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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ECOCRITICISM IN THE SELECT NOVELS OF
EASTERINE KIRE AND CHINUA ACHEBE
Sonali Dudihalli
Phd. Scholar, SHSS, Sharda University, Greater Noida
Prof. (Dr.) Pramod Kumar
SHSS, Sharda University, Greater Noida
Abstract:
Ecocriticism has basically originated from the uncontrolled exploitation of the environment by
humans, creating natural and climatic hazards. Though ecocriticism, cannot stop the environmental
hazards from happening, it can definitely create a consciousness in people with the help of
literature. The works of both Easterine Kire from North East India and Chinua Achebe from
Nigeria, Africa, are embodied with the awareness of nature and its influence on human beings.
The character of Vilie, from ‘When the River Sleeps’, by Easterine Kire, a member of the Angami
tribe of Nagaland, is the protector of forest and his life completely revolves around it. Likewise,
Okonkwo, from the Igbo tribe of Nigeria, in ‘Things Fall Apart’ by Chinua Achebe, is shown to
be successful and in peace only when he follows and respects Goddess Ani, the Earth Goddess.
Thus, emphasizing the never-ending importance of nature in their lives. This research paper is an
attempt to recognize the interconnection between nature and literature, a comparative study of
ecocriticism in the novels of Easterine Kire ‘When the River Sleeps’ and Chinua Achebe’s ‘Things
Fall Apart’. The methodology used to achieve the above objective is the conceptual examination
of the theory of ecocriticism.
Keywords: Ecocriticism, North East India, Nigeria, Easterine Kire, Chinua Achebe
Ecocriticism, the term was first used in the essay ‘Literature and Ecology; An experiment in
Ecocriticism’, 1978, by William Rueckert. His main purpose was to apply the ecological terms in
understanding literature. Ecocriticism is a critical theory which has developed gradually form the
1990’s. The Association for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE), in the United States,
hosts a conference twice a year, for researchers who deal with environmental concerns in literature
and humanities, in general. Ecocriticism has been influenced by many different subjects and
studies. Primarily, it is influenced by ecology, sociology, philosophy, feminism, Marxism, to name
a few.
Ecocriticism basically works on two levels. In the first it tries to draw together a culture’s
ecological approaches from the texts related to that particular culture. This deals in the present or
the contemporary understanding of environmental problems faced by a particular culture at a
specific time. At the second level it uses canonical texts to interpret and understand ecocriticism
by re-reading it. At this level, it highlights the attitude to nature present in those times, through
these texts. For Example, Henry David Thoreau ‘Walden; or, Life in the Woods’ (1854). In the
novel, the protagonist is seeking solitude, self-sufficiency, and harmony in the woods and trying
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to understand the philosophical implications of the quest to find a meaningful existence in this
world. The serenity of nature, the changing of seasons, the availability of food with the change in
seasons all are highlighted by the author. It also reflects on the prevailing attitude in nature in the
early 19th Century.
Ecocriticism pursues to study, explore and analyse texts which emphasize nature, relationship and
attitude towards non- human life in every period, conflict between rationality and emotions,
developmental changes causing harm to nature are many of the approaches which are included in
the study of ecocriticism.
Another approach which focuses on environmental issues concerning the third world countries has
been propagated by Juan Martinez-Alier and Indian thinker Ramchandra Guha. According to them,
there is a strong link “between poverty and ecological degradation, especially in Asian and African
countries.” (Nayar, 2009). Environmental issues in these countries are multifaceted than the
developed countries. Social inequalities, illiteracy, poverty, population and sustenance on farming
has made land-use very haphazard. This makes it difficult to protect the wilderness and
environment. To follow the approaches adopted by the first world countries in this respect will not
work in the third world countries. A noted historian and thinker, Ramchandra Guha, mentions that
third world countries like India and Africa, cannot have developmental models based on Western
approaches. Conservational idea of ecology which the West follow may overlook the cultural and
social practices which are followed by local people since ancient times.
The term ‘environmentalism for the poor’ (Nayar, 2009) was an idea developed by Ramchandra
Guha and Martinez-Alier. They suggest a simple framework that environmental issues in the third
world or poor nations cannot be disconnected from the concerns of daily income, dispersal of
resources and social justice. Many tribes cut wood for fuel which is a basic necessity for survival
and to argue that it leads to de-forestation and therefore, should be stopped, would lead to injustice
and inequality. Many environmental movements have therefore, been initiated which stand for the
preservation of the ecosystems that are necessary to help the poorer sections of the society to
survive.
Thus, it becomes imperative that an approach of ecocriticism to the literature of the third world
countries should be more focused, on their strong links with the local communities and
environment. This would lead to creating a balance between nature, life and literature.
Nagaland, one of the north eastern states in India and Nigeria, one of the countries on the western
coast of Africa, placed almost at the opposite ends of the world, are quite similar. in the sense that
they both are situated in the midst of environmental beauty. The people residing in both these
places are an amalgamation of different tribes who believe in Goddess Nature, and abound in
myths, folklores and oral traditions. Both these parts were under colonial rule and had to fight for
their freedom. And most importantly, the people in these regions had to face the annihilation of
their local religion and customs by the White Missionaries and Christianity was forced on them.
Nagaland is a land shrouded in mystery, occupied by vibrant people, who passionately guard their
culture. It is a land occupied by hunters, warriors and dancers, bursting with forests, rivers, valleys
and mountains. It has a tropical climate. The plant and animal life exits as in a tropical region. The
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green forests provide not just the precious timber but also provide bamboo, palms and rattan.
Nagaland has a varied wildlife. Wild animals such as tigers, leopards, bears, elephants, numerous
species of monkey, deer, etc. can be seen in the dense and green forests.
There are more than twenty Naga tribes and numerous subtribes and everyone has a precise
geographic location. These tribes share many cultural traits, but they are also kept themselves
isolated from each other and avoid creating larger communities.
It only in the last few decades that North East Indian literature has been noticed by main stream
Indian writing in English. The literature and works of the authors of the North East India then
without fail reflect the closeness with nature. Many of the writers have spun their novels/stories
around nature, folklore, myths and spirits. Ecology or ecocriticism has been seen in the works of
like Mamang Dai, Janice Pariat, Easterine Kire, Nzanmongi Jasmine Patton, Temsula Ao, Mitra
Phukan, Monalisa Changkija, Rashmi Narzary etc.
Mamang Dai’s novel, ‘The Legends of Pensam’ (2006), showcases the unique ecological wisdom
of the Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh and promotes an eco-mystical way of living. It highlights
the vast restructuring of nature which has been done and justified on the grounds of development.
How materialism and commercialism has uprooted the deep ecological connections of the Khasi
tribe, is demonstrated in Janice Pariat’s ‘Boats on Land’ (2012),
‘A Girl Swallowed by a Tree: Lotha Naga Tales Retold’ (2014) by Nzanmongi Jasmine Patton’s
focuses on the mutual relationship of humans with forests, trees, and animals on earth. Temsula
Ao’s ‘Laburnum for My Head’ (2009), has distinctly shown how worshipping, preserving, and
living in complete harmony with nature are the only ways to ascertain continuity against the winds
of ecological changes. Another North East writer, who has spoken about the insurgency of the
1970-80’s in Assam is Mitra Phukan’s ‘The Collector’s Wife’. This novel shows the
interdependence of the protagonist with nature for its survival.
Located towards the western coast of Africa, is the country of Nigeria, which has a mixed
geography, and the climate too ranges from arid to humid. Nevertheless, Nigeria is quite famous
for its varied people. It boasts of innumerable dialects and languages. Most known languages of
Nigeria are Tev, Igbo, Yoruba, Fula, Edo, Hausa, Ibibio and of course English. There is no dearth
of natural resources in Nigeria, such as natural gas and petroleum. Due to its tropical nature,
Nigeria has a wet and dry climate most part of a year. Freshwater swamps and mangroves occur
along the coast leading to thick tropical rainforests. The oil palm trees that grow uninhabited in
Nigeria are preserved after forest cultivation, which leads to economic prosperity.
Many African writers are therefore nature writers too. Their works and nature are interconnected.
African societies are conservative and practice conservation of all natural resources, mainly
environment. African writers like Wole Soyinka, Ben Okri, Chinua Achebe, Ngugi wa Thiong’o,
Chimamanda Adichie, J.M.Coetzee, have all demonstrated the use of nature in their works.
The literature of Nigeria is greatly influenced by its local environment. For example, the oil palm
has a great significance in Nigerian literature. Chinua Achebe in ‘Things fall Apart’, Soyinka in
‘The Road’ and ‘A Dance of Forests’ use oil palms to a great extent. Tribal and rural background
is another distinctive feature of Nigerian writing. The most popular African novel by the well-
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known Nigerian author Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart by Achebe, is set in the village of
Umuofia. In the Igbo language it means ‘children of the forest’. Again, Achebe’s second novel
Arrow of God has its setting in the Igbo village of Umuaro.
Wole Soyinka, one of the well-known writers of Nigeria, in his novel ‘The Swamp Dwellers’ talks
about the Nigerian swamps. Other Nigerian writers such as Amos Tutualo, Cyprian Ekwensi and
Elechi Amadi have also published works that revolve around the ecology of Nigeria. In Ekwensi’s
‘Burning Grass’, too ecology plays an important role. Another famous South African writer,
J.M.Coetzee, has written novels which are influenced by African environment. The protagonist of
his novel ‘Disgrace’, revolves around the alienation face by the protagonist on his own land.
Thus, nature writing or ecological writing has emerged as a ‘literature of hope’ in the North East
Indian and African literature. The intimacy with nature is reflected in their works and have become
excellent examples of ecocriticism texts.
Born in Kohima, in Nagaland, a North East state in India, Easterine Kire, is a well-known novelist,
short-story writer as well as a poet. Most of her novels are based on the indigenous tribes of
Nagaland. She presently lives in Norway. Easterine Kire is also the first poet from Nagaland to
have published in English. In 2003, Easterine Kire published her first novel, ‘A Naga Village
Remembered’. It was later republished as ‘Sky is my father: A Naga Village Remembered’ in 2018.
In 2011, Easterine Kire received the Governor’s Medal of excellence for the novel ‘Bitter
Wormwood’, which tells the story about Naga freedom struggle. It was nominated for the Hindu
Lit for Life prize in 2013. Easterine Kire is also a reputed children’s author from Nagaland who
has recently published her fifth children’s book ‘The Dancing Village’. Her other published works
are, ‘A Respectable Woman’ (2019), ‘Don’t Run, My love’ (2017), ‘Son of the Thundercloud’
(2016), ‘When the River Sleeps’ (2014) and ‘A Terrible Matriarchy’ (2007).
‘When the River Sleeps’, is the story of a hunter who is in his forties. He is the protector of the
forest and has made forest his home. Vilie is frequently troubled by a dream of a specific river
which was talked about by the seers of his ancestral village where he lived. A specific stone in the
bottom of the river was such that it had the power to grant any wish to its owner. Eventually, Vilie
decides to fulfil his dream and starts on this risky and adventurous journey. To pick the stone from
the river bottom, Vilie had to catch the river ‘sleeping’, metamorphically.
Easterine Kire’s description of this journey is the most enchanting part of the whole novel. The
harmony with nature that Vilie tries to create and develop in himself is itself full of self-learning
and wisdom. The hills of Nagaland, encounter with weretigers, widow-spirits, and demons makes
the journey almost surreal. He travels on foot with minimum luggage. He seeks shelter in the
villages where he comes across different tribes. In a certain village Vilie is blamed by the villagers
of a murder that he by chance happens to witness. After a lot of courage and risk he finally reaches
the ‘sleeping river’ and at the right moment he collects the stone from its bottom. Then on his
return journey he meets two magical sisters who have been outcasted by their community as they
were thought to have magical powers. They could just carry out a curse on anyone by merely
raising a finger towards them. Ate, the younger sister is warm hearted and Vilie is convinced that
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she is harmless. Certain events lead to the death of the elder sister. As Ate is alone now, Vilie
insists that she come with him.
When Vilie visits his forest house with Ate, on the way they visit a neighbouring Nepali couples
house. There they find the couple murdered but their infant son is miraculously saved. Then Vilie
takes Ate and the child to his ancestral home in the village where his two aunts lived. The little
infant and Ate, bring joy in the lives of his aunts. Before leaving for forest, Vilie hands over the
river stone to Ate. The novel has a tragic ending, where Vilie, after returning to his forest home,
is unexpectedly killed by a man who was after the precious stone. Ate gets married and every
quarter of a year, visits the forest home of Vile with the child and husband. She continues to feel
the presence of Vilie in his forest home.
The novel ‘When the River Sleeps’ is set in Nagaland, a state full of hills and scenic beauty. During
his journey, the author gives us a panoramic view of the Naga people as Vilie, meets and stays
with different people. A stranger and a tired traveller, Vilie, is not just given food and shelter but,
also a place in their homes without expectations. In the afternoon, when Vilie assumes it must be
around two ‘o’clock, he sees the women pluck nettle from the nettle forest and begin bark weaving
- an art which is carried on from generations. From it bark cloth is made which is a rare art in
today’s times.
Throughout the novel Vilie is shown to be a protector of the forest and vice versa. The forest
protected Vilie from wild animals, it provided food when he was hungry and shelter when he
needed it. The mysteries of nature are always unknown even to those who live consider it God.
Vile too, had to face various threats to his life even though he had spent most of his life in the
forest. The relationship of Vilie with the forest is thus, interlinked and mutual. He was thus called
the ‘guardian of the forest’. (Kire, 2014)
Nature is a provider of remedy and provides cure for all diseases. The tribal people heavily depend
on it for treatment. In one of the instances, Vilie was stung by the nettle plants. One of the women
present there Idele, tried to find an antidote. She looked for the plant of ‘bitter wormwood’ and
pulled off some leaves and squeezed them into a paste in her hand. After the paste was applied,
Vilie kept rubbing it into his skin, it relieved the pain caused by the sting.
In the novel, ‘When the River Sleeps’, nature is almost shown like another character. It helps Vilie
to conquer his fear. He decides to take shelter in the forest so that he could escape the people who
were after him, even his aunts. They wanted him to get settled. But the calmness and peacefulness
provided by the nature helps Vile to clear his mind and take the right decisions. The forest helps
him to get rid of his fear of people and spirits too.
The African (Nigerian) writer, Chinua Achebe, was born in 1930, Ogidi, Nigeria and died on 21st
March, 2013, in Boston. He belonged to the Igbo tribe. Through his novels Achebe, brought forth
the imposition of customs by the Western (White) people on the natives, which led to disintegration
on traditional values and customs of the African society. His novels portray the disruption caused
in the lives of African natives, the Igbo tribe, when they first came in contact with the white man
to the aftermath of education and colonization.
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The traditional Igbo life and how it fights colonialism are portrayed in the novels Things Fall Apart
(1958) and Arrow of God (1964). His other novels No Longer at Ease (1960), A Man of the People
(1966), and Anthills of the Savannah (1987) also deal with various aspects of post colonialism in
Africa. His part autobiographical novel, Home and Exile (2000) talks about the distortions created
in African life by forceful implementation of western approaches. Chinua Achebe won the Man
Booker Prize in 2007, however, in spite of being a pioneer in African literature and one of the most
popular writers, Achebe never won the Nobel prize.
‘Things fall Apart’, Chinua Achebe’s first novel was published in the year 1958. The plot begins
with Okonkwo who is troubled by the actions of his father Unoka, who was a spendthrift and had
accumulated many village debts unsettled before he died. As a result, Okonkwo becomes a warrior
leader, accumulates wealth and becomes a provider to his large family with various wives and
children. His son Nwoye is twelve years old who is extremely lazy and Okonkwo worries about
him. In one of the villages where Okonkwo wins a virgin and a fifteen-year-old boy named
Ikemefuna, who starts living with him. Ikemefuna is an ideal son to Okonkwo, but he cannot
consider Ikemefuna as his actual son. As the story progresses, we find Okonkwo banished from
his village for seven years, as he accidently kills a clansman. When he returns back to his village,
he is now confronted with a new problem. He realises the entry of the white missionaries and
colonial rule begins in the traditional and tribal Igbo society. This leads to the down fall of his
village and also Okonkwo.
A typical African tribe learns to identify the changing seasons since a young age. Even in Achebe’s
‘Things Fall Apart’, we are shown how the Igbo tribe community recognizes the changing seasons,
from summer to rainy. This knowledge of seasons helps the community in farming activities. They
can plan the cultivation of Yam, the wealthiest crop of Igbo tribe. Okonkwo, the main protagonist,
for example, learns to identify the different seasons with the help of knowledge gained from
observing natural phenomena. This knowledge of the seasons helps him to become a successful
yam farmer.
Even in ‘Things Fall Apart’, nature is projected as an abundant provider. It not only of provides
food but also offers its healing ability. The ancient wisdom passed on by the elders of the Igbo
tribe, about plants, leaves, grasses and trees, regarding their medicinal use is precious and helps
the community in their everyday lives. It provides medicinal treatment. Okonkwo tries to heal
Enzima, the daughter of his second wife, who was lying on the bed shivering by the fireside.
Okonkwo’s daughter suffers from iba or fever. “It is iba,” said Okonkwo (Achebe, 1958) as he
takes his machete and goes into the forest to collect ingredients that went into the making of iba,
such as the leaves, grasses and barks of trees. Many a times, Okonkwo had used different parts of
plants to prepare medicines for both the young and the old. A paste was prepared from the specific
part of the plant and given to the patient by mixing it with water.
Animals too play an important part in the lives of the traditional African community. Goats are
precious in many ways. Not just for meat and milk, their skin is also used to make bags to carry
water and food items. Okonkwo had to pay a fine to Goddess Ani, of a she-goat when he beat and
abused his wife during the ‘Week of Peace’, meant to honour the Earth goddess Ani.
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The balance between nature and human life has to be well maintained. Nature had to be respected
and conserved in every way. Unnecessary or misuse of forest resources can result in the ruin of
mankind which depends on it as a provider and protector. In Achebe’s, ‘Things Fall Apart’,
Okonkwo get immensely upset when he finds his second wife Enzima had carelessly used banana
leaves for packing things. This had withered the plant which angered Okonkwo. The dependency
on plants and animals had to be finely balanced and was a way of life for the Igbo tribe.
Thus, living life in happiness and enjoying the benefits and loss that come with various seasons,
the Igbo tribe in Chinua Achebe’s ‘Things Fall Apart’ find harmony with nature.
Another important and recent branch in Ecocriticism is called Ecofeminism. This theory can be
called as an extension of feminist theories too. It can be explained as the suppression of women
and the oppression of nature and their interconnection. It has a intricate relation between woman
and ecology (nature). Feminist writers such as Vandana Shiva, Ariel Shallah, Mary Mellor, have
“generated nuanced readings of the relationship between gender and nature”. (Nayar, 2009)
Nature is imagined as feminine as it reproduces and nurtures its offspring just as a woman.
Ecofeminism arrives from the thought that both nature and women are abused or oppressed by
males with their thoughts and actions, in a society. An important stand in Ecofeminism is that it
brings back and focusses on older myths and religious beliefs that were adulated by people. This
is because they believed that the pre-modern societies always treated nature with respect. All
knowledge and wisdom were acquired from nature and so female form in any form such as female
sexuality, female power, female bodies and female wisdom was all revered. This leads to the
debate on introducing spiritual ecofeminism in ecofeminist texts. Goddess worship in Hinduism,
presence of Celtic and Egyptian Goddess, Nature goddesses in native tribes of Africa and America
also become part of Ecofeminism. Ecofeminist writers such as Vandana Shiva, Ynestra King and
Noël Sturgeon have talked about the spiritual facet of ecofeminism in ancient cultures leading to
a re-reading of canonical texts.
Chinua Achebe’s ‘Things fall Apart’ is an excellent illustration of ecofeminism. In this novel
woman are shown as a symbol of productivity, fertility, continuity and sustenance, just like nature.
The prosperity, peace and the survival of the community depends upon women. The Earth Goddess
Ani, who is responsible for fertility and growth of crops is highlighted throughout the novel. In
her honour, a week was devoted which was called the Week of Peace. Any clan member who
violated or abused women this week were severely punished. Okonkwo, for example, beats his
wife in this week, and he is told by the seers to compensate his sin with paying fine of a She-goat,
money and other things. One of the wives of Okonkwo, Ezinma, was not gifted with children for
many years as she had run away from her first husband and had come to stay with Okonkwo. She
always wanted to marry Okonkwo, but at the time of giving the bride prize, Okonkwo did not have
enough money, so she had married the highest bidder. After two years with him she ran away from
him and came to Okonkwo. For this act of adultery, she was punished by Goddess Ani. It was only
after burying nine children that Goddess Ani gifted Ezinma with a child.
A woman is as protective as is nature. They provide the comfort and warmth that men seek. After
Okonkwo was banished form his village for accidentally killing a person of his clan, he finds
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comfort and protection in the village of his mother Mbanta. It is here Okonkwo realizes the
importance of women in his life.
Easterine Kire’s ‘When the River Sleeps’ is also a study of ecofeminism. Ate, the younger sister
with magical powers but cursed, plays the role of a protector to Vilie. Though Vilie is physically
stronger, it is Ate’s careful ways which help Vilie in facing the arduous return journey. It is the
‘river’ which plays a major role of a female in the novel. The ‘river spirit’ is the main female
character. It provides Vilie with the much-needed protection by realizing his dream of finding the
precious stone. Vilie is nurtured by the river through his dreams motivated to fulfil it. Many ardent
men had tried to find the precious stone from the river’s base but none of them had succeeded
because they thought of the river as a possession which they abused in order to achieve their goal.
However, Vilie was aware of this fact. His respect to the river as an entity, a goddess, a woman, a
guiding spirit, allowed him to get the stone without much fear.
In the novel, we hear Vilie saying “forest is my wife” (Kire, 2014), though he may have used the
word as a personification, but the feeling was quite real for him. When he had to leave the forest
even for a few days, he used to feel lonely. He felt he was an “unfaithful spouse”. (Kire, 2014)
The forest provided him with a place to hide when he had to run away from people, it provided
him with food when he was hungry and shelter during his journey.
Conclusion:
Literature plays an important role in our lives by redirecting and guiding us. In our moments of
crisis specially, when we are threatened, we take refuge in literature. Ecocritical writing guides
human beings in being aware of the threats to nature. For decades ecological literature was ignored.
Contemporary ecological issues, throughout, the world have made common men aware of the
dangers of abusing and exploiting natural resources. And what a better way to highlight these
issues, than the use of literature for it. Natural world is beautiful and literature provides a medium
to be its protector. The literature of Easterine Kire and Chinua Achebe transport the message that
nature and women are not to be abused and exploited. They are the sole source of our survival and
existence. When we realize this, we will have created a place of ourselves in our environment,
where each one of us can be in peace.
Nature is ‘SHE’, the protector, the provider and the personification in literature.
Ecocriticism is a contemporary theory and many new approaches are yet to be explored. Canonical
works that are popular can be used to highlight the environmental concerns. Spiritual
Ecofeminism, a strand of ecofeminism has to be studied in greater detail. Not just Indian literature,
but African and European literature too has texts which can be re-read with spiritual ecofeminism.
Nature should be interwoven in every work of literature and till then there will always be some
way to improvise it.
References :
Achebe, C. (1958). ‘Things Fall Apart’. (ed. 1st). William Heinemann Ltd. Nigeria
Nayar, P.K. (2009). ‘Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory’. (ed. 1st). Pearson. Delhi.
Kire, E. (2014). ‘When the River Sleeps’. (ed. 1st). Zubaan Books. Delhi.
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Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, viewed 2nd May 2022, <
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chinua-Achebe>
Barbican Press, viewed 2nd May 2022, < https://barbicanpress.com/contributor/easterine-kire/>
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kirk-Greene, Anthony Hamilton Millard, Falola, Toyin O, Ajayi, J.F.
Ade and Udo, Reuben Kenrick, viewed 3rd May 2022,
<https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria>