A Critical Analysis of the Role of Herodotus's Histories in Representing the Conflicts between the Persian Empire and the Greek States

Abstract

Herodotus' Histories is the first truly historical work in Western literature. It describes how and why wars took place from 680 BC to 479 BC. As a historical record, Herodotus used documentary techniques to record the human geography, national customs and political ideas of the society at that time. This information served as the background and causes of the Greek-Persian War so that later generations could better understand the history of that period. This paper takes the first volume as an example to interpret Herodotus' description of the Lydian Empire, the Persian Empire and the core figures of the empire as well as the theological thoughts mixed in the explanation of the war, and to enrich the reasons for the occurrence and results of the war through the description of the national political system and other background information. Therefore, Herodotus' Histories not only records the war but also shows the influence brought by the war, such as the exchange and development of culture. By recording and describing the Greek-Persian War, Herodotus revealed the history of the ancient Greek period and expressed his sense of responsibility and mission as a historian.

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A Critical Analysis of the Role of Herodotus's Histories in
Representing the Conflicts between the Persian Empire and
the Greek States
Zirui Wang*
Department of History, Syracuse University, NY, United States
*Corresponding author: zwang350@syr.edu
Abstract. Herodotus' Histories is the first truly historical work in Western literature. It describes how
and why wars took place from 680 BC to 479 BC. As a historical record, Herodotus used
documentary techniques to record the human geography, national customs and political ideas of the
society at that time. This information served as the background and causes of the Greek-Persian
War so that later generations could better understand the history of that period. This paper takes the
first volume as an example to interpret Herodotus' description of the Lydian Empire, the Persian
Empire and the core figures of the empire as well as the theological thoughts mixed in the explanation
of the war, and to enrich the reasons for the occurrence and results of the war through the description
of the national political system and other background information. Therefore, Herodotus' Histories
not only records the war but also shows the influence brought by the war, such as the exchange and
development of culture. By recording and describing the Greek-Persian War, Herodotus revealed
the history of the ancient Greek period and expressed his sense of responsibility and mission as a
historian.
Keywords: Theology; War; Political system; Culture.
1. Introduction
Herodotus is the most famous historian in ancient Greece and a critical founder of western history.
His Histories was the first Western historiography to distinguish between folklore and historiography,
which could be called real history records [1]. Herodotus was born in Halicarnassus in Asia Minor.
As an aristocrat, he received a good education from childhood, which laid the foundation for his
excellent literary. At the age of thirty, Herodotus began to travel and visited almost all the cities that
the Greeks could go to at that time [2]. In every place he went, he would learn about local customs,
investigate historical sites, and collect folklore and stories, which accumulated many materials for his
later creation [3]. Herodotus arrived in Athens in 447 AD; at that time, Athens prospered from its
victory in the Greek-Persian War and continued to accumulate wealth through other wars and
invasions of other states. In the process, the cultures and ideas of the nations were exchanged during
war and communication. The most revolutionary and cutting-edge ideas of all of Greece were brought
to Athens [4]. Meanwhile, Herodotus participated in various political and cultural activities and made
friends with many politicians and writers. With the encouragement of his friends, he began to write
the Histories, which lasted until he died in 425 BC [5].
Herodotus made a historical explanation with this book, solved the historical mystery of the ancient
empire's society, culture, politics and even war, and expressed his historical thought. Herodotus'
Histories is not a rigorous history textbook. He combined rational materialistic thinking and
emotional idealism, like the theory of fate, to write a masterpiece full of sorrow and regret. He once
expressed in the book that there are two kinds of people who have the same ending, the ordinary
people accept the arrangement given by fate and heroes rebel against fate and try to change fate, but
with the drive of God's power, they cannot escape the arrangement of fate.
In the historical background and development period of that time, Herodotus not only had the
influence of the traditional ideas such as the fatalism of aristocrat origin but also accepted and
absorbed the injection of the new culture of Athens and understood the materialism and democratic
thought [6]. Under the integration of the old and new ideas, in the contradictory and complex social

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background, Herodotus expressed his complex historiography in History and outlined the two
hundred years of history from 680 to 479 BC, the rise and fall of the Lydian kingdom in Asia Minor
and the rise of the Persian Empire and its invasion of other countries. The course of the Persian and
Greek wars are mainly told, respectively. It not only introduces the background of the War but also
makes a formal record of the war.
Therefore, it is worthy and necessary to analyze to show the value of this book to give people a
concept about that part of history and history recording by analyzing book content and literature. First
of this paper is the description of the Persian War and various related records in history based on
Herodotus' historical ideas and the reasons why Herodotus wrote them; the historical ideas he
intended to express will be explained. All of these will do a critical analysis of this book.
2. The Analysis of Greco-Persian Wars' History
The rise and fall of empires throughout history seem to follow a template, from rise to prosperity
to a turning point of decline and then slowly to extinction. In the fall of this empire, it has begun to
breed the rise of new empires. However, although history develops, its ups and downs are not simply
repeated; the process is complex and changeable. Herodotus's Persian empire rose from internal and
foreign troubles to forge a new path. The kingdom of Lydia had experienced the same fate, but in
different ways and with different effects. This outcome provided an example for Athens at war to
learn from, reflect on its shortcomings, and understand the rise and fall of power [7]. The two main
sections of Herodotus's first book of History are about the development of two empires, both of which
contain independent central figures, one is Croesus of Lydia, and the other is Cyrus of Persia [8].
Herodotus's description of these two figures is also a carrier and sustenance for the historical thoughts
he wants to convey.
2.1. Two Clues of War
In the first part, Herodotus tells the story of the rise of the Lydian kingdom, and Croesus is a hero
in this period of history. This part covers the rise and fall of the Lydia kingdom and the reign of the
two families, of which Croesus' reign was a large part. He discussed with Solon about happiness at a
time when Lydia was at its strongest when Croesus was proud of what he had and considered himself
the happiest man. Moreover, feeling resentful of not being recognized in the same way. This moment
was also a turning point in Croesus' fate and changed the direction of the Lydian kingdom. The gods
punished Croesus for his arrogance, and when Croesus tried to defy his fate and fight against the gods,
it backfired and caused a tragic outcome; his own son died eventually [9]. What followed was also
an unexpected development. Croesus, after receiving an oracle, wanted to follow it to choose a
powerful ally to help him fight the Persians. Although he understands Solon's words about happiness
and the impermanence of the world when he is about to burn and is finally saved by the falling rain,
the answer he finally gets is that Croesus needs to follow his fate and be punished and that the only
empire he can destroy is his own country.
The second clue is that of Cyrus, whose background is also highly theological but also mixed with
family hatred and betrayal, which prompted Cyrus to form an army against the Medes' oppression
and exploitation of Persia. After successive victories, Cyrus' aggressive ambition was revealed. At
first, he followed Croesus' advice to show his mercy when attacking Babylon, but as he conquered
other peoples and occupied other cities, Cyrus also began to become arrogant and cruel. Cyrus
believed that he was no ordinary man and that his army was mighty. One of the worst battles occurred
when he tried to conquer the Massagetae on the east coast of the Caspian Sea. Cyrus himself was
killed in this battle, and his body was dishonored by the Queen of Massagetae [10]. This is the end of
Cyrus. After his death, the succession of his son Cambyses and a series of atrocities led to the downfall
of the Persian Kingdom, which eventually led to wars between the Persians and the Greeks.
The destruction of the Lydian empire was thus established in the operation of God and fate, and
the cause of Lydia's defeat in the war against Persia was also God's will. In fact, this part reflects

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Herodotus's perceptual historical thought, that is, the theory of destiny. Herodotus added a large
number of divine guidance to this part of the description. For example, when something great happens
in real life, God will always give certain guidance or signs [4]. For example, Croesus dreamed that
his son died, the dream about the prophecy of Cyrus, and what triggered Cambyses to kill his relatives
were all dreams, and no one could escape the fate arrangement. The Greek-Persian War was finally
won by Greece. This expression was based on the social theology and religious doctrines of the time.
Herodotus has actually done many realistic descriptions, and this description is due to the limitations
of that time. In the eyes of the Greeks, the occurrence of any natural phenomenon and social time was
arranged by God [11].
Although it is impossible to avoid the influence of theology and to record it in a purely scientific
documentary way, Herodotus has made great progress in this aspect of idealism as a kind of narrative
method in which he uses God's will to describe to his readers and listeners the causes and effects of
events. In his words of divine guidance and fatalism, Herodotus is trying to tell the world that if doing
wrong, there will be death and that arrogant Kings who try to war on others will be punished, and
their families will be destroyed. Moreover, the nation, in the name of justice, will eventually win,
even when it is in a disadvantageous position to win. This is also Herodotus's respectful sense of
responsibility and mission as a historian [5].
2.2. The Role of Politics
Herodotus' Histories is not only not satisfied with telling the story of the war, but in addition to
the above, he constructs the background of the history and the main actors involved in the history by
describing the different threads of the history, he also tries to explore the reasons for the occurrence
of these historical events. In this context, in addition to the will of God, Herodotus also used the
theory of manifest destiny to connect history and explain the causes of wars. He also helps explain
the context and reasons for the war by interpreting the politics of the time. Herodotus offered praise
for democracy and attributed the victory of Greece to such a political system. The Greek city-states,
for example, like ants that could be crushed at will against the invincible Persian Empire; they are
small in size, small in population, and weak in combat, but why did the Greeks beat the Persians? It
was because its citizens enjoyed democratic freedoms that Athenian democracy defeated Persian
autocracy. It was because the citizens of Athens had equal rights of autonomy that they fought every
war for themselves and for their freedom [12]. Nothing is more powerful than the desperate fight for
freedom by those who have enjoyed it and refuse to accept the rule of others. Persian soldiers had to
fight out of fear of their rulers, but when they fought alone with others, they were intimidated by their
courage and lost. The tyranny of Persia could not bring strength to the country, and under Darius,
democracy was stifled so that all the decisions of the country would be made by one man, who, when
he was drunk with pride, when he was full of his own desires and interests, could not take the country
for the better. The superiority of institutions, in contrast to the great contrast of power between nations,
explains the outcome of the war [13]. Herodotus, of course, did not extol the virtues of democracy;
he also pointed out that democracy pays for ignorance when the masses are ignorant. Praise was also
given to the great strength of the Persian army as well as its tactics and capabilities. The war between
Greece and Persia was not simply a war between different peoples but also a war between two
civilizations and two political systems. At the same time, it was precise because many great men,
such as Aristotle, also could not treat individuals equally at that time, Herodotus had such a
progressive political view, which enabled him to understand and describe the development of history
and the causes of historical events more objectively [14]. Herodotus actually gave answers and
guidance in this book about the war between two systems and two civilizations. After Darius became
the king of Persia, he continued his invasion, which occupied parts of the territories of Europe, Asia
and Africa, moved the center of the Western world from Tigris Euphratesxila to the Mediterranean
region, broke the geographical boundaries and barriers between civilizations, and strengthened the
cultural exchanges between the East and the West. The Greece- Persia War was also a great fusion of
human history and culture. This is the influence of the war described in the Histories, and this seems

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to be one of the few benefits of the war. It also promoted trade, although it suppressed trade in some
of the invaded areas, Persia also developed maritime trade in the occupied areas. Such exchanges
between civilizations and trade have also promoted the development and progress of human society,
which is a by-product of war. Greece, as the victorious party in this war, also made the development
of ancient Greek civilization continue for a longer time, leaving a precious cultural treasure for history.
2.3. Additional Information in Histories
There is also a section of history devoted to the natural environment and the customs of the people,
which may seem to have little to do with the Greco-Persian war, but which, in fact, lays a rich
foundation for it. All of this information is very useful, Herodotus shows that the influence of natural
conditions on nations is very strong. Because cities with good natural conditions have high labor
productivity and relatively faster development speed, on this basis, civilization will develop faster,
and people's life quality, social development degree and national prosperity are strongly positively
correlated with them. He extensively described the mountain's geography, ethnic distribution,
religious belief, economic life and various customs and interesting things of various countries. These
were not limited to the scenes of war but provided fertile soil for the description of war and historical
evidence [15]. Due to its superior geographical advantages and mild climate, the soil is suitable for
crops, and the rivers are convenient for irrigation. Abundant food resources can be obtained without
spending a lot of manpower and tools. It is in this geographical environment that people have the
energy to develop spiritual things and help the further development of human civilization. The
country's prosperity also benefited from this favorable geographical advantage. Various religious
beliefs and customs have also shaped the qualities of these people, and the abilities of these people
will also be reflected in the performance of the war. These messages seem to have nothing to do with
the war, but in fact, they enriched the background of the war, enriched the understanding and
conception of the society and people at that time for future generations to understand the situation of
the war.
2.4. Critisim of Histories
Of course, it is undeniable that Herodotus' Histories also had defects. If it is required by the
standards of historical works, there are still many points worthy of criticism. First of all, in the
narration of this book, Herodotus writes in a way of telling the story to the audience, which makes
reading the storyline confusing and difficult to understand the correlation between events. Herodotus
switching back and forth between topics can lead to confusion and fallacies for readers who did not
have basic knowledge about that time [16]. Such a deviation would make it difficult for future
generations to confirm the objectivity of the event and make it less readable. Herodotus made it clear
that he would write down everything he heard, without sifting or evaluating it, in order to let future
generations know more and judge for themselves, which means that many of the information points
in this book cannot be regarded as authentic records [17].
Secondly, in the process of recording events and historical figures, Herodotus added personal
feelings and made subjective evaluations of the figures. Although he knew that Nicias was said to be
"too addicted to the habit of piety", he called those who were naturally conservative "fanatical
adherents". He criticized Corleone for his "recklessness to the point of insanity" rather than an
objective description of "imprudence"[18]. Readers can feel his obvious subjective attitude towards
the characters from the text, which will affect their judgment and form preconceived feelings. So this
book lacks a neutral and objective description due to the basic rules of historical books. Although
some historical figures are generally acknowledged to be bad, other history books also describe events
from a dialectical perspective. Herodotus, on the other hand, accepted all the negative information
and created the image of a sinner. In the account of the deeds of Cleon, for example, Herodotus
records all possible evil deeds without mentioning anything that would have a positive effect on the
description [18]. Such a record is unfairly influenced by too many personal feelings and influences
the depiction of historical facts. It is also suspected of channelling the feelings of the masses.

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3. Conclusion
Herodotus was a historian with a strong sense of historical responsibility and mission. The
Histories he wrote was one of the most groundbreaking history books in western history and culture.
This book systematically recorded the course of history, including the background of the Greek-
Persian War, the main tasks involved in the war, the course of the war and the speculated causes of
the war. Although the records of the Greek-Persian War could not get rid of gods, prophecies, fatalism,
and other theological idealism, which was an unavoidable limitation of the time, Herodotus also
described the war in detail through documentary techniques, getting rid of the creation of God as the
protagonist at that time, and for the first time recorded with people as the main and facts as the main.
In the descriptions of the rise and fall of empires and the start and end of wars in the book, Herodotus
also expressed his dissatisfaction with the invasion of other countries and the tyrannical dictatorship
by virtue of the Greek-Persian War, and at the same time, explained from a higher level including the
aim of war and morality why Greece, a weak country, defeated the powerful Persia. It not only
provides the background of the time and society at that time with the help of human geography but
also describes the situation of the participating countries in multiple dimensions, explains the causes
of the results of the war from the perspective of the political system like the conflict between
democracy and autocracy, and praises the democratic system of Greece and the idea of equality for
all. Even though it still has many defects if judged it based on professional historical product, it is
very important for future generations' understanding of this period, of these countries, of the Greek-
Polish War.
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