Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS): A preliminary survey among patients in Switzerland

Abstract

Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) is a multi-factorial systemic chronic debilitating disease of poorly understood etiology and limited systematic evidence. The questionnaire and interview-based survey included 169 ME/CFS patients from the Swiss ME/CFS association. The majority of patients were females (72.2%), single (55.7%) and without children (62.5%). Only one third were working (full/part-time). The mean onset of ME/CFS was 31.6 years of age with 15% of patients being symptomatic before their 18th birthday. In this cohort, patients had documented ME/CFS for a mean 13.7 years, whereby half (50.3%) stated their condition was progressively worsening. Triggering events and times of disease onset were recalled by 90% of the participants. An infectious disease was associated with a singular or part of multiple events by 72.9% and 80.6%, respectively. Prior to disease onset, a third of the patients reported respiratory infections; followed by gastro-intestinal infections (15.4%) and tick-borne diseases (16.2%). Viral infections were recalled by 77.8% of the respondents, with Epstein Barr Virus being the most commonly reported agent. Patients self-reported an average number of 13 different symptoms, all described specific triggers of symptoms exacerbation and 82.2% suffered from co-morbidities. This study collated clinically relevant information on ME/CFS patients in Switzerland, highlighting the extent of disease severity, the associated factors negatively affecting daily life activities and work status as well as potential socio-economic impact.

Full text

Heliyon 9 (2023) e15595
Available online 20 April 2023
2405-8440/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Research article
Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS):
A preliminary survey among patients in Switzerland
Rea Tschopp
a
,
c
,
d
,
*
, Rahel S. K¨
onig
b
, Protazy Rejmer
e
, Daniel H. Paris
a
,
c
a
Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
b
Faculty of Medicine, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 61, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
c
University of University of Basel, Switzerland
d
Armauer Hansen Research Institute, Jimma Road, PO Box 1005, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
e
Seegarten Clinic, Seestrasse 155A, 8802 Kilchberg ZH, Switzerland
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue
syndrome
Switzerland
Demography
Symptoms
Co-morbidity
ABSTRACT
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) is a multi-factorial systemic
chronic debilitating disease of poorly understood etiology and limited systematic evidence. The
questionnaire and interview-based survey included 169 ME/CFS patients from the Swiss ME/CFS
association. The majority of patients were females (72.2%), single (55.7%) and without children
(62.5%). Only one third were working (full/part-time). The mean onset of ME/CFS was 31.6 years
of age with 15% of patients being symptomatic before their 18th birthday. In this cohort, patients
had documented ME/CFS for a mean 13.7 years, whereby half (50.3%) stated their condition was
progressively worsening. Triggering events and times of disease onset were recalled by 90% of the
participants. An infectious disease was associated with a singular or part of multiple events by
72.9% and 80.6%, respectively. Prior to disease onset, a third of the patients reported respiratory
infections; followed by gastro-intestinal infections (15.4%) and tick-borne diseases (16.2%). Viral
infections were recalled by 77.8% of the respondents, with Epstein Barr Virus being the most
commonly reported agent. Patients self-reported an average number of 13 different symptoms, all
described specic triggers of symptoms exacerbation and 82.2% suffered from co-morbidities.
This study collated clinically relevant information on ME/CFS patients in Switzerland, high-
lighting the extent of disease severity, the associated factors negatively affecting daily life ac-
tivities and work status as well as potential socio-economic impact.
1. Introduction
Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) is a chronic debilitating systemic neuro-immunological disease.
The exact etiology remains unknown, but thought to be multi-factorial [1–8]. Emerging evidence points towards immune and in-
ammatory pathologies, chronic neuro-inammation, cell receptor anomalies, decreased metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction
in ME/CFS patients [9–16]. The lack of reliable biological markers hampers denitive diagnosis, which is currently still made after
exclusion of a set of diseases and clinically-based following existing case-denitions [17–19].
Reported symptoms relate to immune-autonomic-neurological and endocrinological impairments, and most commonly include
profound fatigue, post-exertional malaise (PEM), orthostatic intolerance, unrefreshing sleep and cognitive impairment [2,20].
* Corresponding author. Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland.
E-mail address: rea.tschopp@swisstph.ch (R. Tschopp).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15595
Received 9 June 2022; Received in revised form 7 March 2023; Accepted 13 April 2023

Heliyon 9 (2023) e15595
2
Symptoms last longer than 6 months, worsen with physical and/or mental exercise and have prolonged recovery phases [21–26].
The globally reported ME/CFS prevalence ranges between 0.2% and 2.8% [27–32]. A recent systematic review conducted by
Estevez-Lopez (2020) showed that ME/CFS prevalence ranged between 0.1% and 2.2% in Europe [33].
Despite the severe symptom burden, long duration and associated disabilities caused by the disease, Switzerland remains one of the
few European countries for which, to our knowledge, highly limited systematic scientic data on ME/CFS patients exists and its disease
prevalence remains unknown. The objective of this study was to collate for the rst time evidence on issues relevant to ME/CFS in a
selected population of ME/CFS sufferers (e.g. demographic indicators; disease information), who were both Swiss resident and
members of the Swiss ME/CFS association, in order to promote awareness and recognition of ME-CFS in Switzerland.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study design and participants
This cross-sectional study was carried out between June and September 2021 in Switzerland by a mixed gender research team with
practical and research medical and epidemiology background (MD; Prof; PhD). There is currently no disease register for ME/CFS
patients in Switzerland. Participants were consenting ME/CFS patients aged 18 and older and recruited through the largest Swiss ME/
CFS association, which counted over 320 members at the start of the study. The sampling approach was purposive; hence, no sample
size calculation nor randomization procedures were required.
All members of the national Swiss ME/CFS Association were informed about the study (via mailing lists, newsletter, homepage and
direct information during Association meetings). In total 207 patients declared an interest to participate in the survey. Detailed in-
formation about the study was sent individually by post, including the questionnaire and a consent form. Written informed consent was
requested from all participants prior to participating in the study. Completed consent forms and questionnaires were sent back using
pre-stamped envelopes.
2.2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria
Patients who received an ME/CFS diagnosis from health personnel were included in the study. In addition, the study team con-
ducted a quality control in order to ensure reported symptoms did t the criteria of any of the three case-denitions (CCC, ICM or IOM).
Patients not having been diagnosed for ME/CFS by physicians and/or not fullling either of the three case denitions for ME/CFS were
not included into this study.
2.3. Ethical clearance
This research received approval from the Ethics Committee of Northwestern and Central Switzerland (EKNZ, Switzerland), with
copy to all other relevant Ethics Committees in Switzerland (Basec nr. 2021-01098; July 2021).
2.4. Questionnaire survey
A paper questionnaire survey was self-administered by participants because of the on-going COVID-19 pandemic. Participants
could ll the questionnaire at their pace within a two months deadline, which also allowed severely ill ME/CFS patients to participate.
One coder was responsible to code each questionnaire using a unique numerical identication number. The questionnaire was
prepared in German and French and pre-tested with four ME/CFS patients who did not participate in the survey, to ensure questions
were well designed and well understood. The questionnaire included 66 questions, with closed and open-ended questions pertaining to
the following topics: general demography, disease history, therapies, socio-economic impact of the disease, coping mechanism and the
impact of the COVID pandemic. Only a section of the questionnaire is presented in this manuscript. In addition, participants were
invited in an open-section to share their own insights, in order to gain additional information about their disease that would otherwise
not be covered by the structured nature of the questionnaire.
2.5. Data management and statistical analysis
Questionnaire data were entered into Microsoft Access and analyzed using STATA software version 16.1 (StataCorp LLC, USA).
Descriptive statistical analysis was used to describe the study population and group comparisons. Additional qualitative data collected
in the questionnaire in form of open-ended questions were entered into Microsoft Excel and analyzed descriptively by content and
relevant participants illustrative quotes presented to support/complement the quantitative questionnaire data analysis. Illustrative
quotes are labeled by gender and age of the participant. Qualitative data from the open-section where participants could express in
written accounts, experiences or opinions was analyzed thematically.
3. Results
In total, 172 participants out of the 207 who wanted to participate in the survey consented and returned completed questionnaires
(response rate of 83%). Three participants were excluded from the nal analysis (self-reported disease with symptoms not fullling any
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Heliyon 9 (2023) e15595
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of the ME/CFS case-denitions), resulting in a total sample size of 169 participants.
3.1. Demography
The study represented 20 different cantons, with the highest participant numbers from Zurich (N =48; 28.4%), Bern (N =32;
18.9%), Aargau (N =17; 10%) and Lucerne (N =10; 5.9%). There were no participants from the cantons Uri, Obwalden, Appenzell
Innerrhoden, Glarus, Neuchatel and Ticino.
The majority were women (N =122; 72.2%). The great majority (N =148; 87.6%) were in the working age (25–64 year). Detailed
ME/CFS cohort demographic data is summarized in Table 1.
3.2. Disease history
Mean age of disease onset overall was 31.6 years (95%CI: 29.7–33.4), ranging from 7 to 69 years. In the majority (N =117; 69.6%)
of respondents, ME/CFS started during the most productive work years (25–64 years). In 25 patients (14.7%), the disease started
before the 18th birthday (Table 2). At the time of the study, patients had been living with ME/CFS with a mean 13.7 years (SE: 0.73;
95% CI: 12.2–15.1). Over half of the patients (N =94; 56.3%) had ME/CFS for over 10 years.
3.3. Perceived associative events of ME/CFS onset
Hundred-fty-two participants (90%) could recall an associative event with the start of their disease (Table 3). The majority of
these patients (N =117; 69.2%) recalled an infectious disease (i.e. febrile illness) as the most prevalent association prior the onset of
ME/CFS.
Among the 117 patients stating infectious diseases as an onset for ME/CFS, 69 (59%) mentioned Epstein-Barr-virus (EBV). Of these,
46 had a conrmed clinical disease, whereas 23 had a sub-clinical infection (antibodies for EBV found during routine blood test; ME/
CFS examination). Viral diseases were mentioned by the majority of participants (N =91; 77.8%), followed by respiratory infections
(N =39; 33.3%), Gastro-intestinal infections including hepatitis (N =18; 15.4%), tick-borne diseases (N =19; 16.2%) and miscel-
laneous infections (N =20; 17.1%). Table 4 shows the detailed diseases reported by the patients.
Fifty-nine patients (38.8%) recalled a single event as the start of ME/CFS, whereas a combination of events happening around the
Table 1
Demography of Swiss ME/CFS participants.
Category Sub-category Number (%)
Sex (N =169) Female 122 (72.2)
Male 47 (27.8)
Age in years (N =169) 13–18 4 (2.4)
19–24 8 (4.7)
25–44 59 (34.9)
45–64 89 (52.7)
≥65 9 (5.3)
Marital status (N =169) Single 68 (40.2)
Married 54 (32.0)
Partnership 21 (12.4)
Divorced 23 (13.6)
Widowed 3 (1.8)
Having children (N =168) No 105 (62.5)
Yes 63 (37.5)
Education (N =169) Compulsory school 13 (7.7)
Matura or vocational training 82 (48.5)
University Bachelor 22 (13.0)
Higher education (MSc/PhD/Prof) 35 (20.7)
Other 17 (10.1)
Work status (N =168) Working 51 (30.3)
Sick leave 49 (29.2)
Not working (on disability insurance) 38 (22.6)
Retired 13 (7.7)
Unemployed 7 (4.2)
Other 10 (6.0)
Learned profession categorized (N =160) Business and administration 40 (25)
Academic professions 36 (22.5)
Medical professions 28 (17.5)
Teaching 23 (14.4)
Tradesmen 13 (8.1)
Technicians 12 (7.5)
Service professions 5 (3.1)
Agriculture and gardening 3 (1.9)
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same time, was stated by 93 participants (61.2%).
Among the single associative events, the majority reported infectious diseases (N =43; 72.9%). Less often recalled were: an episode
with perception of “extreme stress” (N =5; 8.5%), a surgical procedure (N =2; 3.4%), emotional trauma (N =1; 1.7%) and a visit
abroad (N =1; 1.7%). Seven (11.9%) patients stated “other” causes as a single event (e.g. vaccination; cancer treatment). Depression
and physical trauma were never stated as a single event.
Two, three and more than three coinciding events were reported by 56 (36.8%), 23 (15.1%) and 14 (9.2%) of the participants,
respectively. Among this sub-group of multiple associative events, infectious diseases were reported by 75 (80.6%) of the patients.
Other events (pooled into the category “other”) included three cancer (mamma carcinoma, intestinal cancer); 13 vaccinations; two
Table 2
Age at disease onset and number of years living with ME/CFS.
Category Sub-category Number (%)
Age at onset (years) 6–12 6 (3.6)
13–18 19 (11.3)
19–24 25 (14.9)
25–44 97 (57.7)
45–64 20 (11.9)
≥65 1 (0.6)
Number of years living with ME/CFS 1–3 23 (13.8)
4–10 50 (29.9)
11–20 57 (34.1)
21–30 24 (14.4)
>30 13 (7.8)
Table 3
Recalled event(s) associated with the onset of ME/CFS (N =152).
Event Number (%)
Infectious diseases 117 (77)
Stress 63 (41.1)
Emotional trauma 29 (19.1)
Surgical procedure 23 (15.1)
Physical trauma 15 (9.9)
A stay abroad (work; holiday) 14 (9.2)
Depression 13 (8.5)
Others 28 (18.4)
Table 4
Diseases reported by patients perceived to be associated with the onset of their ME/CFS (N =117).
Infectious disease Total Categories Number Remarks
Viral diseases 91 Herpesviridiae 84 Clinical EBV (N =46); subclinical EBV (N =23); Herpes spp (N =12);
Cytomegaly Virus (N =3)
Childhood diseases 6 Complicated chickenpox (N =2); Measle (N =1); Mumps (N =1); Rubella (N =
1); Scarlett fever (N =1)
Unspecic 1
Respiratory infections 39 Common colds and u 28 Severe; protracted
Pneumonia 9
Tuberculosis 1
SARS virus 1
Gastro-intestinal infections 19 Pathogens and parasites 10 Helminthiasis, Schistosomiasis; Giardia, Campylobacter, Shigella, Helicobacter
(all with severe diarrhea and often after trips abroad)
Gastro-intestinal “u” 5 Severe; protected
Hepatitis 4 Hepatitis A (N =3), EBV complication (N =1)
Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) 19 Borreliosis 14
Tick-borne viral
encephalitis
2
Other TBDs 3 Ehrlichiosis (N =1); Bartonella (N =1); Rickettsia (N =1)
Sexually Transmitted
Diseases (STDs)
2 Chlamydia 1
Papiloma Virus 1
Miscellaneous 17 Upper respiratory tract
infections
10 Ear/sinusitis/tonsillitis (N =7); Purulent throat infections with abscess (N =3)
Unspecic bacterial
infections
5
Mycoplasma 2
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drug induced (mephloquine, long term uorchinolones); one acute urinary retention; one mitochondriopathy; three laboratory in-
cidents (exposure to mercury and nitrous oxide); one surgical heart catheter implant with subsequent complications).
Sixteen patients mentioned vaccines to have been associated with the onset of ME/CFS. It included: six Hepatitis B (inoculation
after year 2000); three pox; one tick-borne encephalitis; two inuenza; one swine u; one typhus; one tetanus; one Yellow fever given
at the same time as meningococcus). Four patients stated vaccines as the perceived sole event linked to the onset of ME/CFS (three
Hepatitis B, one simultaneous Yellow Fever and Meningococcus vaccination).
A trip abroad reported as association with the onset of ME/CFS included destinations to Africa, South-East Asia, Central Asia,
South-America, and Northern Australia.
3.4. Disease start and disease course over the years
The disease started progressively (within one year) in 63 of 166 participants (38%), whereas 61 (36.7%) and 42 (25.3%) stated the
symptoms appeared within one month and above one year, respectively. Eight patients mentioned a rapid initial onset but a slow or
very slow worsening of symptoms after sub-sequent trigger events, such as surgical procedures or additional infections.
Half of the patients (N =85; 50.3%) described a continuous worsening of symptoms over the years (with or without uctuation).
Seventy-eight (54.1%) described the disease as uctuating with remission and “crash” periods. Improvement of the symptoms over
time were described by 35 (20.7%) patients. Once the ME/CFS symptom complex had developed, none of the patients has fully
recovered. Over half of the respondents (N =95; 56.2%) had been bed-bound due to ME/CFS for a longer period at one stage of their
life and 44 (26.3%) had to be hospitalized at least once for ME/CFS symptoms. Among the women who were pregnant after the onset of
ME/CFS, seven (30.4%) claimed that the pregnancy worsened the ME/CFS symptoms, ve (21.7%) said there was no change in disease
severity and four (17.4%) stated that ME/CFS symptoms improved during pregnancy. The other eight women could not recall the
inuence of pregnancy on their ME/CFS.
Two respondents stated that severe muscle weakness led to a fall with subsequent bone fractures. One severe bed-bound ME/CFS
patient (22 years old) passed away after the completion of the study.
Three patients observed that their child/children have also developed ME/CFS (mentioned possible association with the disease
onset were EBV, Lyme disease, vaccination). One participant mentioned his brother having developed the illness as well.
3.5. Reported symptoms of ME/CFS
All respondents reported profound debilitating fatigue. Table 5 summarizes the reported symptoms divided into broad categories as
a closed question asked to the participants. The other top 5 ve symptoms were pain (89.3%) (including myalgic, joint, head, eyes,
thorax etc.), cognitive impairments (88.2%), Post-Exertional malaise (PEM) (85.2%) and noise sensitivity (82.2%). Table 6 shows
detailed self-reported symptoms as perceived by patients to be their main symptoms besides fatigue and PEM (answering to an open
question). Additionally, respondents listed the top ve most disabling symptoms as being fatigue (N =96; 56.8%), followed by PEM (N
=38; 22.5%), cognitive impairment (N =24; 14.2%), pains (N =10; 5.9%) and muscle weakness (N =9; 5.3%). The number of clearly
discernible symptoms experienced by the patients ranged between three and 22, with a mean of 13 symptoms (95%CI:12.4–14.7).
All participants (N =169) reported “triggers” that started or aggravated their symptoms (Table 7). The top four triggers were
Table 5
Symptom classication (N =169).
Symptom category Number (%)
Fatigue 169 (100)
Pains (muscle, joints, including headaches/migranes) 151 (89.3)
Cognitive impairments 149 (88.2)
Post-Exertional malaise (PEM) 144 (85.2)
Noise sensitivity 139 (82.2)
Sleep disturbance 130 (76.9)
Muscle weakness 127 (75.1)
Gastro-intestinal symptoms (e.g. vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, bloating) 110 (65.1)
Light sensitivity 106 (62.7)
Neurological symptoms 100 (59.2)
Neurological sensory symptoms 94 (55.6)
Alcohol intolerance 94 (55.6)
Feeling hot 91 (53.8)
Heart symptoms 88 (52.1)
Feeling cold 86 (50.9)
Respiratory symptoms 80 (47.3)
Sore throat 77 (45.6)
Odor intolerance 67 (39.6)
Drug intolerance 63 (37.3)
Enlarged/painful lymph nodes 59 (34.9)
Sub-febrile/fever bouts 49 (29.2)
Other symptoms 30 (17.7)
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physical activity (88.7%) followed by general stress (82.8%), lack of sleep (79.3%) and mental activities (70.4%).
After a trigger, symptoms progressively worsened most commonly in a delayed manner. The majority of the respondents said that
the peak of the “crash” usually happened 24 h later (N =122; 72.6%). Whereas, 46 (27.4%) observed crashes after 48 h and 14 (8.3%)
after several days. Depending on the severity of the trigger intensity, some symptoms were also said to worsen within hours of the
trigger (N =96; 57.1%). All stated that severity and length of the trigger was an important determinant of resulting crashes.
Similarly, recovery time depended on the severity of a crash. The majority stated that recovery lasted around one week after an
exacerbation (N =95; 56.2%). Seventy-seven (45.6%) said that it took one to two days with mild triggers, whereas 51 (30.2%) said it
would take 2–4 weeks and 25 claimed it would take over one month (N =25; 14.8).
Table 6
Self-reported main symptoms besides fatigue and PEM, experienced by patients (N =154).
Category Description Reported number
Sleep disturbance Insomnia/sleep rhythm disturbances 24
Unrefreshing sleep 16
Increased need for sleep 12
Neurocognitiv impairment Brain fog 61
Concentration impairment 37
Difculty nding words 5
Slurry speech 5
Unspecied 2
Neuroendocrine manifestation Recurrent sub-febrile/febrile episodes 11
Poor thermoregulation 7
Anxiety 7
Feeling always cold 4
Heat/cold intolerance 2
Emotional sensibility 2
Lack of appetite 1
Sweating 1
Neurological Symptoms Motor disturbance
- Muscle weakness (unable to stand for long, difculty walking,
need of a walking stick of wheelchair, it feels like a “paresis”
86
78
- Muscle cramps 2
- Poorly coordinated movements 6
Sensitivity to light/noise 29
Tinnitus 8
Visual impairments (blurry vision; inability to focus) 6
Neuropathy (paresthesia) 4
Seizure-like cramps 2
Extremety numbness 1
Tremors (hand, head) 1
Feeling like having had a stroke on the left side 1
Phantom smells (e.g. aceton) 1
Pain Muscle/joint 98
Headache/migranes/increased pressure behind the eyes or ears 39
Thorax pains 1
Immunological manifestation Feeling sick/u-ish 18
Regular bouts of temperature or fever 7
Food allergies/intolerances 7
Recurrent sore throat 4
Recurrent swollen lymph nodes 4
Recurrent sinusitis 3
Drug intolerance 2
Alcohol intolerance 1
Mouth lesions/ulcers 1
Susceptibility to infections 1
Recurrent ear-nose-throat infections 1
Gastrointestinal manifestation Diarrhea, constipation, bloating, vomiting 37
Nausea 13
Autonomic manifestation Dizzyness 26
Orthostatic intolerance/POTS 10
Palpitations/tachycardia 3
Hypotension 2
Bladder irritability 2
Syncope 1
Autonomous symptoms 1
Eye irritation 1
Metabolic/Endocrine Long menstrual cycle 1
Metabolic HPU 1
Respiratory system Short of breath, painful breathing 13
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3.6. Self-reported Co-morbidities
The majority of patients (N =139; 82.2%) suffered from co-morbidities. Of these 137 patients named the type of co-morbidity
(Table 8). The most commonly reported co-morbidity was allergies (N =56; 40.3%). Among other co-morbidities, the following
were named: hypermobility syndrome, Scheuermann’s disease, Marfan Syndrome, Ehlers Danlos Syndrome, Sjogren’s syndrome,
asthma, mast cell activation syndrome, eosinophilic syndrome, multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome and Adult attention decit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHS).
3.7. Activity reduction as per pre-disease
All participants reported that ME/CFS led to a reduction of activity level, either at work or at home or both. The great majority (N =
162; 95.8%) stated a decrease in activity level of 50% and above as compared to the pre-disease period. Among them, over half (N =
87; 53.7%) were severely affected (mostly house-bound to bed-bound).
After exclusion of 13 people (for this sub-analysis) who were retired at the time of the study, the majority of respondents were not
working at all (N =92; 59.7%). Seven (4.5%) had a full-time job and 55 (35.7%) had a part-time employment. With the exception of
one respondent (0.7%), all stated that ME/CFS was the reason or partial reason for decreased workload.
All major life activities were affected by ME/CFS. The majority of respondents stated that it affected mostly their social/friendship
life (N =166; 98.2%) and hobbies/free time (N =166; 98.2%). This was followed by impact on carrying on household chores (N =156;
92.3%), on their work (N =149; 88.1%), family life (N =147; 87.0%), marital life (N =131; 77.5%) and on other aspects (N =31).
Ability to perform and carrying on with normal daily life activities in terms of time and intensity as per pre-disease times was
mentioned by 5/166 (3%) people for household chores, one out of 160 (0.6%) for social/friendship life and none for free-time activities
and hobbies. We attempted to assess the reduction of these activities but due to large variations depending on the remission and crash
phases, it was impossible to quantify accurately. Patients often described how they made daily or weekly plans for activities, with each
day dedicated to one activity only. A 31 year-old female described: “Depending on the days, I can do one to 3 h of activities. So each day I
can only chose one activity (e.g. showering, go shopping, cleaning the house, social life etc)”. While another participant (female, 38 years)
mentioned: “I can only do 15 min per activity, then I have to rest”. Others described how they had to make choices, if they chose work,
then they could not do any other activity that day; if they chose another activity, for instance a hobby or socializing, then they could
not work. This was reected by the statement of a 41 year-old female participant who said: ““I have 30–40% energy I can spend per day; I
have to choose what to do with it; if I work, I cannot do other things; If I do social activities, then I cannot work”.
Table 7
List of triggers described to aggravate symptoms (N =
169).
Trigger type Number (%)
Physical activity 150 (88.7)
Stress 140 (82.8)
Lack of sleep 134 (79.3)
Mental activity 119 (70.4)
Noise 99 (58.6)
Heat 68 (40.2)
Cold 49 (29.0)
Diet 42 (24.8)
Other* 25 (14.8)
Note: (*) Among the category “other”, following triggers
were mentioned: vaccination, infectious disease;
menstruation, crowds of people, travels, medication,
bright light, high altitude, alcohol consumption.
Table 8
List of co-morbidities in the study population (N =137).
Co-morbidity Number (%)
Allergies 56 (40.3)
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 49 (35.2)
Migraine 42 (30.2)
Clinical depression 32 (23.0)
Fibromyalgia (FM) 31 (22.3)
Thyroid diseases 23 (16.5)
Borreliosis 9 (6.5)
Diabetes mellitus (DM) 6 (4.3)
Multiple sclerosis 1 (0.7)
Other 48 (34.5)
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4. Discussion
There is a substantial amount of scientic literature on ME/CFS in the public domain, and the disease entity has been recognized as
an immune-neurological chronic and debilitating disease for over half a century. Nevertheless, ME/CFS has remained in the shadows of
health systems due to lack of a clear-cut diagnostic approach, paucity of ofcial recognition in some countries, absence of dened
biomarkers, and limited societal and professional disease knowledge.
To our knowledge, this is the rst systematic study in a dened ME/CFS study population in Switzerland. Demographic results were
similar to the ones previously reported by other countries [34]. Although all sex and age groups were affected, females represented the
great majority of patients (72%), patients were mostly single (55.7%) and had no children (62.5%). Comparing these gures to the
general Swiss population (76% married/partnership; 34% with no children) these ndings are striking and raise the question to what
extend ME/CFS does affects relationships and the ability to raise a family in Switzerland [35]. There appeared no selection for patients
according to their educational background or work position, although a noticeably high number of participants were observed in the
medical profession – of which half were nurses (Table 1, data not shown), or in the teaching profession. Approximately one fth of the
Swiss ME/CFS patients had a higher education degree (MSc, PhD), which was higher than observed in the Danish ME/CFS population
[34].
The exact etiologies for ME/CFS remain unknown and debated, but are clearly multifactorial. One major reason for this is that the
associations remain descriptive, and functional pathophysiological links are lacking – this is reected by the diagnosis which “per
exclusionem” and the absence of dened biomarkers, which would provide this disease with more evidence and lead to more accep-
tance by medical staff. Popular hypotheses for triggers involve infectious diseases, toxins, traumas, or genetic predisposition – but
clinical studies proving or interlinking these – or interventions affecting these – are not available in the peer-reviewed literature [2].
Inheritage requires more attention, as four patients reported close relatives also suffering from the illness, supporting a possible un-
derlying genetic predisposition as suggested by previous studies [36–38]. Mitochondrial dysfunctions with subsequent energy
metabolism impairment have repeatedly been described in ME/CFS patients-at least in a sub-group of patients [39–41]. Mitochondrial
DNA mutations are maternally inherited disorders [42]. Venter et al. (2019) observed a mitochondrial genetic difference between
ME/CFS patients and controls, supporting the possibility of genetic linkage in a sub-group of patients [43]. The exact role of these
genetic variants are still unclear, but it has been proposed that they could modulate susceptibility to disease or the course of a disease
[43].
The moment of onset appears to be memorable, as over 90% of participants could clearly describe when and how the disease
started. This is consistent with the study by Chu et al. (2019) who also reported that 85% and 88% of the patients remembered a
specic time and reason for the disease onset, respectively [38]. The likelihood of this being an infectious disease or an intense period
of perceived “stress” is high, and underlined by patients’ reports in our study, with 69% and 41% reporting these associations.
Similarly, in the US, 64% and 39% respondents reported an infectious illness and stress as disease onset [38,44]. Although more than a
third could pinpoint the onset to a single event, almost two thirds described a combination of events at the time of disease onset. This
complicates the fact, whether an event should be seen as primary cause or rather a precipitating or facilitating factor. In both single and
multi-event cases, infectious diseases were the most relevant association with ME/CFS with approximately three quarters remem-
bering this. It must be noted that physical trauma and depressive state were never mentioned as a single event.
Patients then reported subsequent events leading to progression and marked worsening of the symptoms. Again, stress, infectious
diseases and surgery gured here, but also vaccination (most commonly Hepatitis B) was associated with perceived gradual worsening
of symptoms. There is an increasing body of research looking into an association between vaccines and ME/CFS but no causal
explanation has been reported [45–48]. Aluminum adjuvants were debated, as the non-biodegradable aluminum-salt crystals serve to
strengthen inammatory responses to improve vaccine immunogenicity [49,50]. It appears justied to hypothesize that infection- or
vaccination-induced inammation could trigger or exacerbate an adverse development of ME/CFS - especially as in some patients with
underlying immune impairments, the precipitating or contributing effect appears more pronounced. Worldwide, ME/CFS ofcial
guidelines recommend-similarly to immunocompromised patients-not using live vaccines in ME/CFS patients [51,52].
Interestingly, viral infections were mentioned by almost 80% of respondents with clinical and subclinical Epstein Barr infections
most frequently reported. EBV of the Herpesvirus family is one of the most common human viruses. We could not compare the results
with the EBV prevalence in the general Swiss population for which data is lacking [53]. A recent Bulgarian study, however, showed
that EBV infections were statistically signicantly more frequent in ME/CFS patients than in control groups [54]. The role of EBV in
ME/CFS has been often been debated. Recent research suggest that EBV may be an important risk factor for the development of
ME/CFS – at least in a sub-group of patients, linked with immune dysfunctions and/or genetic predisposition, and could contribute to
the observed neuro-immunological impairments seen in ME/CFS patients [54–57]. A review by Rasa et al. (2021) showed that viral
diseases such as human herpesviruses, enteroviruses and huan parvovirus B19 were associated with ME/CFS onset and likely caused
the irreversible immunological impairments observed, rather than causing chronic or latent viral infections [58]. Several other agents
have been associated with ME/CFS in the literature (e.g. Borrelia, Q-fever, Brucellosis, MCV). To date, no single agent has been
identied in all ME/CFS patients, again suggestive that the underlying immune response or inammation require more attention. The
infectious diseases associated with the onset or progression of ME/CFS could represent etiology and/or risk factor. Nevertheless, a
third of the patients reported respiratory diseases – usually severe or protracted (u, colds, pneumonia) – and the recent COVID-19
pandemic caused by SARS-Cov-2 virus also led to chronic “long” COVID-19 cases with similar symptomology to ME/CFS. The simi-
larity and possible relationship have been agged by institutions such as WHO, CDC, and the NIH. Researchers estimate that COVID-19
infections could be a trigger for the onset of ME/CFS [1], while others rather point towards a reactivation of EBV by the COVID-19 virus
[59].
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Heliyon 9 (2023) e15595
9
Concomitant diseases and syndromes are not uncommon in ME/CFS patients and can complicate the diagnostic, management and
treatment. The majority of our respondents (82.2%) suffered from at least one co-morbidity. The most important ones were allergies
and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), migraine, depression, bromyalgia and thyroid diseases. This is in line with a Spanish cohort study
that found that over 80% of their subjects had co-morbidities [60]. Similarly, Bateman et al. (2014) reported 84% of their ME/CFS
respondents to be suffering from co-morbidities – such as bromyalgia, depression, anxiety and hypothyroidism [61].
The mean onset of the disease at 31.6 years of age is in line with data from other countries [19,62,63]. Around 15% of the patients
were younger than 18 years, meaning that they will enter adulthood and their productive work years with this chronic disease, and
patients often suffer from ME/CFS for the rest of their lives [64]. Our study showed that at the time of the survey, patients were in
average already ill for 13.7 years on average, with over half of them (56.3%) having had ME/CFS for over 10 years. Moreover, none
had fully recovered and half of the cohort stated that the disease had been getting worse over the years. These results support the
urgent need for fast diagnosis and close follow-up of patients, so that overall severities, progression rates and co-morbidities can be
reduced to the highest level. A pre-requisite is however, that physicians know and recognize the disease. A review among European
countries showed that up to a half of the GPs did not recognize ME/CFS as a medical entity [65]. The European Network on ME/CFS
(EUROMENE) has recently produced an expert consensus and recommendations regarding diagnosis and better care and service
provision for ME/CFS patients [26].
In light of the reported severity of symptoms, the triggers that worsen the disease course and slow recovery, patients would benet
from the provision of adequate life and work environments that would minimize triggers and support faster recovery from exacer-
bations. A pre-requisite being better awareness, understanding and acceptance of the disease by the society.
Importantly, this study showed that ME/CFS patients in Switzerland struggle not only with the clinical symptoms, but also con-
sequences of the accompanying disabilities; mental health issues remain under appreciated and require adapted coping strategies –
these are fortied further by impaired social life and nancial insecurity.
The study strengths were the high response rate of participants thanks to the possibility of questionnaire self-administration, which
reected how patients felt important to be heard and be more visible. The opportunity to give a voice to patients through open-ended
questions or sections that could be used freely allowed collecting valuable qualitative information that is often not captured by
structured questionnaires. The wide age range of participants as well as the inclusion of high number of house and bed-bound patients
contributed to the strength of this study. The limitations were the ones inherent to the self-administered questionnaire and self-
reporting of medical information approach, as well as possible recall bias. Although diagnosed by medical professionals, we do not
know which case denition the physicians used. Furthermore, we assume an under-representation within the ME/CFS association of
patients from French and Italian speaking cantons (German as main communication language), as well as patients suffering from
milder forms of ME/CFS. Therefore, a nation-wide cohort study is warranted to corroborate our preliminary ndings.
5. Conclusion
This study revealed in participating Swiss ME/CFS patients multiple shared common disease features, and highlighted the likeli-
hood of existing sub-groups. The overall burden of the disease was very high (main/accessory symptoms, co-morbidities, socio-eco-
nomic implications), demonstrating the urgent need for improvement of overall knowledge and acceptance of the disease in
healthcare, social care and society as a whole. Inter-disciplinary approaches to improve early diagnosis and long-term care for patients,
further research and clinical applications will be mandatory to ensure proper care of the ME/CFS aficted in Switzerland.
Author contribution statement
Rea Tschopp: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contrib-
uted reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.
Rahel S K¨
onig; Protazy Rejmer; Daniel H Paris: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.
Data availability statement
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Swiss ME/CFS association for its collaboration on this study and its logistic support. We are greatly thankful to all
ME/CFS participants and their families for having provided their time and efforts to make this study possible. We also thank Barnaby
Skinner and Anne Camier for their inputs in the questionnaire design.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15595.
R. Tschopp et al.

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