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Energy Management System and Electric Motors of Electric Vehicles: A Review
... Power electronics are crucial for the efficiency of electric motors as they control the voltage and current delivered to the motor. The effectiveness of power electronics is vital for overall system efficiency and differs across various motor types [59]. ...
... Appropriateness of motor technologies for EVs based on multi-criteria indices[56,[58][59][60][61]. ...
The electric vehicle market is constantly evolving, with the research and development efforts to improve motor technologies and address the current challenges to meet the growing demand for sustainable transportation solutions well underway. Electric vehicles are crucial to the global initiative to reduce carbon emissions. The core component of an electric vehicle is its motor drive technology, which has undergone significant advancements and diversification in recent years. Although alternating-current motors, particularly induction and synchronous motors, are widely used for their efficiency and low maintenance, direct-current motors provide high torque and cost-effectiveness advantages. This study examines various electric motor technologies used in electric vehicles and compares them using several parameters, such as reliability, cost, and efficiency. This study presents a multi-criteria comparison of the various electric motors used in the electric traction system to provide a picture that enables selecting the appropriate electrical motor for the intended application. Although the permanent magnet synchronous motor appears to be the popular choice among electric car makers, the proposed comparative study demonstrates that the induction motor matches the essential requirements of electric vehicles.
... Induction motors, which offer a balance between cost and efficiency, are suitable for certain applications. DC motors are less commonly used in modern electric vehicles because of their lower efficiency [51][52][53]. All motor types support regenerative braking, though their efficiency differs, which can affect the vehicle's total energy recovery. ...
The electric vehicle market is constantly evolving, with research and development efforts to improve motor technologies and address current challenges to meet the growing demand for sustainable transportation solutions well underway. Electric vehicles are crucial to the global initiative to reduce carbon emissions. The core component of an electric vehicle is its motor drive technology, which has seen significant advancements and diversification in recent years. Although alternating-current motors, particularly induction and synchronous motors, are widely used for their efficiency and low maintenance, direct-current motors provide high torque and cost-effectiveness advantages. This study examines various electric motor technologies used in electric vehicles and compares them using several parameters such as reliability, cost, and efficiency. This study presents a multi-criteria comparison of the various electric motors used in the electric traction system to provide a picture that enables selecting the appropriate electrical motor for the intended application. Although the permanent magnet synchronous motor appears to be the popular choice among electric car makers, the proposed comparative study demonstrates that the induction motor matches the essential requirements of electric vehicles.
The presence of an integrator in a reference model of a rotor flux-based model reference adaptive system (RF-MRAS) and non-linearity of the inverter in the output voltage degrade the speed response of the sensorless operation of the electric drive system in terms of DC drift, initial value issues, and inaccurate voltage acquisition. To improve the speed response, a compensating voltage component is supplemented by an amending integrator. The compensating voltage is a coalition of drift and offset voltages, and reduces DC drift and initial value issues. During low-speed operation, inaccurate voltage acquisition distorts the stator voltage critically, and it becomes considerable when the stator voltage of the machine is low. Implementing a three-level neutral point clamped inverter in speed-sensorless decoupled control of an induction motor improves the performance of the drive with superior quality of inverter output voltage. Further, the performance of the induction motor drive is improved by replacing the proportional-integral (PI) controller in the adaption mechanism of RF-MRAS with an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) controller. A prototype model of the three-level neutral point clamped inverter (3L-NPC)-fed induction motor drive is fabricated in a laboratory, and its performance for a RF-MRAS, modified RFMRAS, and modified RFMRAS using ANFIS are compared using different benchmark tests.
Hybrid energy storage systems that combine lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors are considered as an attractive solution to overcome the drawbacks of battery-only energy storage systems, such as high cost, low power density, and short cycle life, which hinder the popularity of electric vehicles. A properly sized hybrid energy storage system and an implementable real-time power management system are of great importance to achieve satisfactory driving mileage and batterycyclelife.However,dimensioningandpowermanagement problems are quite complicated and challenging in practice. To address these challenges, this work proposes a Bi-level multi-objective design and control framework with the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm-II and fuzzy logic control as key components, to obtain an optimal sized hybrid energy storage system and the corresponding optimal real-time power management system based on fuzzy logic control simultaneously. In particular, a vectorized fuzzy inference system is devised, which allows large-scale fuzzy logic controllers to run in parallel, thereby improving optimization efficiency. Pareto optimal results of different hybrid energy storage systems incorporating both optimal design and control parameters are obtained efficiently thanks to the vectorization. An example solution chosen from the Pareto front shows that the proposed method can achieve a competitive number of covered laps while improving the battery cycle life significantly.
Fossil fuel depletion and its adverse impact on global warming is a major driving force for a recent upsurge in the development of hybrid electric vehicles technologies. This paper is a conglomeration of the recent literature in the usages of an energy storage system and power conversion topologies in electric vehicles (EVs). An EV requires sources that have high power and energy density to decrease the charging time. Commonly used energy storage devices in EVs are fuel cells, batteries, ultracapacitors, flywheel, and photovoltaic arrays. The power output from energy storage sources is conditioned to match load characteristics with the source for maximum power delivery. A DC‐DC converter topology performs this task by way of transforming voltage under the condition of power invariance. In addition, power electronics is also required to power DC/AC motors efficiently with precise control as these motors provide tractive efforts and acts as prime movers. This paper therefore brings out a critical review of the literature on EV's power conversion topologies and energy storage systems with challenges, opportunities and future directions by systematic classification of EVs and energy storage.
There has been a growing interest in switched reluctance motor (SRM) ever since the development of thyristor in 1956. The most appealing feature of SRM which attracts researchers over these years is its simple structure that incorporates concentrated windings on the stator poles and plain laminations of ferromagnetic material as a rotor. Due to this attributes, advances are being made rapidly with the consideration that SRM can be used as an alternative to DC motors and permanent magnet motors. The objective of this paper is to present an overview of the recent developments and a prediction of possible future advancements in SR Drives. Brief history, importance, innovations in structure and control, along with practical application examples are all discussed here to give a more in-depth comprehension of the motor.
A varieties of rechargeable batteries are now available in world markets for powering electric vehicles (EVs). The lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is considered the best among all battery types and cells because of its superior characteristics and performance. The positive environmental impacts and recycling potential of lithium batteries have influenced the development of new research for improving Li-ion battery technologies. However, cost reduction, safe operation and mitigation of negative ecological impacts are now a common concern for advancement. This paper provides a comprehensive study on the state-of-the-art of Li-ion batteries including the fundamentals, structures and overall performance evaluations of different types of lithium batteries. A study on a battery management system for Li-ion battery storage in EV applications is demonstrated, which includes a cell condition monitoring, charge and discharge control, states estimation, protection and equalization, temperature control and heat management, battery fault diagnosis and assessment aimed at enhancing the overall performance of the system. It is observed that Li-ion batteries are becoming very popular in vehicle applications due to price reductions and lightweight with high power density. However, the management of the charging and discharging processes, CO2 and greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions, health effects, and recycling and refurbishing processes have still not been resolved satisfactorily. Consequently, this review focuses on the many factors, challenges and problems and provides recommendations for sustainable battery manufacturing for future EVs. This review will hopefully lead to increasing efforts towards the development of an advanced lithium ion battery in terms of economics, longevity, specific power, energy density, safety and performance in vehicle applications.
This paper presents an overview of different commercial photovoltaic (PV) module options to power on-board electric vehicles (EVs). We propose the evaluation factors, constraints, and the decision-making criteria necessary to assess the suitability of this PV module for this application. The incorporation of quality function deployment (QFD) and the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is the decision-making methodology used in this study. Our approach is innovative and robust in that the evaluation depends upon data collected from PV manufactures datasheets. Unlike traditional research, a hybrid AHP and QFD innovative decision-making methodology has been created, and current commercial PV market data for all pairwise comparisons are used to show that methodology. Using both cooled and uncooled PV modules, best, intermediate, and worst-case scenarios were used to estimate the driving ranges of lightweight EVs powered exclusively by bulk silicon PV modules. Results showed that the available daily driving ranges were between 25 and 60 km and that the CO2 emissions were reduced between 3 and 6.5 kg, compared with internal combustion vehicles of a similar type. We found that mono-Si PV modules were most suited to power low-speed, lightweight, and aerodynamically efficient EVs.
Batteries, ultracapacitors (UCs), and fuel cells are widely being proposed for electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs) as an electric power source or an energy storage unit. In general, the design of an intelligent control strategy for coordinated power distribution is a critical issue for UC-supported PHEV power systems. Implementation of several control methods has been presented in the past, with the goal of improving battery life and overall vehicle efficiency. It is clear that the control objectives vary with respect to vehicle velocity, power demand, and state of charge of both the batteries and UCs. Hence, an optimal control strategy design is the most critical aspect of an all-electric/plug-in hybrid electric vehicle operational characteristic. Although much effort has been made to improve the life of PHEV energy storage systems (ESSs), including research on energy storage device chemistries, this paper, on the contrary, highlights the fact that the fundamental problem lies within the design of power-electronics-based energy-management converters and the development of smarter control algorithms. This paper initially discusses battery and UC characteristics and then goes on to provide a detailed comparison of various proposed control strategies and proposes the use of precise power electronic converter topologies. Finally, this paper summarizes the benefits of the various techniques and suggests the most viable solutions for on-board power management, more specific to PHEVs with multiple/hybrid ESSs.
In this paper, different electric motors are studied and compared to see the benefits of each motor and the one that is more suitable to be used in the electric vehicle (EV) applications. There are five main electric motor types, DC, induction, permanent magnet synchronous, switched reluctance and brushless DC motors are studied. It is concluded that although the induction motors technology is more mature than others, for the EV applications the brushless DC and permanent magnet motors are more suitable than others. The use of these motors will result in less pollution, less fuel consumption and higher power to volume ratio. The reducing prices of the permanent magnet materials and the trend of increasing efficiency in the permanent magnet and brushless DC motors make them more and more attractive for the EV applications.
Electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EV/HEV) are promising solutions for fossil fuel conservation and pollution reduction for a safe environment and sustainable transportation. The design of these energy-efficient powertrains requires optimization of components, systems, and controls. Controls entail battery management, fuel consumption, driver performance demand emissions, and management strategy. The hardware optimization entails powertrain architecture, transmission type, power electronic converters, and energy storage systems. In this overview, all these factors are addressed and reviewed. Major challenges and future technologies for EV/HEV are also discussed. Published suggestions and recommendations are surveyed and evaluated in this review. The outcomes of detailed studies are presented in tabular form to compare the strengths and weaknesses of various methods. Furthermore, issues in the current research are discussed, and suggestions toward further advancement of the technology are offered. This article analyzes current research and suggests challenges and scope of future research in EV/HEV and can serve as a reference for those working in this field.
A real-time unified speed control and power flow management system for an electric vehicle (EV) powered by a battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system (HESS) is developed following a nonlinear control system technique. In view of the coupling between energy management and HESS sizing, a HESS sizing model is developed to optimally determine the size of HESS to serve an EV using the controller designed. The objectives of the controller are to track the set speed of the vehicle with globally exponential stability and to make use of the HESS wisely to reduce battery stress. The design provides compound controller by exploiting the physical origins of the vehicles' power demand. The controller and HESS sizing system designed are simulated on a standard urban dynamometer driving schedule and a recorded actual city driving cycle for a full-size EV to demonstrate their effectiveness.
In order to mitigate the power density shortage of current energy storage systems (ESSs) in pure electric vehicles (PEVs or EVs), a hybrid ESS (HESS), which consists of a battery and a super-capacitor, is considered in this research. Duo to the use of the two ESSs, an energy management should be carried out for the HESS. An optimal energy management strategy is proposed based on the Pontryagin's Minimum Principle (PMP) in this research, which instantaneously distributes the required propulsion power to the two ESSs during the vehicle's propulsion and also instantaneously allocates the regenerative braking energy to the two ESSs during the vehicle's braking. The objective of the proposed energy management strategy is to minimize the electricity usage of the EV and meanwhile to maximize the battery lifetime. A simulation study is conducted for the proposed energy management strategy and also for a rule-based energy management strategy. The simulation results show that the proposed strategy saves electricity compared to the rule-based strategy and the single ESS case for the three typical driving cycles studied in this research. Meantime, the proposed strategy has the effect of prolonging the battery lifetime compared to the other two cases.
One of the major challenges in a battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system (HESS) is to design a supervisory controller for real-time implementation that can yield good power split performance. This paper presents the design of a supervisory energy management strategy that optimally addresses this issue. In this work, a multiobjective optimization problem is formulated to optimize the power split in order to prolong the battery lifetime and to reduce the HESS power losses. In this HESS energy management problem, a detailed dc–dc converter model is considered to include both the conduction losses and the switching losses. The optimization problem is numerically solved for various drive cycle data sets using dynamic programming (DP). Trained using the DP results, an effective and intelligent online implementation of the optimal power split is realized based on neural networks (NNs). The proposed online intelligent energy management controller is applied to a midsize electric vehicles (EV). A rule-based control strategy is also implemented in this work for comparison with the proposed energy management strategy. The proposed online energy management controller effectively splits the load demand and achieves excellent result of the energy efficiency. It is also estimated that the proposed online energy management controller can extend the battery life by over 60%, which greatly outperforms the rule-based control strategy.
There is significant interest in the development of Switched Reluctance Machines for use in automotive traction applications. This has been driven by their low cost compared to Rare Earth Permanent Magnet based motors, coupled with their potential for competitive torque densities. This paper describes the development of a variant of the Switched Reluctance Machine, utilising a Segmental Rotor construction, which has previously been demonstrated to provide up to a 65% improvement in torque densities compared to Switched Reluctance Machines with a conventional toothed rotor construction. The paper describes a strategy which has been developed to optimise the Segmental Rotor SRM in order to achieve performance equivalent to that of the 80kW Interior Permanent Magnet machine utilised in Nissan's LEAF electric vehicle. Optimisation applies a combination of static and dynamic analyses in order to achieve a full and computationally efficient assessment of motor performance across different regions of the torque speed envelope.
The author examines both flywheel and superconducting magnetic
energy storage technologies. A flywheel is an electromechanical storage
system in which energy is stored in the kinetic energy of a rotating
mass. Flywheel systems under development include those with steel
flywheel rotors and resin/glass or resin/carbon-fiber composite rotors.
The mechanics of energy storage in a flywheel system are common to both
steel- and composite-rotor flywheels. Superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES) is an energy storage device that stores electrical energy
in a magnet field without conversion to chemical or mechanical forms. In
SMES, a coil of superconducting wire allows a direct electrical current
to flow through it with virtually no loss. This current creates the
magnetic field that stores the energy. On discharge, switches tap the
circulating current and release it to serve a load
With the more stringent regulations on emissions and fuel economy, global warming, and constraints on energy resources, the electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles have attracted more and more attention by automakers, governments, and customers. Research and development efforts have been focused on developing novel concepts, low-cost systems, and reliable hybrid electric powertrain. This paper reviews the state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. The topologies for each category and the enabling technologies are discussed
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