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Talking through the tough: Identifying facilitating factors to preparation for bias and racial–ethnic discrimination conversations among families from minoritized ethnic–racial groups
Abstract
Parent-child conversations about race-related issues serve a protective function for minoritized families and are needed to help children of color thrive in the United States (Hughes et al., Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 51, 2016 and 1). Despite the difficulties that parents experience in having such conversations to prepare youth to cope with discrimination (Priest et al., International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 2014 and 139), parents are actively engaging in these courageous conversations with the aim of protecting their youth. In order to fully understand and support parents having these conversations, our study sought to identify conversation facilitators (i.e., strategies currently being implemented and viewed as successful and/or viewed as potentially helpful) to engage in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations from the perspective of parents and youth. The current qualitative study draws upon focus group data collected from parents and youth from African American, Chinese American, Mexican American, and Indian American (South Asian) families (N = 138 individuals; 30 focus groups). Reflections were transcribed and coded by a racially and ethnically diverse research team using an inductive thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 2006 and 77). Shared and unique facilitators to engaging in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations were identified across the four racial-ethnic groups. Shared facilitators broadly centered on parent-youth relationship quality, conversation characteristics, and quality, and conversation content and relevance. Unique facilitators broadly centered on communication style and needs and conversation content. Shared and unique facilitators warrant more attention to best support minoritized families. The use of findings in developing interventions to support marginalized parents, youth, and families is addressed.
... Amid the pandemic's landscape marked by a surge of anti-China rhetoric and a notable escalation in overt discriminatory acts toward Asian Americans (Stop AAPI Hate, 2023), Chinese American parents who reported more racial discrimination experiences might have been more sensitive to or better able to recognize how discrimination is manifested in theirs and their children's lives. These parents may feel a greater sense of urgency to prepare their children for forthcoming prejudice to protect their children (Coard et al., 2024;Kiang et al., 2022;Woo et al., 2020). In turn, parents' messages warning youth of the potential discrimination they might experience were associated with youth's poorer psychological well-being. ...
... Furthermore, during periods of heightened racial tension, Young et al. (2021) found that Asian American youth actively sought racial socialization from their parents, in part due to their grappling between two cultures and feelings of being left out in society's racial dialogue. If parents are not prepared to engage in AOD conversations, their reactive messages may not be able to effectively address concerns and instead exacerbate their children's feelings of confusion, frustration, and isolation (Coard et al., 2024). ...
... Furthermore, instead of solely focusing on the challenges adolescents may face, which may evoke anxiety or worry, parents with more racial socialization competency may be able to engage their children in action-oriented conversations and behaviors to prepare them for racial bias . These parents may also be able to frame racial inequities as something that can change or be addressed through critical action, offering practical and tangible solutions to adolescents when confronted with discrimination Coard et al., 2024). Together, these proactive and constructive conversations about racial inequities with parents who are more competent in racial socialization can allow adolescents to feel prepared for and able to cope with racial discrimination and maintain their positive psychological well-being. ...
Increased Sinophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic might lead parents to engage in racial–ethnic socialization practices that promote an awareness of discrimination (AOD) to prepare adolescents for potential racism they may experience. The present study examined AOD messages as a mediator between Chinese American parents’ racial discrimination experiences and their adolescents’ psychological well-being. Further, to clarify mixed findings regarding the link between AOD socialization and youth’s psychological adjustment (Juang et al., 2017; Umaña-Taylor & Hill, 2020), we explored the potential moderating role of parents’ racial socialization competency in the association between parents’ AOD messages and adolescents’ psychological well-being. Chinese American parents (N = 128, Mage = 41.5 years, SD = 6.1; 78% mothers) and their adolescent children (Mage = 13.8 years, SD = 2.1; 52% female) completed online surveys between January and May 2021. Parents reported on their racial discrimination experiences, AOD messages, and racial socialization competency, while adolescents reported on their psychological well-being. Parents’ discrimination experiences were positively related to their AOD messages, which, in turn, was negatively associated with adolescents’ psychological well-being. However, this negative association was not significant at high levels of parents’ racial socialization competency. Findings highlight the protective role of parents’ racial socialization competency on adolescents’ psychological well-being when having discussions about race and racism following parents’ own experiences of discrimination.
... Whether measured in terms of use in the past year or ever while growing up, cultural socialization was more common and more frequent than preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust. Several recent studies document, however, how current events in the last five years, including the COVID-19 pandemic, anti-Asian hate crimes, and the national racial reckoning associated with police violence and ensuing protests, have spurred family conversations about ethnicity-race and in particular, discussions of bias, mistrust, and anti-racism (Coard et al., 2023;Lee et al., 2022;Tian, 2023). Coard et al. (2023) found in their sample, which included Chinese American and Indian ...
... Several recent studies document, however, how current events in the last five years, including the COVID-19 pandemic, anti-Asian hate crimes, and the national racial reckoning associated with police violence and ensuing protests, have spurred family conversations about ethnicity-race and in particular, discussions of bias, mistrust, and anti-racism (Coard et al., 2023;Lee et al., 2022;Tian, 2023). Coard et al. (2023) found in their sample, which included Chinese American and Indian ...
... Regarding the parent-child relationship, Brown et al. (2006) found that the warmth of relationship was positively related to the odds of family discussions about ethnic-racial heritage. Coard et al. (2023) found that relationship quality facilitated preparation for bias. Lee et al. (2022) found that parent-child language and cultural differences (e.g., immigrant parent, native-born child) could serve as a barrier to dialog about anti-Black racism and anti-Asian racism. ...
This study systematically reviewed the literature on ethnic‐racial socialization (ERS) in mono‐racial Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) families in the United States. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we examined what is known about (1) ERS strategies used, (2) child and parent factors related to ERS, and (3) the relation of ERS to child outcomes in mono‐racial AAPI families. We included peer‐reviewed, original studies published between January 2002 and August 2023, abstracted in Sociological Abstracts, PubMed, and/or PsychINFO, and focused on ERS in AAPI families. Fifty‐eight studies met the inclusion criteria. The reviewed studies show that mono‐racial AAPI families engage in ERS, but parents' messages tend to focus on positive aspects of ethnicity‐race (e.g., ethnic pride) and avoid negative aspects (e.g., discrimination). However, due to the COVID‐19 pandemic and Black Lives Matter, parents are increasingly willing to address the negative aspects of ethnicity‐race, including racism and anti‐racism, to prepare their children for a racialized society. ERS is related to AAPI child identity, psycho‐social outcomes, ethnic‐racial attitudes and experiences, and other outcomes but in a variety of contingent ways. We identify gaps in the literature and recommend future research on ERS in AAPI families.
... When African American parents allow children to safely express anger and sadness in the safety of their homes, validate their emotions, and equip them to understand when and how to respond, preparation for bias is not linked to the internalizing and externalizing behaviors, found at times in response to this strategy (Dunbar et al., 2022). Moreover, focus group research with parents finds that the quality of the conversation about racial discrimination (e.g., setting, tone, reciprocity) in the contexts of warm family relationships might moderate potential adverse effects upon children's anxiety and emotions (Coard et al., 2024). ...
... Our study findings also have implications for further developing, adapting, and enhancing family-based preventive interventions for supporting minoritized families. In line with prior scholarship demonstrating the importance of discussing contextual challenges and experiences of discrimination in such interventions (e.g., Coard et al., 2024;Murry et al., 2023;Parra-Cardona et al., 2017;Stein et al., 2021), our findings focus on ways families are undertaking such efforts in their parent-child relationships. These insights can be used to further equip and empower caregivers to initiate these important conversations. ...
Black children in the U.S. learn from scaffolded parental teachings to help manage racial discrimination. Middle childhood is an understudied developmental period for this research. This paper builds upon research on culturally informed practices Black caregivers use to rear their young with a healthy identity and socio-emotional skills to navigate racism Guided by a phenomenological qualitative approach, we conducted focus groups with 39 Black children (Meanage = 7.67, 54% girls, 46% boys). Children reported that their parents imparted a sense of positive identity in terms of their cultural heritage, skin, and hair—areas in which they experienced frequent bullying. A uniqueness of our study is that Black children also reported learning emotion-centered coping strategies that focus on their inner strengths and private speech. They adopted a range of adaptive coping mechanisms such as kindness, ignoring perpetrators, centering their positive identity, identity framing, and fighting back. Through children’s voices, we build upon previous research integrating racial–ethnic socialization (RES) with socio-emotional competencies in response to discrimination. We underscore the importance of exploring racial–ethnic identity development and socialization in childhood, a developmental period in which these processes are understudied.
... Thus, a conversation about shared experiences may have elicited a shared group identity that may have also buffered momentary negative affect, even when talking with a stranger. Other research has begun to examine the positive effects of difficult conversations about race on relationship quality and positive psychological outcomes, providing an opportunity for bonding and other long term positive effects [109][110][111][112] . Thus, conversations about discrimination may have more nuanced consequences than an isolated simulation of discrimination because of the complexity of interpersonal dynamics, which may be either mediated or moderated by stress responses and autonomic system related emotional regulation 79 . ...
Racial discrimination is conceptualized as an acute and chronic stressor. Like other acute stressors, lab-based studies demonstrate acute effects of discrimination-related stressors on stress-related cardiovascular outcomes, including total cardiac output, blood pressure, and indices of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity. Critically, it is important to understand how individual and social factors buffer the experience of race-related acute stress. The current study extends existing work by measuring cardiovascular indices of stress during conversations about racial/ethnic discrimination and examines the moderating role of social support. Latine/Hispanic participants (N = 97) talked about personal discrimination experiences with either a close other or a research assistant they had never previously met. Participants in both conditions exhibited cardiovascular reactivity indicative of stress during the conversation. Additionally, patterns of reactivity reflected a more adaptive stress response and recovery profile when participants talked about discriminatory experiences with a close other relative to a stranger (less parasympathetic withdrawal during the stressor and more parasympathetic rebound during recovery). These patterns are consistent with a stress buffering account of social support, which suggests social bonds and community-level support are critical to consider in interventions to mitigate the harms of experiencing discrimination and prevent chronic health disparities.
... Thus, incorporating peer ethnic-racial socialization may be informative. Disentangling more nuanced uses of ethnic-racial socialization practices may also be fruitful (e.g., Coard et al., 2023). For example, proactive ethnic-racial socialization conversations may provide youth with greater psychological protection than reactive approaches (e.g., following exposure to a discrimination experience; Derlan & Umaña-Taylor, 2015; Stein et al., 2021;Thomas, et al., 2009). ...
The current study evaluated cultural values and family processes that may moderate associations between daily racial-ethnic discrimination and distress among Mexican-origin youth. Integrating micro-time (daily diary) and macro-time (longitudinal survey) research design features, we examined familism, family cohesion, and ethnic-racial socialization from youth-, mother-, and father- reports as potential buffers of daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress (negative affect and anger). The analytic sample, drawn from the Seguimos Avanzando study, included 317 Mexican-origin adolescents (Mage = 13.5 years) and their parents, recruited from the Midwestern United States. Results indicated that youth-reported familism and family cohesion significantly buffered daily associations between youth racial-ethnic discrimination and youth distress. In contrast, parent-reported familism and family cohesion and some aspects of ethnic-racial socialization exacerbated the discrimination to distress link. The implications of these results are discussed to inform efforts supporting the healthy development of Mexican-origin youth and their families.
... While this practice can be understood as taking a positive approach toward the child's race, preparation for bias, the second ethnic-racial socialization practice may carry with it a more concerned or pessimistic tone wherein parents, anticipating the real possibility or even likelihood of their child facing discrimination and experiencing racism, attempt to impart coping strategies to their children (Hughes et al., 2006). Preparation for bias conversations can include parents' telling stories of their personal racial discrimination experiences or discussing current race-related events in the media with children among other topics (Coard et al., 2023). ...
While all families are responsible for the ethnic-racial socialization of their children, this process represents a nuanced undertaking for parents who have adopted transracially. Following the model of change (Mace, Citation1981), this paper first presents a review of the socialization and transracial adoption literature with a special focus on intrinsic and extrinsic factors shaping how children are socialized, followed by a set of practical strategies for adoptive parents and practitioners to use with the goal of empowering parents to take on the task of socialization confidently and effectively. Methodological considerations relevant for scholars studying ethnic-racial socialization are also included.
Objective:
Research to date has produced compelling evidence of the potentially traumatic consequences of racial discrimination among Black adolescents and adults. Seldom explored, however, is how the potentially traumatic effects of racial discrimination may be shared across the family context. To clarify the relevance of racial trauma across the family system, the current study examined the relationship between racial discrimination and trauma symptoms among a sample of Black adolescent-caregiver dyads.
Method:
Data were drawn from a larger self-report survey study examining Black family life experiences. For this study, data from 202 Black adolescents (Mage = 14.50, 52% female) and their caregiver (Mage = 41.63, 83% female) were used to test actor-partner interdependence models examining the associations of racial discrimination and trauma symptoms.
Results:
Significant actor effects revealed that racial discrimination was positively associated with self-reported trauma symptoms among adolescents and caregivers. Additionally, partner effects were found, such that adolescent and caregiver experiences of discrimination were positively associated with the trauma symptoms of their family member. Analyses also revealed that the association between racial discrimination and trauma symptoms among caregivers was dependent upon youth experiences of racial discrimination.
Conclusion:
The current study lends credence to theories linking racism and trauma-related symptomatology across the life course and family system. Collectively, study findings highlight the importance of understanding the effects of racism beyond the individual and underscores the value and need for family tailored interventions that can repudiate the shared impact and potential intergenerational effects of racial discrimination across Black families.
The advent of the digital age represents a transformative era in which technology, primarily social media platforms, has become an integral part of the daily lives of individuals worldwide. Students are the most prolific users of social media, utilizing these platforms for a variety of purposes, including communication, information sharing, entertainment, and social networking. This study evaluated the connection between student social media use and academic performance through family bonding and collaborative learning. This research also explores how mental wellbeing moderates the link between students’ family bonding, collaborative learning, and academic performance. This research article analyzes a sample of 330 university students from the public and private sectors and tests the proposed hypothesized relationships. The study used the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) methodological approach for evaluating proposed parameters. The findings indicated that social media use positively correlated with students’ academic performance. Second, family bonding and collaborative learning significantly moderated the association between students’ academic performance and social media use. Finally, mental well-being significantly moderated the connection between students’ collaborative learning, family bonding, and academic performance. This study’s findings contribute to the knowledge of global education with valuable insights into students’ psychological well-being and academic performance. In theory, the current research advances the scientific understanding of education by assessing social media usage’s effects on students’ academic performance and psychological well-being.
Objectives: Ethnic–racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents’ ERI can shape children’s developmental contexts through ethnic–racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents’ ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. Method: Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10–18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. Results: Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic–racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. Conclusions: The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI’s developmental implications through parents’ comfort with and ability to “walk the talk” with their children.
Racial socialization research emerged in opposition to the corpus of theories and studies that failed to include youth of color in research conceptualization and research designs. Informed by 12 years of observational research, I present the Theory of Racial Socialization in Action (TRSA). I present a conceptual framework for the TRSA and describe the evidence that undergirds its four theoretical assumptions. This chapter also describes the ways the TRSA complements and extends both foundational and newer theories in racial socialization theory. This chapter also describes the development of the Racial Socialization Observational Task and Coding System (RSOTCS), a measurement tool designed to assess observed race-related communication for use with African American adolescents and their families. This chapter concludes with a discussion of the applications of the TRSA and the RSOTCS to families of different racial-ethnic backgrounds. Suggestions for adapting the RSOTCS for use with families of different racial-ethnic backgrounds are provided in this chapter.KeywordsRacial socializationTheoryAdolescentsParentingAfrican American familiesZone of proximal developmentObservational methods
Parents are the earliest transmitters of ethnic-racial socialization (ERS), but transmitters within the school context become more important as youth move into adolescence. Yet, the current literature has limited frameworks to describe the transmission of ERS in schools. We propose a conceptual model that outlines the transmitters, methods, and content of school ERS as well as how school ERS can influence adolescent outcomes. Although scholars have begun to understand dimensions of school ERS, no frameworks have outlined the process, content, and effects of school ERS. This paper builds upon the burgeoning literature to unpack this process at institutional and individual levels. The paper includes discussion of research and practice implications for utilizing school ERS to address racial disparities and increase healthy school racial climates in K-12 schools. © 2021 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Racial discrimination can lead to psychosocial problems for Black adolescents, including internalization (e.g., depression) and externalization (e.g., conduct problems). Black parents (N = 186; Mage = 42.9) of adolescents (ages 10–18) were assessed to investigate how parental worries and racial socialization competency (i.e., confidence, skills, and stress) contribute to the association between parental discrimination experiences and their adolescents’ psychosocial problems. Mediation analyses indicated that the total direct models with discrimination, worries, and problems had good fit, and that the addition of worry mediated the discrimination‐problems association. Furthermore, racial socialization competency moderated the association between worry and problems, wherein greater competency was associated with less impact of worry on problems. Findings illuminate potential intervention targets for buffering discrimination’s influence on adolescents’ psychosocial functioning.
To help children navigate their social environments, adults must understand what children know about race, and when they acquire this knowledge. Across three preregistered studies, we tested United States adults' knowledge of when children first use race to categorize and ascribe traits to others. Participants wildly-and uniquely-misjudged children's abilities to process race. This inaccuracy was consequential: it was a stronger predictor of the preference to delay conversations about race with children than other factors previously theorized to underlie adults' reluctance to talk about race. And, this relation was causal. Our data suggest that fundamental misunderstandings about children's capacities to process race are pervasive in the United States population and may delay when adults engage children in important conversations about race. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Focus groups are becoming increasingly popular in research, especially in parent and child research. Focus group interviews allow participants to tell their own stories, express their opinions, and even draw pictures without having to adhere to a strict sequence of questions. This method is very suitable for collecting data from children, youths, and parents. However, focus group interviews must be carefully planned and conducted. The literature on focus group interviews with adult participants is extensive, but there are no current summaries of the most important issues to consider when conducting focus group interviews with children, youths, or parents. This article outlines the use of focus groups in child, youth, and parent research and the important factors to be considered when planning, conducting, and analyzing focus groups with children, youths, or parents.
Bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea are often encouraged to be “pure” Koreans for their adjustments and not given the opportunities to explore their ethnic identity or to learn about their mother’s culture of origin. Existing studies conducted with mono-ethnic minorities in other countries, however, do not support this belief. We tested a conceptual model on the role of ethnic socialization, ethnic identity and self-esteem on school adjustment among bi-ethnic adolescents in Korea based on social identity theory and theoretical models of ethnic socialization and ethnic identity. We used data from 2015 National Survey of Multicultural Families. The study sample consisted of 296 adolescents aged 9–18 who were born between Korean fathers and Vietnamese marriage migrant mothers. We used structural equation modeling to specifically examine the association between ethnic socialization in terms of parents’ linguistic socialization and adolescents’ school adjustment mediated by ethnic identity in the form of ethnic regard and self-esteem among bi-ethnic adolescents. The results verified the hypothesized model, showing positive relationships between linguistic socialization and ethnic regard, ethnic regard and self-esteem, self-esteem and school adjustment, and ethnic regard and school adjustment. Additionally, the results of bootstrapping test showed that the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on self-esteem through ethnic regard was significant. The indirect effect of ethnic regard on school adjustment through self-esteem was significant and the indirect effect of linguistic socialization on school adjustment via ethnic regard and self-esteem was also significant. These results shed light on the important role of ethnic identity fostered at home among bi-ethnic adolescents of marriage migrant mothers in Korea.
Studies of Asian American parenting have primarily focused on first generation immigrant parents. Few studies have examined the experiences of second generation Asian American adults who are now having children of their own. The purpose of this qualitative study, then, is to better understand the values, practices, and concerns of second generation Asian American parents regarding ethnic and racial socialization. The sample included 34 Asian American parents from seven different cities across the US. Using interviews and a focus group, the results show that 1) place, specific contexts, and transitions were important to second generation parents’ motivation behind ethnic and racial socialization, 2) parents are reactive and proactive, especially with regards to promoting an awareness of discrimination, in the racial socialization of their children, 3) parents engage in predominantly proactive ethnic socialization when passing on heritage culture, which they believe is important, but also difficult to do, 4) in contrast to ethnic socialization, passing on American culture and passing on important values (that they did not see as solely “American” or “Asian”) came easily, and 5) parents consider the intersection of race and culture with religion and disability when socializing their children. Our findings highlight unique aspects of how second generation Asian American parents engage in ethnic and racial socialization in an increasingly socially diverse world.
The goal of this article is to report initial feasibility and coping response data from a pilot study of a new five-session intervention (Engaging, Managing, and Bonding through Race [EMBRace]) for Black families utilizing racial socialization to address stress and trauma from racial encounters. Ten caregiver and youth dyads were enrolled and completed the EMBRace intervention. Feasibility was based on a closed-option survey for therapists as well as open-ended participant responses to program satisfaction post-intervention. Responses to stress management were assessed via repeated measures of self-reported coping strategies throughout the sessions. EMBRace was deemed to be acceptable by the majority of therapists and participants with regard to discussing racial encounters. Participant responses were categorized into five primary codes, including advice, clinician approach, program changes, likes, and dislikes. Participants’ coping data throughout the intervention indicates changes in the hypothesized direction (e.g., increased attention to and identification of stressor and decreased stress). The pilot data indicate the desirability of the intervention as well as useful participant feedback for future iterations of EMBRace.
The current study examined the links between perceived discrimination, marianismo gender role beliefs, racial-ethnic socialization (preparation for bias), coping strategies (engagement vs. disengagement), and mental health outcomes among 211 Latina college students. First, the authors investigated predictions about mediation effects of ethnic socialization and marianismo in the association between perceived discrimination and coping strategies. Second, they tested predictions about mediation effects of coping strategies in the link between perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes. Results of path analyses showed that perceived discrimination was positively related to familismo and spiritual marianismo pillars, preparation for bias, and engagement coping strategies. Furthermore, the link between perceived discrimination and engagement coping strategies was partially mediated via preparation for bias. Finally, perceived discrimination, disengagement coping strategies and self-silencing marianismo attitudes were negatively linked to mental health. Overall, these findings highlight the complex ways in which coping strategies are linked with one’s ethnic and gender socialization and related to perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes.
In order to promote positive intercultural relations, reduce racism and promote harmony in diverse societies, we must better understand the processes by which both minority and majority children and young people learn about and negotiate racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity, processes known as ethnic-racial socialization. A critical gap within the field of ethnic-racial socialization is a systematic literature review that includes a diverse range of population groups. The primary goal of this paper is to systematically review research over the past 30 years that has examined ethnic-racial socialization processes for both minority and majority children and young people. Studies (n = 92) that included implicit or explicit ethnic-racial socialization as a primary outcome variable along with examination of racism/discrimination, intergroup contact and/or cross-cultural interactions were reviewed. Our main findings highlight that the majority of studies continue to focus on the ethnic-racial socialization of African American children by parents. However, emerging studies involving different ethnic-racial and cultural groups demonstrate the need to consider how multiple social and environmental factors and multiple influential agents differentially impact on the types of messages used with children and young people. Implications for future research, in relation to the adoption of multi-level frameworks and understanding the contribution of multiple agents across a range of contexts, are discussed.
Dominant theoretical explanations of racial disparities in criminal offending overlook a key risk factor associated with race: interpersonal racial discrimination. Building on recent studies that analyze race and crime at the micro-level, we specify a social psychological model linking personal experiences with racial discrimination to an increased risk of offending. We add to this model a consideration of an adaptive facet of African American culture: ethnic-racial socialization, and explore whether two forms-cultural socialization and preparation for bias-provide resilience to the criminogenic effects of interpersonal racial discrimination. Using panel data from several hundred African American male youth from the Family and Community Health Study, we find that racial discrimination is positively associated with increased crime in large part by augmenting depression, hostile views of relationships, and disengagement from conventional norms. Results also indicate that preparation for bias significantly reduces the effects of discrimination on crime, primarily by reducing the effects of these social psychological mediators on offending. Cultural socialization has a less influential but beneficial effect. Finally, we show that the more general parenting context within which preparation for bias takes place influences its protective effects.
A randomized prevention pilot trial compared caregivers who participated in the Black Parenting Strengths and Strategies (BPSS) Program with control caregivers. BPSS is a strengths- and culturally based parenting program designed to improve aspects of parenting associated with the early development of conduct problems and the promotion of social and cultural competence. Parenting variables included monitoring, positive parenting, harsh discipline, and the use of proactive racial socialization. Child variables included conduct problems and social competence. Relative to control caregivers, intervention caregivers used significantly more racial socialization strategies, positive parenting practices, and less harsh discipline. Also, despite caregivers' multiple risk factors, high rates of attendance and satisfaction were achieved. Results of this pilot support the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a culturally relevant intervention program.
Research has indicated that racial discrimination places African Americans at risk for psychological distress, in which they experience low levels of well-being. Yet many African Americans are resilient, or have preserved well-being, when faced with this adversity. Using a strength-based approach, this study determined whether racial socialization messages preserved African Americans’ resilience when experiencing racial discrimination. Results with a sample of 290 young adult African American college students indicated that overall racial socialization messages, as well as specific messages to appreciate cultural legacy, moderated the relationship between racial discrimination and resilience. As expected, racial discrimination was negatively related to resilience for students who reported fewer racial socialization messages, and racial discrimination was no longer negatively associated with resilience for students reporting a greater number of these messages. Additionally, racial socialization messages predicted unique variance in resilience.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between profiles of adolescents' reports of their mothers' racial socialization (e.g., racial pride and racial barrier messages) and feelings toward their mothers' parenting (e.g., providing a warm, positive climate; using child-centered strategies) and youth engagement. This research addresses the paucity of literature that examines the impact of mothers' parenting as a buffer to declines in school engagement for African American youth. Given that parenting is embedded in a specific cultural niche, this study examines the synergy between racial socialization and mother–child relationship quality. Engagement outcomes consisted of a participant's ability to persist on task in the face of obstacles (task persistence) and their interest and active participation in class (academic engagement). Latent profile analysis on the sample of 94 self-identified African American youth (ages 11–14) revealed three profiles of racial socialization and affective relationship quality. The profiles and their associations with adolescent engagement are discussed. The findings support the importance of examining racial messages in tandem with broad parenting.
The study objective was to examine how parental endorsement of cultural pride reinforcement messages may explain African American child anxiety. Data were gathered from 72 African American parents and their elementary school-aged children. Results indicated stronger parental endorsement of cultural pride reinforcement messages predicted less child anxiety. Additionally parental endorsement of these messages moderated the relationship between child mental health risk factor exposure and child anxiety. Specifically in the presence of high exposure, children of parents who endorsed high levels of cultural pride reinforcement messages had significantly lower anxiety scores relative to children of parents who endorsed low levels of these messages. Findings indicated parental endorsement of these messages may be an important factor in explaining African American child anxiety.
This study focuses on race-related socialization in order to extend past research, which demonstrated that a sense of personal control over the environment is critical to effective performance of black youth in educational settings. In contrast to underclass views, both a sense of personal efficacy and academic performance were enhanced by proactive orientations toward racial barriers transmitted by parents to children. Sixty-eight percent of black youth in a national three-generation family sample reported that their parents transmitted some message to them about theri racial status. With only slight gender differences, parents emphasized either the importance of ethnic pride, self-development, racial barrier awareness, or egalitarianism. The intergenerational transmission of self-development orientations was associated with a greater sense of personal efficacy. In contrast, those whose parents emphasized racial barrier awareness received higher school grades, even when the effect of persoanal efficacy was controlled. The overall pattern of results suggests that the manner in which black parents orient their children toward blocked opportunities is a significant element in their motivation, achievement, and prospects for upward mobility.
In this article a conceptual model for the study of child development in minority populations in the United States is proposed. In support of the proposed model, this article includes (a) a delineation and critical analysis of mainstream theoretical frameworks in relation to their attention and applicability to the understanding of developmental processes in children of color and of issues at the intersection of social class, culture, ethnicity, and race, and (b) a description and evaluation of the conceptual frameworks that have guided the extant literature on minority children and families. Based on the above considerations, an integrative conceptual model of child development is presented, anchored within social stratification theory, emphasizing the importance of racism, prejudice, discrimination, oppression, and segregation on the development of minority children and families.
A randomized prevention trial contrasted families who took part in the Strong African American Families Program (SAAF), a preventive intervention for rural African American mothers and their 11-year-olds, with control families. SAAF is based on a contextual model positing that regulated, communicative parenting causes changes in factors protecting youths from early alcohol use and sexual activity. Parenting variables included involvement-vigilance, racial socialization, communication about sex, and clear expectations for alcohol use. Youth protective factors included negative attitudes about early alcohol use and sexual activity, negative images of drinking youths, resistance efficacy, a goal-directed future orientation, and acceptance of parental influence. Intervention-induced changes in parenting mediated the effect of intervention group influences on changes in protective factors over a 7-month period.
Recently, there has been an emergence of literature on the mechanisms through which parents transmit information, values, and perspectives about ethnicity and race to their children, commonly referred to as racial or ethnic socialization. This literature has sought to document the nature of such socialization, its antecedents in parents' and children's characteristics and experiences, and its consequences for children's well-being and development. In this article, the authors integrate and synthesize what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current empirical research, examining studies concerning its nature and frequency; its child, parent, and ecological predictors; and its consequences for children's development, including ethnic identity, self-esteem, coping with discrimination, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being. The authors also discuss conceptual and methodological limitations of the literature and suggest directions for future research.
Background
Parent–child racial‐ethnic socialization conversations are an important tool to cultivate a sense of pride and equip youth to deal with discrimination. However, conversations about preparation for racial bias can be particularly difficult for parents to deliver effectively. Little research has been done that illuminates the types of challenges parents within and across racial‐ethnic groups experience with this task. The current qualitative study addresses this gap.
Design
The study draws on focus group data collected from parents and children from African American, Chinese American, Mexican American, and Indian American (South Asian) families ( N = 138 individuals; 30 focus groups). Coding was done by a racially and ethnically diverse research team using inductive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Results
Youth and parents reflected on barriers to having effective preparation for bias conversations, including (a) parents' uncertainty in approaching the conversations; (b) tensions in identifying, understanding, and decoding racial discrimination; and (c) generational differences between parents and youth.
Conclusion
Themes are unpacked from a social learning perspective, approaching the barriers from a person‐based, context‐based, and behavior‐based point of view. Unique and similar experiences across the racial‐ethnic groups were noted, including perspectives from U.S.‐born and immigrant parents.
Implications
The authors share implications for racial‐ethnic socialization intervention strategies with parents are shared.
Ethnic‐racial socialization (ERS) can promote positive outcomes in minoritized youth, but parents often face challenges in effectively engaging in these conversations. We describe the development of a video‐based online parent intervention program aimed at improving parental motivation, efficacy, and skills in having ERS conversations. The program focuses on balancing cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages and integrates themes of coping with future discrimination with the goal of promoting adjustment in youth. The video‐based program (One Talk at A Time: OTAAT) consists of 11 short videos designed to bolster parental efficacy and skills via motivational, didactic modules, and social modeling. We describe our intervention (specifically designed for Black, Latinx, and Asian American families), a sample of parents (N = 15) who interfaced with the intervention, and preliminary evidence of its impact via a pre‐post design and program evaluation interviews. Discussion centers on implications of our approach for future prevention efforts.
In the current decade, the U.S. population reached historically high levels of ethnic–racial diversity and reelected the nation's first Black–White biracial President. Simultaneously, scholars also documented significant ethnic–racial inequities in education, increased xenophobia, and a racial climate that revealed deep‐seated ethnic–racial tensions. Given this backdrop and acknowledging the significant role that families play in youths' abilities to navigate their social contexts, the current review focused on the literature on families' ethnic–racial socialization efforts with youth from the 2010 decade. Our review of 259 empirical articles revealed that there has been an exponential increase in research on family ethnic–racial socialization in this decade. Furthermore, although it is clear that family ethnic–racial socialization is a robust predictor of youths' adjustment, the associations between socialization and adjustment must be considered with attention to specific socialization strategies, the confluence of strategies used, and the unique contexts within which families' lives are embedded.
Minoritized youth encounter racial and ethnic prejudice and discrimination in a variety of settings, including schools. Prejudice refers to harboring negative attitudes and beliefs toward targeted social groups; discrimination reflects translating those attitudes into actions that marginalize targeted groups. Exposure to racial and ethnic discrimination has been associated with numerous detrimental outcomes for youth, including poorer mental health outcomes and lower levels of academic performance. This article describes the nature of racial and ethnic discrimination encountered by minoritized youth as well as its impact on these populations. It also reviews research on prejudice reduction interventions for youth, with a focus on those interventions designed for school settings. In light of existing research, several policy recommendations support high-quality, evidence-based programming in schools.
The present study investigated the moderating role of parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices (T1) in the link between adolescents’ discrimination experiences (T1–T3) and adolescent anxiety and depression, respectively (T1–T3). Using a 3-wave longitudinal design with multiple informants (adolescent, mother, father) reporting on parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices, the data analytic sample comprised a total of 251 (T1) Mexican-origin families from the midwestern United States. Mother and father reports of their own ethnic-racial socialization practices (i.e., cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust) were entered simultaneously into multilevel moderation models. Results from these multilevel moderation analyses indicated that fathers’ promotion of mistrust was a significant moderator in the adolescent discrimination–depression link over time. Specifically, fathers’ promotion of mistrust exacerbated the youth discrimination–depression association. Moreover, the difference between the moderating effects of fathers’ versus mothers’ promotion of mistrust on the youth discrimination–depression association was significant. Cultural socialization and preparation for bias did not significantly moderate the adolescent association between discrimination and mental health, regardless of parent gender (fathers or mothers) or mental health outcome (anxiety or depression). The results are discussed in light of a socioecological framework, with special emphasis on the importance of including (and differentiating between) both fathers and mothers in the investigation of ethnic-racial socialization and implications for future theory building, research, and clinical practice.
To provide information for educators, educational psychologists, school psychologists, and social psychologists, we conducted a quantitative meta-analytic test of n = 50 studies dating from 1995 to 2015 that evaluated the effects of in-school interventions on attitudes toward outgroup members (defined as members of different ethnic or religious backgrounds or different age groups, persons with either physical or mental disabilities, or persons with other distinctive features). Overall, the analysis revealed a mean effect size of d + = 0.36 with a 95% confidence interval that ranged from 0.17 to 0.55, indicating significant, moderate intervention effects, supporting the proposition that meaningful changes in outgroup attitudes can be obtained by applying anti-bias programs in schools. Results from our analysis did not provide evidence that teacher-led interventions produce positive outcomes, yet we found that interventions delivered by researchers promote positive attitudes toward outgroup members. Further, a closer examination demonstrated that one-on-one interventions are most effective at tackling intergroup attitudes. However, classroom-wide programs are more likely to be introduced into regular school activities because of their efficiency and the limited resources available for interventions.
We first review current literature on three ethnic–racial dynamics that are considered to be resources and stressors in the lives of ethnic-minority youth: ethnic–racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. Next, we propose that a more contextualized view of these ethnic–racial dynamics reveals that they are interdependent, inseparable, and mutually defining and that an ecological/transactional perspective on these ethnic–racial dynamics shifts researchers’ gaze from studying them as individual-level processes to studying the features of settings that produce them. We describe what is known about how identity, socialization, and discrimination occur in four microsystems—families, peers, schools, and neighborhoods—and argue that focusing on specific characteristics of these microsystems in which particular types of identity, socialization, and discrimination processes cooccur would be informative.
This study examined patterns of (a) observed racial socialization messages in dyadic discussions between 111 African American mothers and adolescents (Mage = 15.50) and (b) mothers' positive emotions displayed during the discussion. Mothers displayed more advocacy on behalf of their adolescents in response to discrimination by a White teacher than to discrimination by a White salesperson. Mothers displayed consistent emotional support of adolescents' problem solving across both dilemmas but lower warmth in response to the salesperson dilemma. Findings illustrate evidence of the transactional nature of racial socialization when presented with adolescents' racial dilemmas. The role of adolescent gender in mothers' observed racial socialization responses is also discussed. A framework for a process-oriented approach to racial socialization is presented.
This study uses two waves of data to examine the relationships among racial socialization, racial discrimination, and academic achievement outcomes in a sample of 144 African American male adolescents. Using latent class analyses, the authors identified four patterns of adolescent-reported racial socialization experiences: Positive Socialization, Moderate Negative, Self-Worth, and Low Frequency. Discrimination experiences were associated with subsequent academic performance. Wave 1 racial socialization experiences were associated with academic persistence and performance at Wave 2. These findings suggest that various patterns of racial socialization practices have the potential to improve educational outcomes for African American boys, particularly in the context of their experiences with racial discrimination.
Experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination pose significant threats to the development and well‐being of racial and ethnic minority children. Fortunately, not all youth who experience discrimination are susceptible to its harmful effects. Growing evidence points to several racial and ethnic factors that promote positive youth development and protect against the potentially damaging effects of racial and ethnic adversity. This article summarizes emerging research trends and conclusions regarding the “promotive” and “protective” effects of racial and ethnic identity, ethnic‐racial socialization, and cultural orientation, as well as some of the mechanisms that may account for their salutary properties. The article concludes with a brief discussion of important considerations and directions for the future study of racial and ethnic resilience processes in ethnic minority youth.
This study examines child, parent, and situational correlates of familial ethnic/race socialization using nationally representative data gathered as part of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 – 1999 (ECLS-K). The ECLS-K sample (N = 18,950) includes White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, American Indian, and multiracial kindergarteners, with survey data available at the child, parent/guardian, teacher, and school level. We find that child correlates such as race and gender, parent correlates such as education and warmth of parent-child relationship, and situational correlates such as percent of minorities at the child’s school and cultural event participation influence how often family members discuss children’s ethnic/racial heritage with them. We advocate for continued research of contextualized family dynamics.
Little empirical work has been initiated that broadens the definition of racial socialization and its measurement to integrate it with current theoretical discussion of racial identity developmentand AfricanAmerican cultural characteristics and strengths. This study reports the development and validation of the Scale of Racial SocializationforAdolescents (SORS-A). A principal components analysis was conducted following administration of the SORS-A and measures of demographics, family communication about racism, and perception of skin color to 200 African American urban teenagers. Four factors were found to be very meaningful and moderately reliable. The racial socialization factors include Spiritual and Religious Coping, Extended Family Caring, Cultural Pride Reinforcement, and Racism Awareness Teaching. A second-order factor analysis to identify underlying themes was also conducted. Themes of protective and proactive racial socialization were found to be supportive of a theoreticalframework for racial socialization that is multidimensional and inclusive of both socially oppressive and culturally empowering experiences.
Guided by an ecological framework, this study explored ethnic socialization practices from the perspective of Southeast Asian American adolescents. Defined as a multidimensional construct that is conceptually distinct from racial socialization, ethnic socialization involves parents’ communication to children about their ethnic heritage. The objectives were to identify different ethnic socialization practices, present how frequently they were mentioned by the sample, and provide quotes that reflect the voices of 23 Hmong American adolescents. Based on a content analysis of openended interview questions, ten different ethnic socialization practices were identified. The most frequently mentioned practices of ethnic socialization were participating in cultural events, sharing history, preparing traditional foods, speaking the language, and wearing traditional clothes.The adolescents also mentioned strengthening family ties, marriage preparation, religious participation, emphasizing ethnic pride, and expressing high expectations.
This study uses two waves of data to examine the relations among racial discrimination experiences, patterns of racial socialization practices, and psychological adjustment in a sample of 361 African American adolescents. Using latent class analyses, we identified four patterns of child-reported racial socialization experiences: Moderate Positive, High Positive, Low Frequency, and Moderate Negative. Experiencing racial discrimination was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, more perceived stress, and lower levels of well-being. On average, adolescents who experienced High Positive patterns of racial socialization reported the most positive psychological adjustment outcomes, while adolescents in the Low Frequency and Moderate Negative clusters reported the least favorable outcomes. Results suggest that High Positive racial socialization buffers the negative effects of racial discrimination on adolescents' perceived stress and problem behaviors. Together, the findings suggest that various patterns of racial socialization practices serve as risk, compensatory, and protective factors in African American adolescent psychological adjustment.
This manuscript provides a critical and comprehensive review of research on race socialization within Black families. Race socialization is defined as specific verbal and non-verbal messages transmitted to younger generations for the development of values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs regarding the meaning and significance of race and racial stratification, intergroup and intragroup interactions, and personal and group identity. Reviewed are published articles that address either analytical or theoretical approaches to understanding Black families’ race socialization practices. First, theoretical perspectives of the race socialization process are reviewed. Second, this review defines race socialization in Black families. It then describes modes of message transmittal. Next, it focuses on three domains of research on race socialization: (a) prevalence, (b) content, and (c) race socialization as a predictor of child and adult outcomes. It concludes by outlining important challenges and issues in the literature to encourage the development of future research.
Racial socialization was examined as a protective factor that might buffer African American youth from the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination. Two types of racial socialization were examined: messages about race pride and preparation for bias. One hundred twenty-eight eighth-grade African American students participated in the study. As anticipated, both types of socialization moderated the relationship between discrimination and self-esteem. The negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was mitigated for youth who reported more messages about race pride and a moderate amount of preparation for bias from their parents. In contrast, low race pride socialization and both high and low preparation for bias were associated with a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem.
The association between parent racial socialization and child competence was examined in a socioeconomically diverse sample of African American preschoolers living in an urban setting. Interviews were conducted in the homes of 200 families. Racial socialization was assessed by parent report as well as by observation of the sociocultural context of the home, and child outcomes were assessed using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children and the Child Behavior Checklist. Results indicated that African American parents who provided homes that were rich in African American culture had preschool children who had greater amounts of factual knowledge and better developed problem-solving skills. African American parents who socialized their preschool children to be proud of their heritage reported fewer problem behaviors.
Report by Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation
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