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An environmental and economic sustainability assessment of coffee production in the UK
... This practice contributes to water pollution, leading to the contamination of water systems, which not only affects water quality but also poses risks to aquatic life. Wildlife habitats may degrade, and ecosystems can become imbalanced due to pollution (Gosalvitr et al., 2023). ...
... The environmental impact of coffee has been extensively studied. However, most of these studies have been conducted in developed nations that utilize different technologies (Barreto Peixoto et al., 2023;Gosalvitr et al., 2023;Lingnau et al., 2019) and methodologies compared to those employed in Indonesia. Furthermore, these studies often focus exclusively on the environmental effects of the production phase. ...
... Furthermore, these studies often focus exclusively on the environmental effects of the production phase. It is imperative to acknowledge, however, that the ecological impacts extends beyond production (Gosalvitr et al., 2023;Lingnau et al., 2019) and pervades the entire coffee supply chain. This is particularly relevant in the unique context of Indonesia's coffee production, where supply chain activities present distinct environmental challenges. ...
Agroindustry refers to industry that process agricultural raw materials into value-added products. Sanrego coffee is a blend of authentic Sanrego coffee and sugar, without the use of chemicals. SMI Sanrego Caffee produces a variety of products, including coffee and chocolate. However, the coffee processing activities at SMI Sanrego Caffee can have potential environmental impacts due to emissions, liquids waste, and solid waste generation. to assess and mitigate these environmental impacts, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method is amployed. LCA evaluates the environmental effects at various stages of a product, process, or service lifecycle. Based on the results from the analysis, using the Simapro software, the potential environmental impacts were compared across several impact categories, abiotic depletion (3.77 kg Sb-eq), global warming (518 kg CO2-eq), acidification (4.41 kg SO2-eq). The interpretation stage of the analysis identified several areas improvement: first, optimizing fuel usage; secondly, reducing reliance on aluminum foil; third, minimizing the use of sacks; and lastly, reducing electricity consumption.
... Coffee is the most consumed beverage worldwide, with approximately two billion cups served a day [1]. The European Union, the US, and Japan are the primary coffeeimporting countries, accounting for 65.6% of the total, while Brazil, Indonesia, and Ethiopia are the main exporters, accounting for 61.6% (Brazil only 44.6%) [2]. ...
... The objective of this paper is as follows: (1) to investigate Brazilian green coffee exports between 2018 and 2022 in order to identify state producers, logistical corridors based on cargo ports, and international importer countries; (2) to point out the relations among them and the reasons that led these actors to these main roles in the network. We adopted a five-year period in this study to avoid missing data or trade seasonality. ...
... The UK is the fifth largest coffee consumer in Europe, where approximately 95 million cups are consumed daily. Around 181,000 tons of green coffee beans are imported every year to the UK to be processed and consumed, with 66% of the total coming from Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, and Honduras [1]. ...
Background: The coffee industry is one of the most important world supply chains, with an estimated consumption of two billion cups daily, making it the most consumed beverage worldwide. Coffee beans are primarily grown in tropical countries, with Brazil accounting for almost 50% of the production. The objective of this study is to examine the Brazilian trade between 2018 and 2022, focusing on state producers, logistical corridors, and importer countries. Methods: The methodology approach revolves around a quantitative method using Social Network Analysis measures. Results: The results reveal a massive concentration in local production (99.5%—Minas Gerais), port movements (99.9%—Santos, Itaguai, and Rio de Janeiro), and country buyers (80.9%—the United States, United Kingdon, and Japan). Conclusions: The study concludes that the Brazilian green coffee supply chain relies on a fragile and overloaded logistical network. Due to that, this study indicates that the stakeholders and decision-makers involved must consider this high concentration of production in some areas and companies. They must also address the bottlenecks in logistical corridors and the fierce competition involved in acquiring and processing Brazilian coffee production because these factors can drastically affect the revenue of the companies operating in this sector.
... Europe contributes the largest market share of the world's coffee consumption at 33 %, followed by Asia and Oceania (22 %), North America (19 %), South America (16 %), Africa (7 %) and Central America & Mexico at 3 % (Gosalvitr et al., 2023). In terms of volume, Kenya's coffee consumption remains low compared to the western nations. ...
... In the face of increasing cognizance with regard to carbon emissions, water footprint and climate change impacts, a plethora of studies have been carried out to assess environmental impacts of coffee via Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. These studies span wider spectrum of geographical regions, for instance the USA (Hicks, 2018), European Union (Gosalvitr et al., 2023;Nab and Maslin, 2020). Thailand (Phrommarat, 2019), Kenya (Maina et al., 2015), Japan (Hassard et al., 2014), Costa Rica (Birkenberg and Birner, 2018) and Finland (Usva et al., 2020). ...
... As consumer taste preferences might be the main driver for the coffee preparation type, which in turn may influence the coffee impacts, it would be justified to consider some organoleptic properties. The only exception was the study by Gosalvitr et al. (2023), where the authors compared coffee drinks on the basis of a common amount of caffeine provided (100 mg). Future studies could further investigate organoleptic properties associated with both the type of coffee and its preparation, and adjust the LCA calculations to the actual expected function of coffee (i.e. more focused on the strength, taste or other coffee properties). ...
... Comparing on a similar volume basis with different coffee dilution ratios would not be suitable as long as the quality of the drink is not investigated. One study investigating differences in coffee drinks impacts based on a common caffeine content highlighted that such a unit would further reduce the variability range (Gosalvitr et al., 2023). ...
... This section explores how different combinations of light, medium, and dark roast coffee production can affect a company's profitability while considering energy consumption and carbon emissions [35]. Three production scenarios are assumed to analyze these trade-offs. ...
This study explores optimizing carbon emissions in the coffee bean roasting industry through the application of Activity-Based Costing (ABC). By analyzing three roasting product combinations—light roast, medium roast, and dark roast—the research evaluates production costs, energy consumption, carbon emissions, and profitability. The light roast demonstrates the highest profitability and the lowest environmental impact, offering a favorable balance between economic and environmental objectives. Light roasting reduces carbon emissions by 33.33% compared to dark roasting and by 16.67% compared to medium roasting. The medium roast achieves moderate profitability while maintaining manageable energy consumption and carbon emissions. Conversely, the dark roast, though profitable, shows significantly higher energy consumption and carbon emissions, highlighting the need for targeted improvements in process efficiency. This study underscores the advantages of ABC in providing precise cost allocation and identifying resource inefficiencies, enabling businesses to implement energy-efficient technologies and optimize operations. It also emphasizes the importance of adopting renewable energy sources and leveraging government incentives to align sustainability with financial goals. This study serves as a model for integrating economic performance with environmental responsibility, offering actionable insights for businesses. Future research could expand the scope of this approach to other continuous process industries, demonstrating its broader applicability and potential for improving sustainability across diverse sectors.
... They have an excellent production history and an important role in the global market but also in research [73,81]. It is estimated that around 2 billion cups of coffee are consumed daily [82]. ...
Caffeine is among the most commonly used and consumed stimulants worldwide. It is a naturally occurring stimulant mainly found in coffee and tea. It is also present in sweetened beverages, which are very popular among young people. Recently, the consumption of energy drinks has been increasing, which are other examples of drinks containing caffeine. Is caffeine beneficial or harmful to human health? Due to its antioxidative properties, it has become attractive for many scientific studies. Caffeine consumption can have both positive and negative effects on the human body; it affects the activity of the digestive and respiratory systems, the function of the urinary tract, and the function of the central nervous system. Caffeine is a psychostimulant. It increases brain activity and alertness, reducing the perception of fatigue. Many people consume beverages containing caffeine to experience these effects, which can help them stay awake and focused. However, high consumption may not be beneficial to health; it is also associated with increased headaches and insomnia. The effects of caffeine on the body depend on its dosage, the type of drink consumed, and individual variability. It is also essential to know its effect on the body during pregnancy. This review discusses the latest knowledge about caffeine’s positive and negative impacts on the human body, as nowadays, more and more people, especially younger people, reach for energy drinks.
... Specifically, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) method contributes to the concept of a total greenhouse effect, which is a leading influence on climate change [49]. The cumulative energy demand (CED) indicator implies energy resource availability and is an essential factor to consider since energy consumption contributes significant values of environmental stress over the life cycle of coffee in differing geographic locations [50,51]. Specifically, organic coffee and conventional coffee products are compared because of the variability seen in the environmental sustainability of each type, as found in studies. ...
This study evaluates the environmental burden of organic and conventional coffee systems with a functional unit (FU) of 1 kg for market-ready, dried coffee. The ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 framework and guidelines are applied to organic and conventional coffee systems, using a cradle-to-grave approach and the methodology of ReCiPe Endpoint 2008, cumulative energy demand (CED), and the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC). Superior sustainability was achieved for organic coffee compared to the performance of conventional coffee, with values of 218.50 mPt (conventional) and 146.10 mPt (organic), and a global warming potential (GWP) of 2.12 kg CO2 eq FU⁻¹ (organic) and 1.44 kg CO2 eq FU⁻¹ (conventional). CED fossil-based consumption totalled 25 MJ and 35 MJ for organic and conventional coffee systems, respectively. Conventional and organic coffee system hotspots stemmed from the planting (chemical fertilizer), drying, and packaging processes. This study emphasizes the environmental benefits of organic practices and their relatively lower impact than conventional methods. Within a growing sector, best management practices in the form of actionable insights from a life cycle assessment must be sought to ensure environmental sustainability in parallel with the UN’s goals.
... Economic sustainability includes market dynamics, value chain analysis, and economic viability. Factors like price fluctuations, market demand, certification schemes, and diversification strategies are studied to develop sustainable business models and enhance profitability [12,35,57]. The emergence of "Saudi Arabia" as a significant player in coffee agriculture research (CA-R) is due to several factors. ...
Background
Research on Coffea arabica focuses on various aspects, including genetics, breeding, climate change resilience, pest and disease management, agronomy, sensory analysis, and sustainability. This study aims to analyze the hotspots, conceptual map and dynamicity, global landscape, and emerging trends in Coffea arabica research (CA-R).
Methods
A comprehensive dataset comprising data-driven articles (N = 3967) from 1932 to 2023 was extracted from Scopus using predefined search terms. VOSviewer and Bibliometrix applications were utilized to analyze the data. Thematic evolution was examined by identifying shifts in research focus over time. The global landscape was assessed by examining comparative productivity and collaborative dynamics. Highly-cited CA-R was identified to highlight key findings in specific research areas.
Results
The analysis revealed a steady growth of CA-R (annual growth rate = 6.53 %), with strong international collaboration (international co-authorships = 29.35 %) and significant contributions from various countries. Brazil leads the way with 1601 publications, accounting for 28.55 % of the total. Recognizable CA-R focused on important areas such as pollination, shade management, nanotechnology applications, roasting effects, disease management, and environmental impacts. Thematic analysis identified five distinct clusters representing different CA-R themes: “coffee”, “coffea,” “fermentation,” “Coffea arabica,” and “climate change.” Emerging themes such as "in vitro culture," "sustainable agriculture," "climate change," and "coffee berry borer" were also identified.
Conclusion
The current findings enhance our understanding of CA-R and lay the groundwork for future studies in the coffee industry.
... Traditionally, coffee is shipped for distribution in the form of whole coffee beans or ground coffee [3,4]. In the case of instant coffee, the ground coffee undergoes extraction, evaporation, and drying, resulting in a dry, solid product that is then packaged and ready for distribution [5,6]. The beneficial effects of consuming small amounts of coffee, i.e., two to five cups per day, have been indicated in recent research. ...
Coffee is a source of micronutrients, including iron, zinc, copper, and manganese. It may also contain toxic metals, such as lead and cadmium. The effects of coffee on the human body may vary depending on its composition. The objective of this study was to assess the quality of ground and instant coffee with regard to the content of selected trace elements. The concentrations of trace elements, including copper, iron, manganese, and zinc, were determined by ICP-AES, while the levels of lead and cadmium were quantified by GF-AAS methods. Furthermore, the degree of coverage of the recommended intake of elements and the risk assessment for human health (EDI, THQ, PTMI, and TWI) were determined. Our findings indicate that the consumption of a cup of coffee provides the body with only small amounts of these elements. A coffee prepared from 6.33 g of ground coffee beans provides 0.08–1.52% of the RDA value, while a coffee prepared from 6.33 g of instant coffee provides 0.46–13.01% of the RDA, depending on the microelement. The low transfer to the brew (Pb = 7.1%; Cd = 30.0%) of the analyzed ground coffees renders them safe for the consumer, even at a consumption of six cups per day. The percentage of benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL0.1) in the case of lead did not exceed 0.9%. The estimated value did not exceed 0.2% of the provisional tolerable monthly intake of cadmium (PTMI). None of the analyzed coffees exhibited any risk regarding the trace elements.
... The dry powder thus obtained has a moisture content of between 2% and 4% [3][4][5][6][7]. Instant coffee is widely consumed in Eastern Europe (45%), Asia/Pacific (53%), and Australia (79%), and has become established in countries where tea was traditionally consumed, such as the United Kingdom, where 90% of the coffee consumed is instant [8,9], a fact that has led many producing countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru, to increase their production of instant coffee in recent years [10]. their combined action, i.e., their additive, synergistic or antagonistic effect [51,52]. ...
This study analysed the probabilistic risk to consumers associated with the presence of iAs, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, acrylamide (AA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in instant coffee from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru. The results found iAs to be the metal with the highest concentrations (3.50 × 10⁻² to 6.00 × 10⁻² mg/kg), closely followed by Pb (1.70 × 10⁻² to 2.70 × 10⁻² mg/kg) and Cr (5.00 × 10⁻³ to 1.00 × 10⁻² mg/kg), although these differences were not significant between countries. Cd and Hg were not detected. Focusing on AA, the concentrations ranged from 1.77 × 10⁻¹ mg/kg (Peru) to 4.77 × 10⁻¹ mg/kg (Brazil), while OTA ranged from 1.32 × 10⁻³ (Peru) to 1.77 × 10⁻³ mg/kg (Brazil) with significant differences between countries in both cases. As regards risk, the hazard quotient and hazard index were less than 1, meaning that the consumption of instant coffee represents a low level of concern for non-genotoxic effects. The results of the combination of margin of exposure and probability of exceedance indicated that the non-genotoxic effects of Pb, AA and OTA pose no threat. However, the probability values of suffering cancer from iAs and AA (between 1 × 10⁻⁶ and 1 × 10⁻⁴) indicated a moderate risk and that management measures should be taken.
... Coffee production potentially impacts habitat destruction and fragmentation of native tropical biodiversity (Hassard et al., 2014), particularly due to the long and complex supply chain required to produce and transport coffee beans to market (Nab and Maslin, 2020;Cibelli et al., 2021). Gosalvitr et al. (Gosalvitr et al., 2023/06) carried out a comprehensive life cycle assessment for coffee production, identifying that the cultivation of green coffee beans contributes more than 84 % across all environmental impacts and costs. The agriculture impacts are usually associated with the use of fertilizers, in fact the main source of greenhouse gases from agriculture are N 2 O associated with the use of nitrogen fertilizers. ...
Nowadays, coffee is a popular beverage globally and one of the largest traded commodities. Conventional instant coffee production requires energy and water, producing coffee bagasse (biomass) as an agro-industrial residue. This residue, spent coffee grounds (SCGs), in Ecuador is currently disposed of in the municipal landfills, losing the opportunity to recover energy and minerals. This paper studies the life cycle environmental impacts of instant coffee production using data from a coffee plant in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The study analyzes the impact of generating the required electricity by an internal combustion engine powered by fossil fuel, using the Ecuadorian power grid, or using a combined cooling, heat, and power (CCHP) trigeneration system powered by dried SCGs and natural gas. The results indicate that when SCGs is used to power auxiliary processes, the CO2 emissions greatly decrease, helping to reduce fossil fuel dependence. The study also reveals that scenarios using electricity from the Ecuadorian power grid exhibit lower environmental indicators than those using internal combustion engines. The scenario that includes the CCHP records the lowest indicator in each category, reducing the GWP by 45.2 % compared to the base scenario, pointing out that using energy-efficient technologies lowers the carbon footprint, contributing to decarbonisation simultaneously.
... These results can contribute to the efforts of creating sustainable and productive coffee cultivation considering appropriate rainfall and rainy days. The sustainable supply of coffee is very important because billions of cups of coffee are consumed yearly [22] so that coffee is the second rank after petroleum on the list of the world's economic value [23]. ...
Coffee leaf rust (CLR) disease is seriously threatening the sustainability of coffee production in many countries. The incidence and severity as CLR parameters generally depend on the coffee plant, pathogen, and environment. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of arabica coffee populations and weather conditions on CLR parameters. The study was carried out using a field experiment with seven groups of arabica coffee populations in different weathers in North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. The results showed that the arabica coffee population P7 from District Toba had high resistance to wet weather. Furthermore, all the population groups showed higher degree of CLR parameters in dry than wet weather, while a significant interaction between the population and the weather was observed on branch rust incidence, leaf rust incidence, and severity. Moreover, H. vastatrix races were probably varied and had different adaptability to weather changes, which was the most decisive factor for the dispersal and severity of CLR. The CLR parameters in the dry weather did not correlate with the parameters in the wet weather and vice versa. The total rainfall and the number of the rainy day reduced the CLR dispersal and severity.
... The contribution made by coffee growing and trade to environmental and social issues is extremely positive, certainly when compared to most other economic activities [64]- [66]. On the environmental side, coffee is an evergreen shrub, therefore, an important contributor to carbon sequestration, and is effective in stabilizing soils [67], [68]. ...
Analyzing the local value chain in coffee-producing regions can help identify obstacles and opportunities for economic development and growth. Faced with this, the objective of the study was to analyze the value chain in the Amazon region. For which, the survey was used to collect information from producers and those involved in the value chain. To map the chain, the GIZ Value Links methodology was used; the study population was 34 producers and representatives of organizations and institutions. The coffee value chain in the Amazon region is made up of producers as the first link, after them the local collectors such as associations and cooperatives are present and in turn free trade who are the intermediary buyers. Government institutions. The main international export markets are Canada, the United States, and Germany. The main difficulty for producers is the constant coffee pests that prevent good production, along with the lack of irrigation in the plots.
... Coffee is the most widely consumed crop beverage worldwide because hundreds of billions of cups of coffee are consumed yearly (Gosalvitr et al., 2023). The global economic value of coffee claims to rank second after petroleum (Cure et al., 2020). ...
Coffea arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica’s coexistence in one location or proximity areas could promote interspecific pollination. However, information related to floral phenology and flower structure of these three coffee species is insufficient. This research aimed to identify the divergence of flowering phenology and flower morphometrics among C. arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica. Flowering phenology observations continued daily from July to October 2020, extending to two locations of parapatric populations of three coffee species. Flower morphometric measurements ensued at the peak period of flowering. The results showed some co-anthesis periods among the three coffee species, with C. liberica starting to flower early. Moreover, C. liberica var liberica had the broadest flower diameter and the highest petal number, whereas the tetraploid C. arabica had the lowest. Consequences of flowering phenology and flower structure on a pre-zygotic barrier of spontaneous, as well as, controlled interspecific hybridization among the three coffee species were the discussion focus.
... Coffee is of the world's most popular beverages and functional food commodities [1,2]. Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are a solid waste generated during the brewing of ground coffee beans and industrial processes such as instant coffee production [3]. SCG generation is estimated at around 650 kg of per ton of green coffee, and around 2 kg of wet SCG per kg of soluble coffee [4]. ...
Featured Application
The coffee processing industry is nowadays confronted with urgent challenges associated with the implementation of profitable and environmentally safe technological solutions for managing plant waste matter. Therefore, this sector of the food industry is cooperating with scientific communities to explore the possibility of using coffee by-products, especially spent coffee grounds, which can be considered as a valuable natural alternative to plant material with plentiful quantities of various components with antioxidant activity. However, additional investigations are needed to evaluate the potential for using spent coffee grounds in different forms as an ingredient of newly designed food products with functional properties or as a component of biodegradable packaging materials used in the agri-food processing system. These applications are in accordance with EU policies regarding the circular economy and sustainability of the food industry.
Abstract
The main goal of this research was to model and optimize the extraction process of bioactive compounds from spent coffee grounds (SCG). This study utilized response surface methodology (RSM) to determine the significance of the effects of independently tested extraction process conditions and their interactions. The quality of the SCG extracts was evaluated by performing the following determinations: total polyphenols content (TPC), ABTS and FRAP assays, browning index (BI), and caffeine and chlorogenic acids contents by high-performance liquid chromatography. The resultant optimal extraction conditions, which maximized recovery of antioxidant bioactive compounds, were 65% hydroethanolic solution (v/v) in a solvent–matrix ratio of 51 mL/g CS, followed by ultrasound-assisted extraction carried out for 30 min at 60 °C. The SCG extract obtained by this extraction variant had values for TPC, ABTS, FRAP and BI of approximately 38 mg GAE (gallic acid equivalent) per g d.m. SCG, 73 mg Trolox/g d.m. SCG, 81 µmol Fe (II)/g d.m. SCG, and 0.22, respectively. The sample was also characterized by a high content of caffeine (5 mg/g d.m. SCG) and chlorogenic acids (8 mg/g d.m. SCG). Based on the obtained results, SCG may be recognized as a coffee by-product that has abundant components with antioxidant activity and broad possible applications in agri-food processing fields.
The coffee processing industry is amongst the most energy-intensive industrial sectors, with the roasting process requiring substantial quantities of energy. To enhance sustainability, various energy optimization and recovery methods have been proposed. This study evaluates the environmental benefits of integrating energy recovery techniques in a typical coffee processing industry using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. Specifically, two alternative scenarios were compared to a baseline processing line; (i) Scenario A, which involves recycling hot air streams to reduce natural gas consumption, and (ii) Scenario B, which utilizes an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) to convert waste heat to electricity. The LCA analysis indicated that Scenario A achieved a 25% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and an 18% decrease in fossil fuel use. Scenario B demonstrated even greater environmental benefits, with a 40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and a 36% decrease in fossil fuel depletion. These findings underline the potential of integrating energy recovery technologies to enhance the sustainability of coffee production, offering valuable insights for industry stakeholders and researchers focused on sustainable manufacturing practices.
The mass consumption of one-time use (OUT) cups in the coffee industry is leading to long-term environmental impacts and resource depletion. However, few existing studies have explored coffee consumers’ willingness to accept (WTA) and pay (WTP) for biodegradable cups on a deeper level, especially through the contingent valuation method (CVM). In order to better guide coffee consumers to reduce plastic pollution, this study applies binary logistic regression analysis and the CVM to explore the psychological processes for driving behavioral change towards degradable cups (oat-cups). The 424 valid questionnaires were collected from coffee consumers in Macao. Among them, coffee consumers in Macao had high mean values for “environmental concern”, “environmental emotion”, and “perceived behavioral control”. Regarding the use of oat-cups, respondents’ concerns were dominated by safety (81.60%), environmental protection (76.95%), and flavor (69.34%). Overall, more than 90% of the respondents are willing to make positive behavioral changes to reduce environmental pollution. It can be seen that the respondents’ WTA and WTP for oat-cups instead of OUT cups are 89.86% and 84.67%, respectively. The respondents’ WTA is related to their education levels, attitude, and environmental concerns (significant at the 1% level). While the respondents’ WTP for oat-cups has a significant correlation with their gender, attitude, environmental concerns, and perceived behavioral control (significant at the 1% level). Simultaneously, the mean WTP value of coffee consumers for oat cups are 6.30 MOP/cup. The results obtained in this study provide some effective suggestions for improving sustainable consumption in the coffee industry.
Graphical abstract
With around two billion cups consumption daily worldwide, the coffee industry faces pressures to improve its sustainability. Currently, coffee culture has gradually integrated into the lives of global people. However, very few studies have focus on how to reduce its lifecycle carbon emissions. This study is designed to establish a scientific benchmark to evaluate and compare the carbon footprint of four kinds of coffee (hot Americano, iced Americano, hot latte coffee, and iced latte coffee) from two coffee shops (shop T and shop O) in Macao, investigate the major contributors or factors, and provide some effective measures for coffee carbon emissions mitigation. The results shows that the unit carbon footprint of iced latte (0.86 kg CO2e) is higher than the other three coffees (hot latte-0.84 kg CO2e, iced Americano-0.29 kg CO2e, hot Americano-0.07 kg CO2e). From the perspective of life cycle, the raw material acquisition phase has the largest carbon emissions, accounting for 69.44%–96.80% of the total carbon emissions. Among them, milk and plastic cups consumption are the two main source of high carbon emissions. Further analysis shows that the replacement of milk and plastic cups with oat milk and oat cups reduces carbon emissions by 69.57%. For the whole Macao, carbon emissions of the ideal scenario will be about 3721.87 ton CO2e in 2050—43.98% less than the baseline scenario increase.
PurposeCoffee is one of the most widely grown cash crops globally, but there are few scientific articles on its carbon footprint and water scarcity impacts. The aim of this study was to assess the carbon footprint and water scarcity impacts throughout the life cycle of the coffee chain (cradle-to-grave) and to identify the most important sources of the impacts (hotspots).Methods
The system included all the key stages of the supply chain from land use change and coffee cultivation to roasting and household consumption. Primary data was collected from eight coffee cultivation farms in Brazil, Nicaragua, Colombia and Honduras and coffee roastery and packaging manufacturers in Finland. The AWARE method was applied in a water scarcity impact assessment.Results and discussionThe carbon footprint varied from 0.27 to 0.70 kg CO2 eq/l coffee. The share of the coffee cultivation stage varied from 32 to 78% and the consumption stage from 19 to 49%. The use of fertilizers was the most important process contributing to the carbon footprint. Furthermore, deforestation-related emissions notably increased the carbon footprint of coffee from Nicaragua. Compared with the previous literature, our results indicate a relatively larger share of climate impacts in the cultivation stage and less during consumption.The water scarcity impact was relatively low for non-irrigated systems in Central America, 0.02 m3 eq/l coffee. On Brazilian farms, irrigation is a major contributor to the water scarcity impact, varying from 0.15 to 0.27 m3 eq/l coffee.Conclusions
Improving the management practices in cultivation and fertilization is key for lower GHG emissions. Irrigation optimization is the most important mitigation strategy to reduce water scarcity impact. However, actions to reduce these two impacts should be executed side by side to avoid shifting burdens between the two.
Biscuits are a major product category in the global confectionary sector. Despite this, their environmental impacts are poorly characterised. Therefore, this paper sets out to evaluate the life cycle environmental sustainability of the following widely-consumed types of biscuit, both at the product and sectoral levels: crackers, low fat/sugar, semi-sweet, chocolate-coated and sandwich biscuits with chocolate or vanilla cream. The results obtained through life cycle assessment demonstrate that, in addition to being healthier, low fat/sugar biscuits have the lowest impacts across most of the 18 categories considered. Chocolate-coated biscuits are environmentally the least sustainable. The most significant life cycle stage for all types is the raw materials production, causing 41%–61% of the total impacts, with flour, sugar and palm oil being the key hotspots. Replacing palm with rapeseed oil would improve five impacts but worsen another five, including a 34% increase in agricultural land occupation and marine eutrophication. Therefore, the cultivation and production of palm oil, rather than its replacement, should be targeted for improvements. The second most crucial stage is manufacturing, contributing up to 54% of the impacts, followed by transport with up to 35%. Reducing energy consumption by 25% in manufacturing would reduce primary energy demand by 8%–12%, fossil fuel depletion by 9%–12% and global warming potential by 6%–9%. The latter would increase by 55% if land use change related to cocoa was involved, despite a very small amount of cocoa in the biscuits (∼1%). The analysis at a sectoral level in the UK, the leading consumer of biscuits in Europe, reveals that biscuits contribute 7.4% of primary energy demand and 0.5% of greenhouse gas emissions of the whole UK food sector. These results can help guide manufacturers in mitigating the hotspots in the supply chain and consumers in selecting environmentally more sustainable biscuits.
A healthy diet depends on the daily intake of vegetables. Yet, their environmental impacts along the full supply chains are scarcely known. Therefore, this paper provides for the first time a comprehensive evaluation of the life cycle environmental impacts of vegetables consumed in UK. The impacts are assessed for 56 fresh and processed products produced domestically and imported from abroad, considering both the product and sectoral levels. At the product level, taking into account the market mix of fresh and processed vegetables for each vegetable type sold in the UK, asparagus has the highest per-kg impacts across most of the 19 impact categories considered, while cabbage, celery and Brussels sprouts are generally environmentally most sustainable. At the sectoral level, the annual consumption of 10.8 t of vegetables generates 20.3 Mt CO 2 eq., consumes 260.7 PJ of primary energy and depletes 253 Mt eq. of water. The majority of the impacts are caused by potatoes since they account for 56% of the total amount of vegetables consumed, with crisps and frozen chips contributing most to the total impacts. Importing vegetables grown in unheated greenhouses in Europe has a lower impact than UK vegetables cultivated in heated greenhouses, despite the transportation. The impacts of air-freighted fresh vegetables are around five times higher than of those produced domestically. Even processed products have lower impacts than fresh air-freighted produce. Packaging also contributes significantly to the impacts, in particular glass jars and metal cans used for processed vegetables. Other significant hotspots are open display cabinets at the retailer and cooking of vegetables at home. The results of this study will be useful for food manufacturers, retailers and consumers, helping to identify improvement opportunities along vegetables supply chains.
Billions of cups of coffee are consumed worldwide every year with little regard for the wide range of environmental impacts arising at different stages of its life cycle. This study aimed to assess the environmental impacts of a single cup of hot, black coffee brewed from ground organic Arabica beans produced and consumed locally in the northern region of Thailand. Environmental impacts throughout its life cycle were assessed and the influences of different brewing methods were compared. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was implemented to evaluate the environmental performance of the product system. The results found that coffee cultivation is a major contributor to ecosystem damage in all brewing scenarios, particularly on land-use related midpoint indicators. Preparing the coffee by moka pot is especially energy intensive and showed a high impact score on human health. It also demonstrated resource damage categories in the brewing stage that were directly related to fossil-based electricity consumption. For other brewing scenarios, the upstream processes such as cultivation and bean processing were major contributors to environmental harm. According to the farming scenario analysis, the application of chemical fertilizers during conventional farming can aggravate the impact from the cultivation process on human health and resources, as compared to organic farming. This study comprises an initial stage of a coffee LCA study in Thailand. Hopefully, it can add to the body of information pertaining to the life cycle environmental impacts of coffee, a popular beverage product, aid decision-making, and increase attention on the importance of sustainable products.
p>The aim of this study was to determine the main thermal properties of the granular mass of coffee (specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity) for different degrees of roasting, as well as to model and simulate thermal conductivity at different degrees of roasting. For determination of specific heat, the mixing method was used, and for thermal conductivity, the theoretically infinite cylinder method with a central heating source. Thermal diffusivity was simulated algebraically using the results of the properties cited above and of the apparent specific mass of the product. Thermal conductivity was also simulated and optimized through finite element analysis software. At darker roasting, there was an increase in specific heat and a reduction in thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Comparing thermal conductivity determined in relation to simulated and optimized conductivity, the mean relative error was 1.02%, on average.</p
Coffee roasting is a highly energy intensive process with much of the energy being lost in intermittent cycles as discharged heat from the stack. CHP systems have been investigated to provide heat to the roasting process by a micro gas turbine (MGT). However, much of the heat released in a coffee roaster is from the afterburner that heats up the flue gas to higher temperatures to remove volatile organic compounds and other pollutants. In this paper, a solution to utilising waste heat is assessed through energy and material balances of a rotating drum coffee roasting with partial hot gas recycling. A cost assessment methodology is adopted to compare the profitability of three systems configurations integrated into the process. The case study of a major coffee torrefaction firm with 500 kg/hr production capacity is assumed to carry out the thermo-economic assessment, under the Italian energy framework. The CHP options under investigation are: (i) regenerative topping micro gas turbine (MGT) coupled to the existing modulating gas burner to generate hot air for the roasting process; (ii) intermittent waste heat recovery from the hot flue gas through an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) coupled to a thermal storage buffer. The results show that the profitability of these investments is highly influenced by the natural gas/electricity cost ratio, by the coffee torrefaction production capacity and intermittency level of discharged heat. MGT seems to be more profitable than waste heat recovery via ORC due to the intermittency of the heat source and the relatively high electricity/heat cost ratio.
PurposeLife cycle impact assessment (LCIA) translates emissions and resource extractions into a limited number of environmental impact scores by means of so-called characterisation factors. There are two mainstream ways to derive characterisation factors, i.e. at midpoint level and at endpoint level. To further progress LCIA method development, we updated the ReCiPe2008 method to its version of 2016. This paper provides an overview of the key elements of the ReCiPe2016 method. Methods
We implemented human health, ecosystem quality and resource scarcity as three areas of protection. Endpoint characterisation factors, directly related to the areas of protection, were derived from midpoint characterisation factors with a constant mid-to-endpoint factor per impact category. We included 17 midpoint impact categories. Results and discussionThe update of ReCiPe provides characterisation factors that are representative for the global scale instead of the European scale, while maintaining the possibility for a number of impact categories to implement characterisation factors at a country and continental scale. We also expanded the number of environmental interventions and added impacts of water use on human health, impacts of water use and climate change on freshwater ecosystems and impacts of water use and tropospheric ozone formation on terrestrial ecosystems as novel damage pathways. Although significant effort has been put into the update of ReCiPe, there is still major improvement potential in the way impact pathways are modelled. Further improvements relate to a regionalisation of more impact categories, moving from local to global species extinction and adding more impact pathways. Conclusions
Life cycle impact assessment is a fast evolving field of research. ReCiPe2016 provides a state-of-the-art method to convert life cycle inventories to a limited number of life cycle impact scores on midpoint and endpoint level.
The amount of energy necessary to cultivate, process, pack and bring the food to European citizens’ tables
accounts for 17 % of the EU's gross energy consumption, equivalent to about 26 % of the EU's final energy consumption in 2013.
Challenges and solutions for decreasing energy consumption and increasing the use of
renewable energy in the European food sector are presented and discussed.
Coffee is an important global beverage, and has received significant attention especially in terms of the social and environmental sustainability of its production. This paper calculates the product carbon footprint (PCF) and conducts an analysis of energy usage for six alternative coffee products. The analysis shows that espresso coffee had the lowest impact (0.13 kWh and 49 g CO2 per serve), while canned coffee provided the highest impact (0.76 kWh and 223 g CO2 per serve). The latte had the second highest embodied energy impact, with 0.54 kWh and the highest PCF of 224 g CO2 per serve. On a per millilitre basis however, espresso coffee provided the highest impact (0.0048 kWh/mL and 0.8 g CO2-eq/mL), followed by canned coffee and the latte. This indicates that care must be used in the selection of an appropriate functional unit, as the ranking of PCF can be overturned according to the basis of comparison. The highest contributing factors were the emissions from milk, packaging (for the can) and the production stages of the green coffee beans. Despite only holding around 17% of the market share of consumed coffee, the canned coffee product contributes around half of the national carbon footprint from coffee consumption. Current commercial incentives for consumers to use their own cups were compared to carbon taxation and found to value carbon approximately three orders of magnitude higher than carbon market rates.
This study presents the complete utilization of spent coffee grounds to produce biodiesel, bio-oil, and biochar. Lipids extracted from spent grounds were converted to biodiesel. The neat biodiesel and blended (B5 and B20) fuel properties were evaluated against ASTM and EN standards. Although neat biodiesel displayed high viscosity, moisture, sulfur, and poor oxidative stability, B5 and B20 met ASTM blend specifications. Slow pyrolysis of defatted coffee grounds was performed to generate bio-oil and biochar as valuable co-products. The effect of feedstock defatting was assessed through bio-oil analyses including elemental and functional group composition, compound identification, and molecular weight and boiling point distributions. Feedstock defatting reduced pyrolysis bio-oil yields, energy density, and aliphatic functionality, while increasing the number of low-boiling oxygenates. The high bio-oil heteroatom content will likely require upgrading. Additionally, biochar derived from spent and defatted grounds were analyzed for their physicochemical properties. Both biochars displayed similar surface area and elemental constituents. Application of biochar with fertilizer enhanced sorghum–sudangrass yields over 2-fold, indicating the potential of biochar as a soil amendment.
Coffee production has grown by nearly 200 percent since 1950; after oil it is the most important traded commodity in the world. Although it is only grown in
tropical and equatorial areas (it is the primary export of many developing countries), the majority of coffee is consumed in the developed world (the United
States and the European Community combined import two out of every three bags of coffee produced in the world). Considering that the coffee chain is very
wide-ranging, involving many companies of different types and sizes, each environmental decision, at any point of the coffee chain, should be taken under a
“life cycle thinking” perspective. It was with this intention that Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied to analyse the environmental impacts
connected to a coffee business located in Sicily. System boundaries were defined to include all life cycle steps: from coffee growing through to its distribution
to consumers, consumption and disposal. The aim of the study was to identify the “hot spots” in the stages of the product’s life cycle in which environmental
improvements were easily achievable and to suggest alternatives to minimise the environmental impact of production phases, thereby improving processes
and company performance.
Background, aim and scopeThe evaluation of packaging’s environmental performance usually concentrates on a comparison of different packaging materials
or designs. Another important aspect in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on packaging is the recycling or treatment of
packaging wastes. LCA studies of packed food include the packaging with specific focus on the contribution of the packaging
to the total results. The consumption behaviour is often assessed only roughly. Packaging is facilitating the distribution
of goods to the society. Broader approaches, which focus on the life cycle of packed goods, including the entire supply system
and the consumption of goods, are necessary to get an environmental footprint of the system with respect to sustainable production
and consumption.
Materials and methodsA full LCA study has been conducted for two food products: coffee and butter packed in flexible packaging systems. The aim
was to investigate the environmental performance of packaging with respect to its function within the life cycle of goods.
The study looks at the environmental relevance of stages and interdependencies within the life cycle of goods whilst taking
consumers’ behaviour and portion sizes into consideration. The impact assessment is based on the following impact categories:
non-renewable cumulative energy demand (CED), climate change, ozone layer depletion (ODP), acidification, and eutrophication.
ResultsThe study shows that the most relevant environmental aspects for a cup of coffee are brewing (i.e. the heating of water) and
coffee production. Transport and retail packaging are of minor importance. Brewing and coffee production have an impact share
between 40% (ODP, white instant coffee) and 99% (eutrophication, black coffee). Milk added for white coffee is relevant for
this type of preparation. The instant coffee in the one-portion stick-pack needs more packaging material per cup of coffee
and is prepared by a kettle with lower energy demand, such as a coffee machine, thus leading to higher shares of the retail
packaging in all indicators. A one-portion stick-pack can prevent wastage and resources related to coffee production can be
saved. The most relevant aspect regarding the life cycle of butter is butter production, dominated by the provision of milk.
Over 80% of the burdens in butter production stem from the provision of milk for all indicators discussed. Regarding climate
change, methane and dinitrogen monoxide, emissions of milk cows and fodder production are most relevant. Fertilisation during
livestock husbandry is responsible for most burdens regarding acidification and eutrophication. The distribution and selling
stage influences the indicators CED and ODP distinctly. The reasons are, on the one hand, the relatively energy-intensive
storage in supermarkets and, on the other hand, the use of refrigerants for chilled storage and transportation. The storage
of butter in a refrigerator for 30days is responsible for about 10% of the CED.
DiscussionSeveral aspects have been modelled in a sensitivity analysis. The influence of coffee packaging disposal is very small due
to the general low influence of packaging. In contrast, the brewing behaviour is highly relevant for the environmental impact
of a cup of coffee. That applies similarly to the type of heating device—i.e. using a kettle or an automatic coffee machine.
Wastage leads to a significant increase of all indicators. Under the wastage scenario, the coffee from one-portion stick-packs
has a considerable better environmental performance concerning all indicators because, in case of instant coffee wastage of
hot water and in case of ground coffee wastage of prepared coffee, has been predicted. Regardless of urban or countryside
distances, grocery shopping has a low impact. The storage time of butter is relevant for the results in the indicator non-renewable
CED. This is mainly the case when butter is stored as stock in the freezer. The end of life treatment of the packaging system
has practically no influence on the results. Grocery shopping is of limited importance no matter which means of transport
are used or which distances are regarded. Spoilage or wastage is of great importance: a spoilage/wastage of one third results
in about 49% increased impacts compared to the standard case for all indicators calculated.
ConclusionsThe most important factors concerning the environmental impact from the whole supply chain of a cup of coffee are the brewing
of coffee, its cultivation and production and the milk production in case of white coffee. The study highlights consumer behaviour-
and packaging-related measures to reduce the environmental impact of a cup of coffee. The most relevant measures reducing
the environmental impacts of butter consumption are the optimisation of the milk and butter production. Another important
factor is the consumers’ behaviour, i.e. the reduction of leftovers. The consumer can influence impacts of domestic storage
using efficient and size-adequate appliances. The impacts of packaging in the life cycle of butter are not of primary importance.
Recommendations and perspectivesThis study shows that, in the case of packaging industry, a reduction of relevant environmental impacts can only be achieved
if aspects indirectly influenced by the packaging are also taken into account. Thus, the packaging industry should not only
aim to improve the production process of their packages, but also provide packages whose functionality helps to reduce other
more relevant environmental impacts in the life cycle such as, for example, losses. Depending on the product, tailor-made
packaging may also help to increase overall resource efficiency.
1 IntroductionSociety of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry(SETAC) has published a code of practice for environmentallife-cycle costing (LCC), which provides a framework forevaluating decisions with consistent, but flexible systemsboundaries as a component of product sustainabilityassessments (Swarr et al. 2011). The code of practicebuilds on an earlier monograph that summarized 3 years ofeffort by the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Life-Cycle Costing (Hunkeler et al.2008).Thecodeofpracticeis grounded in a conceptual framework for life-cyclesustainability assessment (LCSA) of products that usesdistinct analyses for each of the three pillars of sustainability,environment, economy, and social equity.LCSA ¼ LCAþ LCCþ SLCA ð1ÞLife-cycle assessment (LCA) is the only pillar that has beenstandardized to date (ISO 2006a, b). UNEP (2009)haspublished guidelines for social LCAs and is currentlydeveloping methodological sheets for impact subcategories.The code of practice reviews historical development of life-cycle methods, outlines the technical requirements and guide-lines for LCC, and illustrates various methodological choiceswith a detailed case study. The objective of the code of practiceis to provide readers with a solid understanding of how to applyLCC in parallel with LCA to stimulate additional case studiesand peer-reviewed research to further refine the methodology.The ultimate goal is to build consensus for an internationalstandard that parallels the ISO 14040 standard for LCA.2 DiscussionLCC predates LCA, and distinct and different conceptualfoundations and methodological approaches can betraced to its developmental roots in systems engineering(Blanchard 1978). There has been limited integration ofthese methods, although the value of LCC for sustainabilityassessmentshasbeenrecognized(Norris2001;Hunkelerand
Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages in the world and is the second largest traded commodity after petroleum. Due
to the great demand of this product, large amounts of residues are generated in the coffee industry, which are toxic and represent
serious environmental problems. Coffee silverskin and spent coffee grounds are the main coffee industry residues, obtained
during the beans roasting, and the process to prepare “instant coffee”, respectively. Recently, some attempts have been made
to use these residues for energy or value-added compounds production, as strategies to reduce their toxicity levels, while
adding value to them. The present article provides an overview regarding coffee and its main industrial residues. In a first
part, the composition of beans and their processing, as well as data about the coffee world production and exportation, are
presented. In the sequence, the characteristics, chemical composition, and application of the main coffee industry residues
are reviewed. Based on these data, it was concluded that coffee may be considered as one of the most valuable primary products
in world trade, crucial to the economies and politics of many developing countries since its cultivation, processing, trading,
transportation, and marketing provide employment for millions of people. As a consequence of this big market, the reuse of
the main coffee industry residues is of large importance from environmental and economical viewpoints.
KeywordsCoffee–Silverskin–Spent grounds–Cellulose–Hemicellulose
This paper aims to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with spray dried soluble coffee over its entire life cycle and compare it with drip filter coffee and capsule espresso coffee. It particularly aims to identify critical environmental issues and responsibilities along the whole life cycle chain of spray dried coffee. This life cycle assessment (LCA) specifically uses foreground data obtained directly from coffee manufacturers and suppliers. Aside from energy consumption and greenhouse gases emissions, water footprint is also studied in detail, including regionalization of water impacts based on the ecological scarcity method 2006. Other impact categories are screened using the IMPACT 2002+ impact assessment method.
During the coffee beans roasting process, occurs the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are associated with the incidence of cancer in humans. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of coffee bean quality and roasting degree regarding mutagenicity, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Six samples of coffee drink made with roasted and ground Coffea arabica beans from different qualities and roast degrees were used after freeze-drying. Both commercial and special quality grains suffered light, medium and dark roasting. According to the Salmonella/microsome assay, the highest concentration of commercial grain sample (dark roast) significantly increased the number of revertants of the TA98 strain in the absence of metabolization. All the samples induced cytotoxicity to HepG2 cells. These effects can be ranked in the following order from most to least toxic: medium roast – special grain > light roast – special grain > dark roast - commercial grain > dark roast – special grain > light roast – commercial grain > medium roast – commercial grain. None of the samples induced genotoxicity in HepG2 cells. Our findings show that the harmful effects of coffee depend not only on the degree of roasting but also on the grain quality.
Carbon monoxide (CO) emitted from roasted coffee is a potential occupational respiratory exposure hazard to workers within the coffee industry. The current study objective was to estimate CO emission factors from commercially-available roasted whole and ground coffee measured in loose-form, not packaged, and to assess the utility of CO monitoring in non-ventilated storage spaces such as within coffee roasting and packaging facilities, transport vessels, and cafés. Determinants affecting CO emissions from coffee were investigated including form (whole vs. ground), roast level (Light, Medium, Medium-Dark, Dark), and age (time since the package was opened). CO emissions factors were estimated for roasted coffee samples from a variety of manufacturers purchased from local grocery stores and online. Emissions tests were performed on 36 brands of coffee with more than one sample per brand and with various roast levels. Decaying source equations or smoothing functions were fitted to the CO concentration measurements. Maximum observed emission factors at the peak of the predicted concentration curve were adjusted by the time required to reach the maximum CO concentration, and reported as emissions factors (EFbuildup). Ground coffee had a significantly increased EFbuildup (p < 0.0001) compared to whole bean. Roast level did not significantly affect emissions for whole bean coffee (p = 0.72), but did for ground (p < 0.001) coffee. For ground coffee, Medium-Dark and Dark roasts had significantly higher emissions than Medium and Light roasts. Worst-case emissions factors from commercially-available whole and ground coffee measured in loose-form, not packaged, showed that roasted coffee can rapidly emit CO. CO concentrations should be monitored in storage spaces in service and manufacturing facilities as well as transport vessels to ensure exposures do not exceed occupational exposure limits. Storage spaces may need to be ventilated to control CO concentrations to safe levels.
Products of convenience are playing an increasingly large role in today's society. These products provide a competitive advantage over their conventional counterparts by requiring less time and effort to produce a similar service or experience. At the same time, these products are often also more materials intensive to produce and create a greater amount of waste. A comparative midpoint life cycle assessment of different coffee brewing systems is presented in order to explore the comparative impact of three different systems: drip filter, french press, and pod style (a product of convenience). Utilizing a comparative functional unit, the drip filter system method was found to have the greatest environmental impact in all impact categories, whereas the pod style had the least in six of the impact categories (with the french press having the least in two of the impact categories, and a tie between pod style and french press in a single impact category). This suggests that contrary to popular belief, the pod style coffee may be the more environmentally friendly option. The two most significant contributors to environmental impact in all of the categories considered was the amount of dry coffee utilized and the energy needed to brew the coffee, although in some categories considered transportation was also significant. There is the potential for the environmental impact of coffee brewing to shift if coffee wastage occurs (likely in the case of the drip filter and french press system) or if substantial changes in materials or energy consumption were to occur (in the case of the pod-style brewing system). From the perspective of industrial ecology, this analysis suggests that, in regard to products of consumer convenience, the convenient alternative may not have a significantly greater environmental impact than its conventional counterpart, and that it may be time to question that often-held assumption.
Life cycle assessments (LCA) of an early research state reaction process only have laboratory experiments data available. While this is helpful in understanding the laboratory process from an environmental perspective, it gives only limited indication on the possible environmental impact of that same material or process at industrial production. Therefore, a comparative LCA study with materials that are already produced at industrial scales is not very meaningful. The scale-up of chemical processes is not such a trivial process and requires a certain understanding of the involved steps. In this paper, we elaborated a framework that helps to scale up chemical production processes for LCA studies when only data from laboratory experiments are available. Focusing on heated liquid phase batch reactions, we identified and simplified the most important calculations for the reaction step's energy use as well as for certain purification and isolation steps. For other LCA in- and output values, we provide estimations and important qualitative considerations to be able to perform such a scale-up study. Being an engineering-based approach mainly, it does not include systematically collected empirical data which would give a better picture about the uncertainty. However, it is a first approach to predict the environmental impact for certain chemical processes at an industrial production already during early laboratory research stage. It is designed to be used by LCA practitioners with limited knowledge in the field of chemistry or chemical engineering and help to perform such a scale-up based on a logical and systematic procedure.
The operation of batch, gas-fired coffee roasters equipped with afterburners that destroy roasting-generated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide is described. Overall heat and material balances are used to analyze and calculate energy use in such roasters and energy use reductions achievable by (a) transferring part of the heat now discharged in stack gas to gas streams in or entering the roaster or to coffee entering the roaster or (b) bypassing afterburners when VOC production is low.
Chemical Process Equipment is a results-oriented reference for engineers who specify, design, maintain or run chemical and process plant. This book delivers information on the selection, sizing and operation of process equipment in a format that enables quick and accurate decision making on standard process and equipment choices, saving time, improving productivity, building understanding. Coverage emphasizes common real-world equipment design, rather than experimental or esoteric, and focuses on maximizing performance. Legacy reference for chemical and related engineers who work with vendors to design, specify and make final equipment selection decisions. Copious examples of successful applications, with supporting schematics and data to illustrate the functioning and performance of equipment. Provides equipment rating forms and manufacturers' data, worked examples, valuable shortcut methods, and rules of thumb to demonstrate and support the design process. Heavily illustrated with line drawings and schematics to aid understanding, as well as graphs and tables to illustrate performance data.
The environmental impacts of coffee consumption inter alia depend on the preparation method used by consumers. Preparation methods such as filter drip, pod machines and fully automatic coffee machines are the most common ones in Germany: 62% of the consumers use a filter drip machine to brew their coffee, 23% use filter pad machines and 15% use espresso machines such as fully automatic coffee machines or capsule systems. The aim of the different studies presented in this paper was to identify the critical environmental issues along the life cycle of coffee and to compare the different preparation methods of coffee regarding their influence on the environmental impacts. Within the Product Carbon Footprint (PCF) Pilot Project Germany, the PCF of one cup of a special type of coffee was analysed on behalf of Tchibo GmbH (Überseering, Hamburg, Germany). As the results show, the preparation by the consumer is one crucial part of the entire life cycle of coffee, making up a share of 30% of the overall emissions. Another hot spot is the cultivation of coffee beans with 55%. Concerning the use phase, research shows that environmental impacts vary significantly depending on the preparation method used by the consumer. Main drivers are differences in power consumption of the respective technologies. Furthermore, different packagings of the coffee play a decisive role. Comparing the analysed appliances and defined usage scenarios in this study, the French press and filter drip machine performed best, followed by the filter pad machine. In contrast, the environmental impacts of the analysed fully automatic coffee machine and the capsule machine were highest. The reason for this was the high power consumption, especially in the machines' sleep and standby mode. Additionally, capsule machines contribute to the environmental impacts because of the aluminium and/or plastic packaging of the capsules, automatic coffee machines because of their cleaning and rinsing programmes.
This paper describes modern production methods resulting from the developments that have been taking place recently in the field of instant coffee and coffee substitutes. Such developments involve new processing techniques to achieve higher extraction yields and improve extract concentration, and more efficient spray drying. A tabulated comparison of operating conditions when spray drying chicory, pure coffee and chicory/coffee mixtures is given.
The paper presents the possibility of introducing, in the event of substitution of an old plant, the recovery of heat produced during the roasting process of coffee.During the analysis, thermo and fluid dynamic operating parameters of the present plant were defined also with the support of an experimental measuring campaign. Energy recovery possibilities were, then, evaluated and a possible plant solution was examined taking into consideration its economic feasibility.The case study is also interesting because the methodology used for the analysis can be generally applied to production plants, which have hot air exhaust emissions. Waste heat recovery, actually, is an important topic not only for its economic benefits, but also for its environmental outcomes and resource saving.
Specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and density of coffee extract were experimentally determined in the range of 0.49 to 0.90 (wet basis) water content and at temperatures varying from 30 to 82°C. Thermal conductivity and specific heat were measured by means of the same apparatus‐ a cell constituted of two concentric cylinders ‐ operating at steady and unsteady state, respectively. The thermal diffusivity was measured by the well‐known Dickerson's method and density was determined by picnometry. The results obtained were used to derive mathematical models for predicting these properties as a function of concentration and temperature.
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