alone, are a poor predictor of future success. The content of practice sessions has been less studied, even though it naturally should be considered just as important as the amount of time spent practising.The traditional soccer practice is the more linear approach to learning, where technique and other skills are to be practised and mastered before the players are considered ready to play the game itself. The research into the field of skill development in soccer, and sports in general, is relatively coherent across different theoretical viewpoints when it comes to recommendations regarding effective practice activities.Few studies have categorize the content of practice until the concepts of training form (TF) and playing form(PF)was introduced a decade ago. The aim of this study was to compare two U16 teams, one in a professional club and one in a non-professional club, in terms of both PF and TF, including their sub-categories.We used systematic observations of soccer practice sessions to examine the type of practice activities being used. Two Norwegian U16 teams participated. Participants were systematically observed using a simple hand notation system, to provide detailed analysis of the practice activity. We evaluated these findings based on what contemporary research suggest as best to facilitate skill acquisition and development. Findings indicate that both teams use more time in Playing form activities, deemed more relevant to match performance in soccer, than training form activities who is deemed less relevant. Findings are discussed in the light of research connected to skill development, perceptual-cognitive development and expert performance. The practical implications of this study suggest that the practice activities in which coaches engage their players should create as many situations as possible where the players must make decisions and appropriate technical choices, and by that develop their perceptual-cognitive and technical skills. To do this, coaches should seek to use a high amount of PF in their daily coaching sessions and at the same time closely monitor the total mental and physical practice load of the players.
The fourth edition of Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology retains the book’s sterling reputation in the field and provides advanced psychology students with a thorough examination and critical analysis of the current research in the psychology of physical activity. This revitalized text, known in its first three editions as Advances in Sport Psychology, uses a traditional textbook approach, appropriate for advanced classes, as opposed to an informal handbook style. Longtime editor and author Thelma Horn is joined by a new coeditor, Alan Smith, as well as new and returning contributors (55 in all), including many of the most prolific researchers and scholars in the field.
The identification and development of talented players is a priority within elite soccer clubs and national governing bodies. Small-sided games training methods are commonly used in aiding player development. Yet the potential role for futsal (indoor 5 a-side equivalent to 11 a-side soccer) as part of contemporary youth player conditioning and skills acquisition training has received insufficient consideration. This absence might be linked to a lack of understanding due to a paucity of scientific evidence underpinning the potential role for futsal in aiding player development. While highlighting these issues, the present point-counterpoint article argues how futsal could impact positively on contemporary youth talent development processes.
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