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ISSN: 2067-533X
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF
CONSERVATION SCIENCE
Volume 14, Issue 1, January-March 2023: 315-326
www.ijcs.ro
DOI: 10.36868/IJCS.2023.01.20
POLICY PERSPECTIVE ON GOVERNANCE STANDARDS SETTING
USING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION FOR SUSTAINABLE
MANGROVE MANAGEMENT IN LAMU KENYA
Jamila AHMED1,*, Bessy KATHAMBI1, Robert KIBUGI2
1Department of Earth and Climate Sciences, University of Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
2 Faculty of Law, University of Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
Abstract
Community Participation is fundamental for sustainable mangrove management which
enhances environmental sustainability. This study analyses the setting of governance
standards using policy frameworks. The study adopted a correlational research design and
used a mixed methods approach. It shows awareness of policies supporting community
participation in mangrove conservation was at 94.6%. The respondents who knew existing
policies of the forest conservation and management act were at 27.80% closely followed by
those with knowledge of local agreement with Kenya Forest Service at 25.40%, and those
who practiced community/traditional by-laws at 21.80%. Notably, 18.40% of the respondents
indicated knowledge of the national mangrove management plan while only 6.70% expressed
awareness of the public participation law. Community participation is overly affected by
gender perceptions in the education level, age, and knowledge of governance standards. The
findings indicate 71% of women have not participated in setting governance standards as
well as 69.20% of men. 81% of respondents disagree with the existence of county government
policies in mangrove conservation. There is a lack of enough participation in setting
governance standards towards the existing policy framework, affecting mangrove
management.
Keywords: Community Participation; Sustainable Mangrove Management; Governance
standards; Policy Framework
Introduction
Sustainable Management is a dynamic and evolving concept that aims to maintain and
enhance the economic, social, and environmental values of all types of forests, including
mangroves, for the benefit of present and future generations. Community participation becomes
a requisite for sustainable management of mangroves where the outcome is to provide healthy
ecosystem goods and services such as timber and coastal protection or carbon sequestration
back to the community [1]. Community participation plays a vital role in the sustainable
management of natural resources by enforcing core values of equitable relationships and
improving livelihood [2]. To complement community participation, governance standards
highlight the essence of community participation in sustainability [3].
The four pillars of governance standards that the study focused on, comprise of
accountability, transparency, equity, and inclusivity [4, 5]. Accountability simply refers to the
governing body taking responsibility and being answerable for its decisions [6]. Whereas
Transparency refers to the rationale for decision making being clearly communicated and
* Corresponding author: jamilaa168@gmail.com
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information being freely available and accessible [6, 7] This is very fundamental in mangrove
discussion. It prompts the community to be responsible and take ownership in conservation
efforts on sustainable mangrove management. Notably, from a community perspective equity
promotes fairness and justice to mangrove conservation related efforts. It is supports genuine
community engagements and assures sustainable change. Lastly, Inclusivity is another major
governance standard which refers to society having a voice in decision making, directly or
through legitimate intermediate institutions representing their intention [8, 9]. These governance
standards play a major role in enforcing policies on sustainable mangrove management.
Policies are vast and quite focused on the management of natural resources underscoring
the importance of community participation [10]. The recent International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) report on World Mangroves status indicates that in the last two
decades, mangrove loss is at 60% affecting livelihoods and threatened species [11]. In 2008, the
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted an ordinary resolution on a non-legally
binding instrument on all types of forests. The resolution, an example of a global policy
impacting mangroves, emphasized that the implementation of sustainable forest management is
critically dependent upon good governance at all levels. As demonstrated earlier, mangrove
governance, is critical because of its potential in climate change mitigation and adaptation
serving as good carbon sinks habitant for biodiversity [12, 13].
In Kenya, Mangroves are an important livelihood resource providing income alternatives
from mangroves wood value chains that the coastal communities use and also play a critical
role in both restoration and protection [14]. According to the Forest Conservation and
Management Act 2016, public participation and community involvement, together with good
governance are core principles guiding the management of forests [15]. Good governance
together with transparency and accountability, public participation and sustainable development
are anchored under Article 10 of the Constitution of Kenya, as values and principles of national
governance that are mandatory in all spheres including mangrove management.
The current (2021) draft forest policy seeks to give the mandate to community
participation through enhanced governance structures in mangroves forest. Interestingly, Kenya
has a robust National Mangrove Forests Management Plan (2017-2027) whose focus is to
enhance sustainable mangrove management at a national level and similarly at the county level
as it develops the place for community participation. The 2010 constitution of Kenya, through
devolved counties, requires to have county laws that can support national government plans
such as National Mangrove Management Plan which is still underway despite efforts for its
inclusion [16, 17]. The gap that exists lies in the involvement of the community in the creation
and implementation of mangrove management plans and policies for the restoration, protection,
and conservation of mangrove forests.
This study focused on Lamu County, which has a unique ecological existence accounting
for over 61% of the national mangrove cover [18]. Lamu County also enjoys diverse cultures
and social interactions being a UNESCO heritage site that brings out the community
participation component substantively whereby they uphold traditional values and custom
systems [19]. Moreover, communities have their source of livelihood from the immense
presence of mangrove forest which provides a variety of good and services such as breeding
sites for fish and crabs which they sell for economic empowerment. Notably, sustainable
mangrove management's vision revolves around community participation to deescalate the
growing environmental degradation from competing interests and the effects of climate change
experienced by the community [14, 20, 21].
The underlying Rio principle 10 of sustainable development enhances economic progress
by protecting the environment through enforcing guidelines on green economy policies which
prevent the loss of biodiversity and its ecosystem services. Implementation of the National
Mangrove Ecosystem Management Plan in Lamu county appears to be limited by inadequate
community involvement. The community believes that mangroves are a God-given resource,
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and they should be involved in policy formulation and implementation for conservation and
protection. The Forest Conservation and Management Act through section 30(2) classifies
mangroves forests as part of public forests in Kenya, meaning that the primary role of
management is conferred on the Kenya Forest Service, a national government agency.
Importantly, this law makes provision for members of a local community to participate in the
management and conservation of a public forest (including mangroves) having formed a
Community Forest Association. An important concern for this paper is to what extent this
enables or enhances ability of community members to influence policy making and governance
standards for the sustainable management of mangroves at that decentralized level. Thus, the
cascading of the good governance and public/community participation standards in the forest
law and Constitution to foster active roles for communities is important to this research. These
governance standards of accountability, transparency, equity, and inclusivity are fundamental
but require support from the existing policies on sustainable mangrove management [22-24].
The objective of this paper is to analyze existing policies on community participation in setting
and implementing governance standards for sustainable mangrove management.
Materials and Methods
Study area
The study was conducted in Lamu county which was selected because of its high
coverage of mangroves and its ecological uniqueness for carbon sinks and habitat for
biodiversity. Lamu County is located on the North coast of Kenya (Fig. 1). It lies between
latitudes 1o 40’ and 20° 30’ South and longitude 40° 15’ and 40° 38’ East. Covering an area of
approximately 6,607 km2
Fig. 1. The map of Surveyed Area in Lamu County
Data collection
The study employed a correlational research design that incorporates a mixed methods
approach that uses both quantitative and qualitative data [25, 26]. The sample size for the study
was 296 derived from the Yamane sampling formula for a household greater than ten thousand
sample population. The data collection methods involved the use of a survey, Key Informant
interviews from Kenya Forest Service, Kenya Marine Research Institute, Community Based
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organizations were interviewed as part of the triangulation to validate the data collected from
the survey, and Focus Group Discussion for those who are in mangrove conservation and
management. The survey was conducted using KOBO collect mobile software which gives GPS
coordinates to ensure the credibility and reliability of sampled population. The data was
analyzed by using R- Statistics and presented in graphs, tables, and frequencies, and correlation
tests were done to show the significance between the variables. The Qualitative data was
analysed using content analysis based on themes that focused on governance standards,
community participation and mangrove conservation [27-29].
Results and discussions
The results are from the survey conducted from 296 households which had a response
rate of 98% meeting the threshold of good research [30] The results focused, on addressing the
objective of this paper by examining the perceptions that respondents had towards mangrove
policy framework and community participation in governance standards setting and
implementation.
Respondent’s Perception of Mangrove Management Policies and Legislation in
Lamu County, Kenya
The results categorize the different respondent’s perceptions on the role of community
participation in policies for governance standards setting for sustainable mangrove
management. It highlights the impacts of education level, gender perceptions on policies, and
perceived impacts on the implementation of existing policies in community participation. This
explicates how the community is involved in setting and implementing governance standards
for sustainable mangrove management as illustrated by the results shared below.
Respondent’s Knowledge on Policies Governing Community Participation in
Setting Standards for Sustainable Mangrove Management in Lamu County
Figure 2 below examines the correlation between the knowledge respondents had of the
policies that govern community participation in setting mangrove governance standard, and
how favourably the respondents perceive these policies.
Fig. 2. Correlation between respondents’ knowledge of
policies governing community participation
Results in the box plots in figure 2 shows that the respondents with limited or no
knowledge of governance standards have a more favourable opinion (mean of 1.48 which
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represents strongly agree) towards existing policies for community participation in
implementing governance standards as compared to those with knowledge on governance
standards who have unfavourable opinion (with a mean of 2.52 which represents strongly
disagree). This is further supported by qualitative data from the Focus Group Discussions and
Key Informant interviews where a significant number stated that they had limited knowledge of
the policies but exhibited willingness to use the existing policies to implement governance
standards.
Role of Education on policies for Community Participation in setting and
implementation of Governance standards for Sustainable Mangrove Management
in Lamu County
The Education level in Lamu community was segmented into four categories namely: no
formal education, primary, secondary, and tertiary. The respondents had different education
levels which impacted their participation in setting and implementing governance standards for
sustainable mangrove management in Lamu County (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Impacts of Education on policies for Community Participation in
Sustainable Mangrove Management in Lamu County
Results in figure 3 reveals that most of the respondents who participated in setting and
implementing governance standards for mangrove conservation had intermediate and tertiary
education at 40.6% as compared to those with basic primary education at 27% and with no
formal education at 25.6%. Also, those who had not participated in governance standards were
mainly those with no formal education at 74.4% and with basic education at 73% majorly and
those with intermediate and higher education at 59.4% respectively. This is in line with
qualitative data from Key Informants who highlighted that education plays an important role in
their participation in setting of governance standards in mangrove management.
Gender Perceptions of Policies in Governance Setting on Sustainable Mangrove
Forest Management in Lamu County
The respondents were of two genders, Female and Male. The results for community
participation were analysed through these genders and gave different gender perceptions on
existing policies known to the community such as public participation law,
community/traditional by-laws, local agreement with KFS, National Mangrove Management
Plan, and Forest Conservation and Management Act (Fig. 4).
In figure 4 data indicates that the female respondents were more aware than men of all
the policies on sustainable mangrove forest management. Consequently, 50% of both male and
female respondents were averagely aware of the national mangrove management plan. In other
policies, 59% of female respondents were more aware of the Forest Conservation and
Management Act and 63.50% of the Public Participation law. Additionally, the community/
traditional by-laws were known more by 66.50% of female respondents as compared to 33.50%
of male respondents.
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Fig. 4. Gender Perceptions of Policies in Governance Setting on Sustainable Mangrove Forest Management in Lamu County
Perceived Impacts of Policies Implementation on Sustainable Mangrove Management
in Lamu County
The study analysed different impacts on existing policies or laws that pointed to the level
of agreement on how the community plays a role in the implementation of these policies for
sustainable management. It also explicates the awareness of the impacts in the implementation
of existing policies in sustainable mangrove management in Lamu county (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Perceived Impacts of Policies Implementation on Sustainable Mangrove Management in Lamu County
Findings in figure 5 reveal that the respondents agreed with contribution from the
community is critical, county government policies, policies to punish illegal mangrove
activities, protection of the mangrove ecosystem, stakeholder involvement in mangrove
management, policies for mangrove utilization, and community involvement in mangrove
management on existing policies. However, an interesting finding is that 50% of respondents
disagreed and 31.80% strongly disagreed with the existence of county government policies for
mangrove management and conservation. Policies on mangrove protection and mangrove
utilization had community participation in policy implementation as compared to policies on the
punishment of illegal mangrove activities and community involvement in mangrove
management.
Respondent's Roles in Policy Development on Sustainable Mangrove Management in
Lamu County
The policy is made up of different activities that are in practice by the community to
develop sustainability in mangroves. Such activities involve advocacy, rehabilitation,
protection, selling, and cutting of mangroves as far as mangrove policy development is
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concerned. The results were measured against males and females as the only gender in the study
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Respondent's Role in Policy Development on Sustainable Mangrove Management in Lamu
In figure 6, Female roles largely consisted of rehabilitation (44.60%), protection
(24.80%), and advocacy (22.40%) while male roles consisted of rehabilitation (23.20%), cutting
(22.40%), selling (20.30%) and protection (18.70%). On other hand, male roles were on
mangrove cutting (22.4%) and mangrove selling (20.3) which was significant. Both male and
female respondents had low significant involvement in policies for sustainable mangrove
management.
Respondents Gender Roles on Governance Standards for Mangrove Conservation and
Management
The results explain the gender roles on different governance standards such as
transparency, accountability, equity, and inclusivity in sustainable mangrove conservation. All
these are intersected with the two genders male and Female (fig. 7).
Findings in figure 7 shows the main role played by 83.8% of men and 88.5% of women
was the role of inclusivity in governance standards. The findings also indicate that there was a
difference between males and females in the importance they attach to another subsidiary role
they play in Mangrove conservation.
Fig. 7. Respondent’s Gender Roles on Governance Standards for Mangrove Conservation and Management
Respondent’s Participation in Governance Standards Setting for Mangrove
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Conservation
The results show the level of participation in a different role of governance standards on
sustainable mangrove management. The participation role was against the two-gender male and
Female as shown in figure 8 below.
Fig. 8. Respondent’s participation in Governance Standards Setting for Mangrove Conservation
Results in figure 8 illustrates that the majority of male 69.2% and female 71% of the
respondents have not participated in the setting of governance standards for mangrove
conservation in Lamu County as compared to 30.8% and 29% of male and female who have
participated. This is also supported by qualitative data from the Focus Group Discussions and
Key Informant interviews.
Discussion
Community participation in governance standards setting is a pivotal role in sustainable
mangrove management [31]. The existence of a robust policy framework for mangrove
management sheds light on the importance of having community participation from the onset of
policy creation to implementation for sustainability [32]. Results in Figure 1 illustrate gaps in
policy development where community participation has not been fully undertaken which also
influences ownership and implementation for sustainable mangrove management [33].
Involvement of communities in governance standards enhances governance pillars of
accountability, inclusivity, equity, and transparency which foster better management of
mangrove conservation activities [34] Interestingly, the education of the communities affects
their participation in policy development and more so in governance standards setting as
indicated in figure 2 [35]. Community empowerment in training and capacity building in
mangrove management would enhance their participation in governance standards setting for
sustainable mangrove management. The majority of the respondents’ education was
significantly low which hindered their impactful participation in governance standards settings
[36]. Despite the education level of the respondents being significant, their knowledge of
various policies and laws that govern mangrove management was good with their awareness
level of the National Mangrove Ecosystem Management Plan and Kenya Forest Conservation
and Management Act scoring highly. These results in figure 3 explicate that increased capacity
building could increase community participation in mangrove management [37].
The gender perspective on the policy awareness level underscores the necessity of gender
equality in policy development for sustainability in mangrove management in Lamu County
[38]. Additionally, the perceived impacts of the known policies illustrate that community
participation is critical in mangrove management where mangrove utilization and protection are
to be enhanced and sustained [39]. Results in Figure 4 elucidates perceptions that affect policy
implementation when community participation is fully incorporated with outcomes such as
county policies being perceived as almost non-existent[40]. The implications of this perception
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impact the future of mangroves, especially by those who still perceive that mangroves are a
‘God-given resource’ and can be used without measure [41]. Lamu County government could
capitalize on the high awareness level of the respondents on other national policies on
mangrove management to enhance its policy assimilation and ownership by the communities
[42]. Moreover, results in Figures 5 and 6 highlight the need to have community participation in
governance standards-setting and policy development for better mangrove management [43].
Transparency and equity as governance standards provide an avenue for communities
dependent on mangroves to be keen to full implementation of policies and laws for
sustainability.
On the other, inclusivity and equity underpin why community participation would foster
mangrove conservation advocacy, restoration, and protection for sustainable mangrove
management [44, 45]. Community participation becomes imperative if sustainable mangrove
management has to be undertaken to encompass a future outlook on a natural resource [46].
Policies that are co-created, co-designed, and co-produce through community participation
enhance sustainability with the impacts going beyond motivation from policies and law to
actual ownership [47].
Conclusion
The place for community participation in governance standards settings is irreplaceable
and becomes a critical aspect of sustainable mangrove management. Education on the
importance of community participation in mangrove conservation highlights why capacity
building and community empowerment can change the prospects of sustainable mangrove
management. Governance standards of transparency, equity, accountability, and inclusivity are
important pillars in policy development and implementation in mangrove management. Lamu
County could leverage high awareness levels to assimilate their county policies on mangrove
management in upscaling sustainability in mangrove conservation. Sustainable mangrove
management actualization depends solely on community participation from the onset to
implementation if the future of mangroves is to be secured.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the Mikoko project team; Dr. David Williamson, a
climate change expert at IRD and Dr. Juliana Prosperi, a botanist at CIRAD for reviewing this
paper. The village elder and chairman of Lamu Community Forest Association Mr. Aboud
Abdul for facilitating the interviews of other Lamu elders and his team on the ground. Henry
Komu, an expert on mangroves at KEFRI for his assistance on relevant documents and
information, John Ngala from KEFRI for his assistance and facilitation on the information
needed. The entire Lamu community and especially women conservation groups led by Zulfa,
Fatma, Tima, and Nuzla their efforts and dedication in providing relevant information on
mangrove conservation is much appreciated.
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______________________________________
Received: August 12, 2022
Accepted: February 23, 2023
