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VOLUME 1
Advances in Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants
Production, Processing,
and Pharmaceutics
Amritesh C. Shukla Sunita Facknath
Debashis Mandal Bernadette Montanari
|
|
Editors
Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics
Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
This new two-volume book provides detailed information on highly in-demand and medicinally important
plants and their natural habits and habitats, along with their taxonomy, cultivation practices, essential
oils, active ingredients and modes of action, biomolecules, drug development, and value additions for
marketing purposes. With contributions from international experts, these volumes detail the history of
these major medicinal and aromatic plants and also report on systematic botany, advanced production
and propagation technologies, plant nutrition, moisture management, intercultivation, plant protection,
postharvest technology, processing-value addition, and marketing trade.
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Amritesh C. Shukla, PhD, DSc, is a Professor of Botany at the University of Lucknow, India. He has
been working on medicinal and aromatic plants for nearly 30 years. He has developed six commercial
herbal formulations and is credited with several US, UK, Japan, and Indian patents. He has been a
Visiting Professor at the University of British Columbia, Canada, and the University of Mauritius. He is a
journal editor, associate editor, and editorial board member. Prof. Shukla has vast overseas experience in
R&D for medicinal and aromatic plants in India and several countries in Asia and the Pacific regions and
has been an invited scientist in Germany, China, Switzerland, USA, Australia, and Korea.
Sunita Facknath, PhD, is a Professor of Agriculture at the University of Mauritius. She has published
over 100 research papers and conference proceedings and worked on research projects funded by
organizations such as the World Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, African Union, Climate and
Development Knowledge Network, etc. She is a consultant agriculturist for public-private sector
organizations and NGOs and has administrative experience with the African Network of Research on
Bruchids, Mauritius Council for Social Services, Fishermen Investment Trust, Ministry of Fisheries and
Rodrigues, National Biosecurity Technical Advisory Committee, National Marine Biotechnology Advisory
Council, National Ocean Knowledge Cluster Advisory Council, etc.
Debashis Mandal, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants at
Mizoram University, India. He has published books, research papers, and book chapters. Dr. Mandal is a
member of the Working Group Lychee and Other Sapindaceae Crops of the International Society for
Horticultural Science and the ISHS section on tropical and subtropical fruits, organic horticulture, and
commission on quality and postharvest horticulture. He is working as a journal editor, journal editorial
board member, editorial advisor, and reviewer as well as a conference convenor, moderator and keynote
speaker. Further, he is a consultant horticulturist for the Department of Horticulture and Agriculture,
Government of Mizoram, and Himadri Specialty Chemicals Ltd.
Bernadette Montanari, PhD, is an ethnobotanist and ethnobiologist with a PhD from the School of
Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, UK. Her work focuses on community development
and women’s social enterprise, ethnomedicine, traditional ecological knowledge, essential oils, natural
resource management, governance, policies, and social justice. She has received two Marie-Curie
Fellowships. She has published research papers and book chapters and is a research member of the
Interdisciplinary Institute of Social Studies at the University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdallah, Fes, Morocco.
She is a member of the Centre for Biocultural Diversity at the University of Kent, UK, and a collaborating
researcher at the Centre for Research in Anthropology at the University Institute of Lisbon, Portugal.
Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics, Volume 1
9 781774 917909
00009
ISBN: 978-1-77491-790-9
www.appleacademicpress.com
SHUKLA
FACKNATH
MANDAL
MONTANARI
VOLUME 1
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ADVANCES IN MEDICINAL AND
AROMATIC PLANTS
Volume 1
Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics
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Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics,
2-volume set
Hardback ISBN: 978-1-77491-488-5
Paperback ISBN: 978-1-77491-489-2
Ebook ISBN: 978-1-03268-690-5
Volume 1:
Hardback ISBN: 978-1-77491-790-9
Paperback ISBN: 978-1-77491-791-6
Volume 2:
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ADVANCES IN MEDICINAL AND
AROMATIC PLANTS
Volume 1
Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics
Edited by
Amritesh C. Shukla, PhD
Sunita Facknath, PhD
Debashis Mandal, PhD
Bernadette Montanari, PhD
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First edition published 2024
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Advances in medicinal and aromatic plants : production, processing, and pharmaceutics / edited by Amritesh C. Shukla,
PhD, Sunita Facknath, PhD, Debashis Mandal, PhD, Bernadette Montanari, PhD.
Names: Shukla, Amritesh C., editor. | Facknath, Sunita, editor. | Mandal, Debashis, editor. | Montanari, Bernadette, editor.
Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Identiers: Canadiana (print) 20230593216 | Canadiana (ebook) 20230593275 | ISBN 9781774914885 (set) |
ISBN 9781774917909 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781774917916 (v. 1 ; softcover) |ISBN 9781032686905 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Medicinal plants. | LCSH: Aromatic plants. | LCSH: Materia medica, Vegetable. | LCSH: Botany,
Medical. | LCSH: Pharmacognosy.
Classication: LCC QK99.A1 A38 2024 | DDC 581.6/34—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Shukla, Amritesh C., editor. | Facknath, Sunita, editor. | Mandal, Debashis, editor. | Montanari, Bernadette, editor.
Title: Advances in medicinal and aromatic plants. Volume 1, Production, processing, and pharmaceutics / edited by Amritesh
C. Shukla, Sunita Facknath, Debashis Mandal, Bernadette Montanari
Description: First edition | Palm Bay, FL : Apple Academic Press, 2024 | Includes bibliographical references and index |
Summary: “This new two-volume book categorically provides detailed information on highly demanded and medicinally
important plants and their natural habits and habitats, taxonomy, cultivation practices, essential oils, active ingredients,
biomolecules, modes of action, drug development, and value additions for marketing purpose. Examples of such plants
include Achillea spp. (yarrow), Acorus calamus (sweet ag), Ocimum spp. (basil), Dioscorea spp., Eucalyptus spp.,
Commiphora spp. (guggul), Kaempferia galanga (aromatic ginger), and Lavandula spp. (lavender). Many others are
included in the volume as well. With contributions from international experts, these two volumes present chapters that
detail the history of these major medicinal and aromatic plants and also report on systematic botany, advanced production
and propagation technologies, plant nutrition, moisture management, intercultivation, plant protection, postharvest
technology, processing-value addition, and marketing trade. Further, the book presents promising low-cost and ecofriendly
plant products and biomolecules, which are free from side-eects for use as pharmaceuticals and herbal drugs. The most
ancient form of medical therapies involving herbs has been neglected for a few decades back and has regained enormous
popularity because of the eectiveness and fewer hazardous properties of many medicinal and aromatic plants. Nature
has all sorts of protective medicinal compounds within its huge bioresources, which are still being identied for benecial
health purposes. Herbs containing aromatic properties because of their essential oils also have medicinal uses apart
from being used as dependable sources of natural fragrance for cosmetics, perfumery, and food industries competing
with synthetic aroma chemicals. These volumes will be an excellent and comprehensive compendium for academicians
and professionals working in plant resources. The compilation will also be valuable for students, researchers, medical
practitioners, farmers, entrepreneurs, traders, industrialists, and NGOs who are involved in research and development and
production and pharmaceutics of medicinally important plants”-- Provided by publisher
Identiers: LCCN 2023055751 (print) | LCCN 2023055752 (ebook) | ISBN 9781774917909 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781774917916
(paperback) | ISBN 9781032686905 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Medicinal plants. | Materia medica, Vegetable. | Botany, Medical. | Pharmacognosy.
Classication: LCC QK99.A1 A38 2024 (print) | LCC QK99.A1 (ebook) | DDC 581.6/34--dc23/eng/20231219
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023055751
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023055752
ISBN: 978-1-77491-790-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-77491-791-6 (pbk)
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Contributors ...........................................................................................................xiii
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xv
Preface ...................................................................................................................xix
1. Achillea (Yarrow): Diversity, Trade Potential, and
Ethnomedicinal Uses .......................................................................................1
Mustafa Eray Bozyel, Elif Merdamert-Bozyel, Kerem Canli, and
Amritesh C. Shukla
2. Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag): Bioactive Compounds,
Medicinal Properties, and Biological Activity ............................................. 21
Sabyasachi Banerjee, Karan Kumar Das, Goutam Pal, and Sankhadip Bose
3. Ocimum spp. (Basil): An Incredible Plant ...................................................89
Moumita Malakar and Debashis Mandal
4. Dioscorea spp.: Medicinal Plant with Pharmaceutical Uses ....................165
Raza Waris, Priyanka Agnihotri, Debashis Mandal, and Amritesh C. Shukla
5. Eucalyptus spp.: A Wonder Tree .................................................................185
Moumita Malakar
6. Commiphora spp. (Guggul): A Wonder Ayurvedic Drug .......................... 261
Jai Malik and Subash C. Mandal
7. Kaempferia galanga L. (Aromatic Ginger): A High Potential
Zingiberaceae species ..................................................................................283
Lilly Zeitler
8. Lavandula spp. (Lavender): A Herb More Than Just a
Relaxing Scent ..............................................................................................315
Moumita Malakar
Index .....................................................................................................................389
Contents
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Contributors
Priyanka Agnihotri
Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR–National Botanical Research Institute,
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sabyasachi Banerjee
Department of Phytochemistry, Gupta College of Technological Sciences, Ashram More, Asansol,
West Bengal, India
Sankhadip Bose
School of Pharmacy, The Neotia University, Sarisa, Diamond Harbour Road, West Bengal, India
Elif Merdamert‑Bozyel
Health Institutes of Türkiye (TUSEB), Istanbul, Türkiye
Mustafa Eray Bozyel
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Türkiye
Kerem Canli
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Türkiye;
Fauna and Flora Research and Application Center, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Türkiye
Karan Kumar Das
Bharat Technology, Jadurberia, Uluberia, Howrah, West Bengal, India
Moumita Malakar
Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Neelakudy,
Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu, India
Jai Malik
University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Centre of Advanced Study, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, India
Debashis Mandal
Department of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram,
India
Subash C. Mandal
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Goutam Pal
Institute of Pharmacy, Kalyani, West Bengal, India
Amritesh C. Shukla
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Raza Waris
Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India; Plant Diversity,
Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR–National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Lilly Zeitler
Sustainable International Agriculture Student, Georg-August University of Göttingen and University of
Kassel, Germany
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Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1: Production, Processing, and Pharmaceutics.
Amritesh C. Shukla, Sunita Facknath, Debashis Mandal, and Bernadette Montanari (Eds.)
© 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag): Bioactive
Compounds, Medicinal Properties, and
Biological Activity
SABYASACHI BANERJEE,1 KARAN KUMAR DAS,2 GOUTAM PAL,3 and
SANKHADIP BOSE4
1Department of Phytochemistry, Gupta College of Technological Sciences,
Ashram More, Asansol, West Bengal, India
2Bharat Technology, Jadurberia, Uluberia, Howrah, West Bengal, India
3Institute of Pharmacy, Kalyani, West Bengal, India
4School of Pharmacy, The Neotia University, Sarisa, West Bengal, India
CHAPTER 2
ABSTRACT
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet flag) is a flowering plant species, the Acoraceae
family’s tall wetland monocot. It’s a perennial herbaceous vine. These are
the only plants that grow bear flowers in water. The various portions of this
herb, such as rhizomes and leaves, are historically utilized in various herbal
formulations to treat numerous ailments, inclusive of neuralgia, arthritis,
diarrhea, kidney, and liver disorders, dyspepsia, eczema, sinusitis, cough,
asthma, hair loss, bronchitis, and other disorders. In addition, it has also been
found that this plant is active against the most common and troubling chronic
ailments like cancer, heart diseases, and diabetes. Biochemical analyzation
of the plant has uncovered an enormous number of secondary metabolites
that might be accountable for its therapeutic benefits. The methods by which
it exerts its therapeutic efficacy have been uncovered through basic scientific
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22 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
study. Other than its pharmacological properties, it additionally acts as a
pesticide and helps in phytoremediation. Many active components from this
plant have been procured and characterized for their wider range of pharma-
cological actions. Moreover, investigating the pharmacological actions of
individual components present in A. calamus would bring novel and safer
alternative therapeutics for a wider range of ailments. In this chapter, the
botanical descriptions, ethno-therapeutic uses, phytochemical components,
and biological action of plant sections. And the molecular targets of sweet
flag are included which might furnish as a suitable foundation for future
research on this herb.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Acorus calamus L. is likewise referred “calamus” or “sweet flag” which
originates from the family called Acoraceae (Mukherjee et al., 2007; Chandra
et al., 2017; Umamaheshwari et al., 2018). The description of this plant was
found to be narrated in the papyrus VI of Chester Beatty, since 1300 BC
(approximately). The primitive Egyptians once in a while referenced the herb
in medicinal contexts, however this was mostly utilized in making fragrance
(Manniche, 2006). The herb was acquainted with Britain in the late 16th
century. Originally Acorus calamus grew up in Britain during leastways of
1596, as per the record of Catalogue, which is a list of plants was cultivated
at Holborn in John Gerard’s Garden. Gerard says, “It prospereth exceedingly
well in my garden, yet beareth neither blooms nor stalketh.” Gerard records
the Latin appanage Acorus verus, yet it is apparent there was still suspicion on
its veracity: in his ‘Herbal or General Historie of Plantes,’ 1597, he reported
the common name of that plant in English, i.e., bastard calamus (Jackson,
1876). Sauer et al. announced the tuber to have been utilized by Indians
of America (North) during the period of Europe discovering (Sauer, 1969).
This plant has some other names also like myrtle flag, sweet sedge, flag
root, cinnamon sedge, sweet root, sweet myrtle, myrtle sedge, and gladdon
(Balakumbahan et al., 2010). This plant has long tenuous leaves, grass-like
or sword-shaped, that fan from a pinkish base. Typically, the mid-vein is
off-center. A tangerine-like soft scent is extracted from bruised leaves. The
scape, sometimes called the flower stem, grows from the base of the outer
leaves. Tiny yellowish-green to brown flowers pack the marginally bent
spadix. 1–3 oblong seeded angular green berries yield the herb. The most
critical component of this plant is the rhizomes. The rhizomes are branched,
woody, light-brownish or occasionally orange-brownish in color, cylindrical
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Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 23
to flat with particular nodes and internodes. The rhizomes have a heavy,
distinctive, and aromatic odor, and they taste bitter. Cream with a pinkish
tinge is the transversely cut surface of the rhizome and is separated into
smaller cortical and broader stellar areas. Microscopically, the epidermis
comprises cells with intensely thickened borders that are radially prolonged.
The cortical area consists of chains of slender-walled parenchymatous cells,
with greater intercellular space, sheathed vascular collateral bundles, and
fiber patches. With ample starch grains, the stellar area has single barrel-
shaped endodermal cells. Endodermal cells are structured in barrels and have
various starch grains. In the ground tissue of both cortex and stele, large oil
cells with yellowish contents, cells containing dark-brownish oleoresin and
starch grains are dispersed. In any cell of the stored row of cells running
parallel to the fibers, calcium oxalate in the form of solitary polygonal crys-
tals is available (Mukherjee et al., 2007).
The rhizomes and scented leaves of this plant are utilized as traditional
medicine, apart from that dried rhizomes which are crushed into powder
form containing a spicy avor which is utilized as a substitute for cinnamon,
nutmeg, and ginger for its odor (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018; Balakumbahan
et al., 2010). Nowadays, an enormous population of developing nations are
depending on the traditional medicines for their health needs (Chandra et al.,
2017; Ramakrishna et al., 1984). The plant is very renowned for its medicinal
value. The rhizomes have diverse dierent pharmacological properties like
expectorant, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, carminative, aromatic, sedative,
abdominal pain, dysentery (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018; Paithankar et al.,
2011). Besides, it is a signicant herb in Ayurveda medicine, and is utilized
for rejuvenating brain and nervous system (Balakumbahan et al., 2010).
2.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION
Calamus or sweet flag mostly found to be grown near to the locations of Indian
villages, trails or camping places. It is thought that the origin of calamus is
the central of Asia or in India and also surround areas of Himalayas. Because
of plantation, calamus has spread all through the globe. Throughout the 16th
century, it was known in the central Europe regions (Lokesh, 2004).
2.3 MARKETING AND TRADE
Calamus is a trade item for numerous societies from a huge number of
years. Calamus forms a valuable adjunct to several stimulants and tonics. In
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24 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
addition to other respiratory disorders such as bronchitis, it forms a popular
treatment for cold and cough. Sweet flag protects digestive system and
functions over flatulent colic, vomiting, and dyspepsia. A. calamus used to
depresses the CNS (central nervous system) and also a popular compound
in the preparations for psycho-somatic ailments like epilepsy. The calamus
vapors have insect repelling activity. Every year, importers, domestic
consumers, producers, western medicine experts, Ayurvedic and Siddha
medicine manufacturers rush to the markets to acquire this factory. Indeed,
its domestic demand is great. As agriculture in India is excessively smaller,
there is profound scope for the internal market itself.
Some point to be considered for Acorus calamus, like:
• Prices are determined according to the governing market rates.
• The yields rely upon appropriate implementation of package of
practices.
• Financial aspects of cultivation extraordinarily enhance scale of
operation.
• This action provides tax-free high returns. Also, various government
support schemes are available.
• Economics may fluctuate time to time due to volatile medicinal
plant market.
2.4 COMPOSITION AND USES
Acorus calamus L. comprises flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, lectins, gums,
mucilage, saponins, quinone, triterpenes (steroids), tannins, and sugars
(Ahmad et al., 2007). There are numerous chemical and morphological
variations of A. calamus in the Finnish and Czech gene bank collection. The
plants gathered from the natural destinations in Czech Republic and make
comparison to the calamus growing in Canada, Slovenia, and Finland, which
are conserved in the Gene Bank collection in Finland. Calamus species from
Slovenia, Finnish, and Czech were shown to be phenotypically and chemi-
cally very resembling. All of those illustrate Acorus calamus var. calamus of
European triploid type. The mean essential oil content was produced from
1.91% and 1.50% of arid materials in the Czech Republic and Finland, respec-
tively. According to the Czech Radix calami consistency level (minimum
quantity is 2%), this quantity is not sufficient, but the carcinogen β-asarone
material, which was formed in all of the examined sweet sedges at 9–21% in
the essential oil, did not surpass the maximum recommended value of 0.5%
of dry drug mass (Dušek et al., 2007) (Tables 2.1 and 2.2).
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TABLE 2.1 Morphological Characteristics from the Republic of Czech and Finland
Nation
Locality Rhizome’s
Cross‑Sectional
Thickness (mm)
Cross‑Sectional
Height of
Rhizomes (mm)
Leaf Lengths
x
s x
s x
s
Czech Republic
Horka na Moravě 19.0 1.8 – – 1.1 0.1 m
Červený Kostelec 22.0 2.6 – – 1.0 0.1 m
Opatov 22.0 1.8 – – 1.1 0.1 m
Ospělov 17.0 1.9 – – 0.8 0.1 m
Bojanov 15.0 4.3 14.0 3.5 1.1 0.2 m
Křemže 17.0 7.6 14.0 5.6 0.8 0.3 m
Pičín 19.0 6.8 16.0 3.6 1.0 0.1 m
Slavče 20.0 5.3 18.0 3.5 1.0 0.1 m
Stupná 15.0 3.5 13.0 2.5 1.2 0.1 m
Bohouškovice 25.0 5.1 21.0 4.1 1.1 0.2 m
Žehrovka-Nebákov 15.0 1.9 14.0 1.6 0.8 0.1 m
Rudice 17.0 4.8 15.0 3.8 0.9 0.1 m
Karolín 18.0 6.0 18.0 6.4 1.5 0.1 m
Lelekovice-Útěchov 21.0 3.6 18.0 2.5 1.2 0.2 m
Kostice 20.0 4.0 17.0 2.8 1.0 0.1 m
Lednice 18.0 6.5 15.0 4.5 1.0 0.2 m
Rybniště 20.0 1.6 – – 1.2 0.2 m
Visalaje-Obidova 16.0 2.8 13.0 2.1 0.6 0.1 m
Staré Hamry 16.0 2.7 13.0 2.1 0.8 0.1 m
Horní Bečva 14.0 4.3 12.0 3.0 0.7 0.1 m
Karlovy Vary 23.0 3.5 18.0 3.1 0.8 0.1 m
Kamýk 18.0 10.6 16.0 10.4 0.8 0.1 m
Mýto 20.0 4.1 18.0 3.9 1.1 0.2 m
Dolní Paseky 15.0 2.2 13.0 2.3 1.2 0.1 m
Mean 18.4 4.1 15.6 3.8 1.0 0.2 m
Finland
Marttila 11.7 3.9 20.1 2.1 0.9 0.1 mm
Aura 13.1 2.2 15.7 2.0 0.7 0.1 mm
Pori 16.6 1.3 22.0 2.4 0.8 0.1 mm
Paimio 15.5 4.1 19.9 1.3 0.8 0.1 mm
Piikkiö 12.9 2.7 18.5 1.3 0.7 0.1 mm
Turku I 18.4 3.9 20.3 2.4 0.8 0.1 mm
Turku II 15.6 2.0 19.3 1.7 0.8 0.1 mm
Mean 14.8 2.9 19.4 1.9 0.8 0.1 mm
Ontario (CAN) 13.6 1.4 17.5 2.1 0.9 0.1 mm
Zalec (SLO) 16 1.9 22.2 3.0 0.8 0.1 mm
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 25
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TABLE 2.2 Chemical Features from Czech Republic and Finland
Nation
Elevation (m) Locality Oil Content (%) β‑Asarone (%)
x
s x
Czech Republic
425 Bojanov 2.4 0.1 18.2
518 Slavče 1.5 0.1 14.8
380 Ospělov 1.3 0.2 11.3
435 Červený Kostelec 1.2 0.1 17.4
420 Pičín 2.1 0.0 19.8
430 Opatov 1.7 0.2 21.3
385 Horka na Moravě 1.8 0.1 18.4
528 Stupná 1.9 0.1 15.2
325 Žehrovka-Nebákov 1.6 –18.9
572 Bohouškovice 2.8 0.1 20.3
521 Křemže 2.6 0.2 18.5
462 Karolín 2.5 0.4 14.1
463 Rybniště 1.7 0.2 17.9
155 Kostice 1.9 0.1 15.2
420 Rudice 1.4 0.1 17.6
312 Lelekovice-Útěchov 1.3 0.1 12.5
680 Horní Bečva 1.7 0.1 13.2
740 Visalaje-Obidova 1.3 0.1 12.6
173 Lednice 1.8 0.0 19.7
447 Karlovy Vary 2.1 0.1 18.2
600 Staré Hamry 2.2 0.3 13.1
500 Dolní Paseky 2.2 0.2 13.7
443 Mýto 2.0 0.0 11.9
472 Kamýk 2.9 0.1 12.8
Mean 1.9 0.1 16.1
Finland
0Turku I 1.3 0.1 9.0
0Piikkiö 1.5 0.1 10.7
41 Aura 1.7 0.1 11.5
20 Paimio 1.2 0.1 10.0
40 Marttila 1.8 0.1 11.1
20 Pori 1.8 0.1 9.7
0Turku II 1.9 0.1 9.7
Mean 1.5 0.1 10.2
Reintroduction Ontario (CAN) 1.1 0.1 Traces
Reintroduction Zalec (SLO) 1.3 0.1 10.0
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The applications are as follows for the sweet ag plant: the rhizome is
candied and turned into a sweet beef (Hedrick, 1972; Grieve, 1984). To
extract the bitterness, it might be scraped and washed before being consumed
fresh alike a fruit (Coon, 1975; Reid, 1977). It prepares a delicate vegetable
when roasted (Emboden, 1979) and can likewise be utilized as a avoring
agent (Usher, 1974). The roots comprise around 1% essential oil, which is
utilized in food preparations as a spice, and is also rich in starch (Triska,
1975). The root additionally comprises a bitter glycoside (Reid, 1977). The
powdered dry rhizome is utilized for spicy avor, as substitute of cinnamon,
nutmeg, and ginger (Grieve, 1984; Harris, 1973). A pinch of rhizome powder
enhances the avor of tea (Manandhar, 2002). The small and tender inores-
cence, because of its beauty, is often consumed by infants (Grieve, 1984).
Fresh leaves comprise 0.078% of oxalic acid (Chopra et al., 1986). Calamus
leaves may be utilized for avoring custards, similarly as vanilla pods (Phil-
lips et al., 1990). Young stems are eaten raw in the inner portion (Elias et al.,
1982). It prepares a delicious salad (Facciola, 1998).
Calamus is used for various medicinal properties in Cree Indians of
Northern Alberta, including as analgesic in headache or toothache, to main-
tain oral hygiene by cleaning and sterilizing the teeth, the ght the impacts
of exhaustion or fatigue, and to help prevent/cure a hangover. Calamus has
likewise be utilized for various valuable reasons from last 2000 years in
Asia. The primitive Chinese utilized this to treat edema and constipation.
Ayurvedic medicine practice has utilized the magical root to heal fevers,
asthma, bronchitis, and sedative in India. In addition, the root was used by
the primitive Greeks and used in many other European cultures’ traditional
remedies.
Sweet ag was utilized in the holy incenses of both the primitive
Egyptians and Sumerians and remnants of the herb were discovered onto
the Tutankhamun tomb. The fragrant leaves were used as insecticides and
ecient air-fresheners in houses and medieval churches by placing on the
oors.
Calamus has a long history of therapeutical usage in a variety of phar-
macognostical criteria. It is broadly utilized in modern herbal medicines as
a mild tonic and aromatic stimulant (Grieve, 1984). In herbal drug system
it is exceptionally worthy as a renovator for the nervous system, brain, and
as a solution for digestive problems (Chevallier, 1996). The calamus root is
aphrodisiac, anodyne, aromatic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, carminative,
febrifuge, hallucinogenic, expectorant, sedative, stimulant, hypotensive,
stomachic, vermifuge, and mildly tonic (Chiej, 1984; Grieve, 1984; Launert,
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 27
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28 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
1981; Mills, 1985; Lust, 1983; Chopra et al., 1986; Weiner, 1980). It is
utilized internally to treat bronchitis, digestive disorders, sinusitis, and so on
(Bown, 1995). It is mentioned to have amazing tonic powers to stimulate and
normalize appetite. In smaller doses it diminishes stomach acidity while in
larger doses it increases stomach secretion (Chevallier, 1996) and in this way,
it is, suggested in anorexia nervosa treatment (Phillips et al., 1990). Calamus
is also utilized externally in treatment of neuralgia, skin eruptions and rheu-
matic pains (Bown, 1995). The root infusion could bring about an abortion
(Weiner, 1980) while chewing of root mitigates toothache (Weiner, 1980). In
the folk medicinal system, it is applied to treat cancer, convulsions, arthritis,
epilepsy, diarrhea, dyspepsia, etc. Chewing the root is reported to mask the
taste for tobacco (Duke, 1985). Two to three years old roots are generally
utilized as older roots tend to become hollow and tough (Grieve, 1984). They
used to harvest during early spring or late autumn and are dried for future use
(Grieve, 1984). The dry root mislays 70% of its weight, but it has an enhanced
avor and odor (Phillips et al., 1990). It does, however, deteriorate in case
stored for long time (Phillips et al., 1990). From the roots, a homeopathic
cure is made (Launert, 1981). It is also utilized to treat dyspepsia, atulence,
anorexia, and gall bladder disorders (Launert, 1981) (Table 2.3).
2.5 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
Present in ditches, river edges, marshes, and wetlands in wet soils and
shallow water (Phillips et al., 1990, 1991). It is located in and naturalized in,
Britain, Europe, Asia, New Guinea, Australia, South Africa, North America,
Réunion (Clapham et al., 1962). In various subtropical and temperate regions
of North America, Asia, and Europe, including India, this plant is used
(Mukherjee et al., 2007). It is cultivated all over in India, climbing to alti-
tude of around 2,200 meters. It is cultivated mainly in Shirmaur (Himachal
Pradesh), Kashmir, Naga Hills and Manipur. It is routinely cultivated in the
koratag (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018). Acorus calamus var angustatus is a
tetraploid type that is native to Asian nations, from Japan to India along with
Philippines as well as from Siberia to Indonesia. In the northern subarctic of
North America and isolated disjunct areas throughout the Mississippi Valley,
the diploid type Acorus calamus var americanus or Acorus americanus is
present and diploids are also found in central Siberia (Buryatia), Mongolia,
India’s northern Himachal Pradesh and Pakistan’s Gilgit-Baltistan. In certain
parts of the USA (United States) and Canada, it is extinct. It may not be
endemic to any of these countries, it is believed to have been spread through
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TABLE 2.3 Country Wise Ethnomedicinal Uses of A. calamus
Nation
Name
Ailment Name Plant Parts Used/Dosage Forms Administration
Route
References
India Skin-diseases A. calamus and C. aromatica rhizome paste are applied with
Argemone mexicana seed paste.
Oral Quraishi et al. (2017)
Eczema Rhizomes paste of sweet flag offered with rhizomes paste of
Curcuma aromatica and Azadirachta indica leaves.
Cough, ulcer, scab,
dermatitis, stuttering, fever,
sores.
Rhizomes Pradhan et al. (2008)
Fever, cough, cold Two teaspoon of herbal powder comprising sweet flag rhizomes,
Calonyction muricutum flower pedicles, Boerhaavia diusa roots,
Ipomoea muricate seeds, Cassia fistula fruits pulp, Senna leaves,
Curcuma longa rhizomes, black pepper, Mentha arvensis leaves
and Helicteres isora fruits, is taken with lukewarm water.
Dwivedi et al. (2006)
A. calamus rhizomes paste is given to children with mother’s milk,
Calunarejan spinosa, and Myristica fragrance fruits.
Sharma et al. (2004)
Disorders in GIT Rhizomes paste of sweet flag is given with cow milk. Usher (1984)
Flavoring, carminative, tonic,
and head lice infestations.
Dried rhizome infusion (procured and stored throughout the
autumn season).
Usher (1984); Ghosh
(2008); Natarajan et al.
(2000)
Epilepsy, dysentery, kidney
diseases, diarrhea, mental
illnesses and liver diseases.
Rhizomes paste of sweet flag is served with honey. Nisha et al. (2010)
Wounds, fever, body pain. Rhizomes Ragupathy et al.
(2008); Tomar (2009)
Stimulant A. calamus dry powder is given with honey. Barbhuiya et al. (2009)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 29
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30 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
Nation
Name
Ailment Name Plant Parts Used/Dosage Forms Administration
Route
References
Dysentery Calamus rhizomes, freshly crushed, are combined with hot water
and administered for three days
Rajith et al. (2010)
Analgesic Rhizomes of A. calamus are given with cinchona bark. Sher et al. (2011)
Gastrointestinal,
emmenagogue, respiratory,
anthelmintic
Rhizomes
Arthritis, paralysis Castor oil is used to apply with rhizomes ash.
Prolonger labor. Rhizomes are used in conjunction with saffron and horse milk.
Neurological disorder,
respiratory, gastrointestinal,
increases menstrual flow,
contraceptive, analgesic.
Rhizomes Poonam et al. (2009);
Shrestha et al. (2003);
Khatun et al. (2011)
Analgesic, gastrointestinal,
herpangina, respiratory,
neurological disorder.
Dastur (1951)
Injuries Outer implementation of A. calamus rhizomes. Dermal Kadel et al. (2008)
Stomach ache Paste of the A. calamus rhizomes’ ash. Boktapa et al. (2010)
Otitis externa Roots paste of A. calamus is administered along with coconut husk
extract.
Kingston et al. (2007)
Cough, fever, and cancer Juice of A. calamus roots is given with honey and Myristica
dactyloides.
Yabesh et al. (2014)
Lotion A. calamus fresh leaves Jain et al. (2007)
Pakistan Diarrhea and colic Whole plant Oral Satyavati et al. (1976)
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
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Nation
Name
Ailment Name Plant Parts Used/Dosage Forms Administration
Route
References
Nepal Cough, sore throat, headache,
pain, and snake bite.
Rhizomes Malhi et al. (1972)
Blood pressure A. calamus root infusion. Jain (1968)
Dysentery Juice of rhizomes is given with hot water.
Neurological, respiratory Rhizomes Singh et al. (1979)
Malaysia Rheumatism, dyspepsia,
diarrhea, and hair loss.
Whole plant Kirtikar et al. (1975)
Tibet Cancer Rhizomes Burang (1979)
Fever, gastrointestinal Dried rhizomes are given with Ferula foetida, Saussurea lappa,
Terminalia chebula, Inula racemosa, Cuminum cyminum, and
Zingiber officinale.
Lama et al. (1979)
China Gastrointestinal, respiratory,
analgesic, neuroprotective,
cancer, contraceptive
Rhizomes Wallnofer et al. (1965);
Agarwal et al. (1956);
Duke et al. (1985)
Detoxifications Sweet flag rhizome along with Alpinia galanga, vinegar, Zingiber
purpureum.
Perry et al. (1980)
Anti-pyretic and ear disease Rhizomes were administered together with squeezed Coccinia
cordifolia stems and water.
Analgesic The rhizome herbal baths. External
Hemorrhage Rhizomes paste Boissya et al. (1980)
Hallucinations Rhizomes are applied by combining with Podophyllum pleianthum
and Indian hemp.
Oral Li (1977)
Aphrodisiac Rhizomes Dragendor (1898)
Fair skin Artemisia vulgaris is administered with sweet flag leaves. Dermal Shih-Chen (1973)
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 31
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32 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
Nation
Name
Ailment Name Plant Parts Used/Dosage Forms Administration
Route
References
Indonesia Gastrointestinal Rhizomes Oral Hirschhorn (1983)
England Rhizomes blended with magnesium oxide and chalk. Wren (1956)
Gastrointestinal, antibacte-
rial, analgesic
Rhizomes Grieve (1971)
Chronic catarrh, dysentery,
and neurological.
Sweet flag rhizomes are administered along with Gentiana
campestris L.
Rhizome
Malaria Wheelwright (1974)
Europe Obesity, influenza,
gastrointestinal, respiratory
Moerman (1981);
Jochle (1974)
South
African
Republic
Gastrointestinal, tooth
powder, aphrodisiac, tonic
Watt et al. (1962)
Sweden Liquor Kantor (1916)
Germany Increases menstrual flow,
gastrointestinal.
Herrmann (1956);
Burkill (1966)
Java Lactation Motley, 1994
Lithuania Chest pain, diarrhea. Leaves and rhizomes are taken with sugar. Grieve (1971)
Relieves pain, rheumatism,
gout.
Decoction of leaves External Krochmal et al. (1975)
New
Guinea
Miscarriage Rhizomes Oral El’Yashevych et al.
(1972)
Philippines Gastrointestinal, rheumatism Watt et al. (1962)
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
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Nation
Name
Ailment Name Plant Parts Used/Dosage Forms Administration
Route
References
Russia Syphilis, typhoid, fever,
baldness, cholera.
Barton et al. (1877)
Thailand Blood purifier, fever Mokkhasamit et al.
(1971)
Turkey Wound healing, tuberculosis,
cough
External and
oral
Krochmal et al. (1975)
Gastrointestinal Oral Harris (1972); Lindley
(1838)
Arab
countries
Gastrointestinal, tuberculosis Caius (1986); Clymer
(1963)
Brazil Destroys parasitic worms. Clymer (1963)
Argentina Dysmenorrhea Manfred (1947)
Korea Improving memories as well
as life span.
Kumar et al. (2013b)
United
States
Gastrointestinal, tonic,
abortifacient, stimulant,
respiratory disorder
Dobelis (1986)
Sri Lanka Worm infestation, cough Rhizomes pastes are given with milk. Napagoda et al. (2019)
TABLE 2.3 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 33
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34 Advances in Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 1
areas of the USA by Pre-Columbian people (Motley, 1994; Packer et al.,
1984).
According to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Acorus calamus
L. is discovered regionally across 42 countries (Quraishi et al., 2017; Global
Biodiversity Information Facility, 2020). The details of the nations where it
is distributed are India, Nepal, USA, Japan, Germany, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Vietnam, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Georgia,
Turkey, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Switzerland, France,
Belgium, Netherland, Czechia, Poland, Belarus, Denmark, United Kingdom,
Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Canada, Korea (Sharma et al., 2020).
2.6 BOTANY AND TAXONOMY
Acorus calamus L. having common name calamus, with many other common
names internationally like, in English its known as sweet cane, sweet flag;
in Spanish it’s called Acoro; in French: Acore vrai, Roseau aromatique; in
Portuguese: calamo-aromatico. Apart from that sweet flag are having some
local common names, such as in Germany: Kalmus, in Italy: Acoro aromatic,
in the Netherlands: Kalmoes, in Sweden: Kalmus (CABI, 2020).
It is a grass-kind of perennial, rhizome forming, that can grow up to
two meters. This species generally located at perpetually wet territories like
streams edge and around lakes and ponds, in ditches and seeps. It frequently
shares habitation with the general cattail.
The cylindrical rhizome of calamus is aromatic, creeping, and widely
branched, thick up to 2.5 cm, white internally and purplish brown to pale
brown externally. During the rhizome formation, perennial that can develop
to two meters resembles like an iris (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
Root comprises of long creeping roots which expanse exactly beneath the
surface of soil (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
The leaves of the erect A. calamus are dense and very uniform in appear-
ance like the iris, but the margins are pleated. A solitary prominent mid vein
contains the sweet ag leaves, secondary veins on both sides that are margin-
ally elevated and several other ne tertiary veins. It also distinguishes itself
from Acorus americanus. In certain locations, the leaves are 0.7 to 1.7 cm
wide, with an average width of 1 cm. Calamus leaves are sympodial, slightly
narrower than vegetative leaves. The free leaves are wavy, alternate, and
green; one to three in seeded cylindrical shaped and green colored and have
a thin testa (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
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If this plant is grown, the very seldom grown owers are around 3–8
cm tall, cylindrical in form, greenish brown in color and surrounded by a
multitude of rounded spikes. Tiny, sessile, thickly packed owers and 5 to
10 cm of spadix. The spadix could achieve a length of between 4.9 and 8.9
cm during growth. Flowers rose on the basis of latitude during the early to
late summer, growing wild in moist regions up to altitude 2,000 m in the
Manipur, Himalayas, Naga Hills and in some areas of South India (Umama-
heshwari et al., 2018).
The small fruits are berry-like; in ecotypes, chemical components dier
and contain many seeds. In July, owering and fruiting occur (Umamahesh-
wari et al., 2018).
The taxonomic data of A. calamus includes (CABI, 2020):
• Domain: Eukaryota.
• Kingdom: Plantae.
• Phylum: Spermatophyta.
• Subphylum: Angiospermae.
• Class: Monocotyledonae.
• Order: Arales.
• Family: Acoraceae.
• Genus: Acorus.
• Species: Calamus.
2.7 VARIETIES AND CULTIVARS
Some global crop varieties are there which includes:
1. Acorus calamus: Eurasia and Eastern North America are home to
this species. This variety have five feet long leaves and four inch
longer elliptical spadix. The plant is perennial and has subterranean
rhizomes that grow slowly.
2. Acorus calamus Variegatus: This variety plant leaves have yellow
and cream color.
3. Acorus gramineus Argenteostriatus: This is intrinsic to Japan.
This plant’s leaves are 18 inch tall, and the blooms are around three
inches. There are clumps that are 2 feet thick and have a sluggish
rate of growth.
4. Acorus gramineus: This variety has been found in Cascadia. It
seems to be an ever-green herb.
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 35
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5. Acorus gramineus Golden Pheasant: The leaf color of this variety
is golden to chartreuse and 12 to 14 inches in height.
6. Acorus gramineus Minimus Aureus: The leafage of this plant
variety is fine in texture and 4-inch height.
7. Acorus gramineus Ogon: The golden and green color of the varying
leaves of this plant variety is 10 to 12 inch tall.
8. Acorus gramineus Variegatus: The white and green color of the
varying leaves of this plant is 8–12 inches long.
9. Acorus gramineus Yodo‑No‑Yuki: The leaf color of this variety of
plants is olive-green with a yellowish border.
10. Acorus gramineus Hakuro‑Nishiki: The leaves of this variety of
plants are yellowish-green in color.
2.8 SOIL AND CLIMATE
Acorus calamus L, generally referred to as the sweet flag, occurs with ample
moisture or irrigation in almost a large range of soil. This could additionally
be cultivated in marshy or waterlogged soils. A. calamus grows in 1,800-
meter high to 900-meter low altitudes (Sharma et al., 2020). Preferrable
pH of this herb ranges from 5.5–7.5 and requires sunny position (Huxley,
1992). The plants can withstand temperatures as low as – 25°C (Phillips et
al., 1991). Preferable rainfall should be 70–250 cm. The Tropical to sub-
tropical climate is found to be worthy for this crop. The land is prepared
identic to irrigated paddy field. Second, in order to promote impounding
water, the lands are dripped with farmyard compost and Pongamia pinnata
Pierre green leaves compost. March to April is the strongest planting season
(Lokesh, 2004).
2.9 PROPAGATION
Propagation is often carried out by rhizomes. First the rhizomes are harvested
into small portions and then sprouted rhizomes are cultivated. During planting
44,400 per acre seed are used. As soon the seed gets ripen, it is planted in a
cold weather. Stand the pot in about 3 cm of water. As soon as they are too
large to work with, pot up young seedlings, holding them moist by fixing
the containers in shallows water and overwintering in a cold or greenhouse
infrastructure for the 1st year. In Britain seed is seldomly produced (Grieve,
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1984; Clapham et al., 1962). During spring division starts since the growth
start. Easily, it can be carried out effectively at any moment throughout the
growth period and could be sown direct into its stable situations.
2.10 PLANTING, IRRIGATION, AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Developing shoots or living ends of A. calamus are procured from past crops
upon harvest and stored in a moist or puddle area for 2–3 weeks. This planta-
tion materials are then put in a cultivated land at (30 x 30) cm spacing (Lokesh,
2004). During sowing the rhizomes are sown at depth of 4 cm, and the method
of sowing should be direct sowing of seeds or sprouted rhizomes on bed.
It is water-deep grain similar to irrigated paddy, but 10 to 11 months is the
length of the sweet ag. So, this herb is much compatible where the water
isn’t scarce. In preliminary phase of this grain, ground is waterlogged with
5-centimeter-deep water. Since the grain started growing, depth of the water
in ground is raised to 10 centimeter till 20 days prior harvest. The total water
needed for the period of 10 months is 34.58 million liters (Lokesh, 2004).
When these plants block the rows in a dense canopy, the grain is weeded
once every month for the initial four to ve months (Lokesh, 2004).
Chemical fertilizers with 45: 12.5: 12.5 kg of NPK/hectare (typically
urea/17 All/DAP) are utilized for the top dressing in two or three splitted
dosing, 60 days after plantation (Lokesh, 2004). Apply 1/3 portion of
nitrogen (N), full portion of phosphorus (P), and potash (K) as basal dose.
Residual portion of nitrogen should be applied after 1- and 2-months post
plantation (Lokesh, 2004).
2.11 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
The common issue in cultivation is pests attack over crops. Likewise, some
minor organisms namely Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid), Fusarium oxys-
porum (basal rot), Lasioderma serricorne (cigarette beetle) usually attacks
sweet flag. Apart from that another fungal pathogen is there, usually called
Gibberella intricans (damping-off of safflower) (CABI, 2020).
2.11.1 SLUG DAMAGE
It is the harm due to the slug on the herb leaves. They feed themselves on
fresh plant leaves. Metaldehyde or iron phosphate is applied to rescue the
plant from slugs.
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2.11.2 MEALY BUGS
It’s a kind of harm to the plants caused by Pseudococcus and Lepidocephalus.
Yellowing and withering starts with the leaves. About 10 ml of Methyl para-
thion or 20 ml of Quinalphos is added to the shoots and roots of the herb in
10 liters of water.
2.11.3 LEAF SPOT
The discolored spots occurred on the plant leaves are due to the fungus
attack. The leaf spot should be regulated by the application of 10 g of Captan
and 20 ml of Chlorpyrifos in 10 liters of water.
2.12 HARVESTING AND YIELD
That is a symbol of crop maturity when the leaf tips have begun to turn
yellowish. Rhizomes are close to the surface and grow from 30 to 60 cm in
height. They were harvested between February and March, when the crop
was 10–11 months old (Lokesh, 2004). The best temperature for harvesting
is 15–20°C. The most conventional type of harvesting implements is small
sickle, big sickle and darat (Verma, 1998).
The average rhizomes yield is 40 qt/ha (quintal/hectare). Better agro-
nomic techniques, on the other hand, might improve production (Lokesh,
2004). In addition, for two continuous years, an examination was attempted
to investigate the probability of increasing the yield of A. calamus L rhizome
by altering the planting period (such as growing in rainy and autumn seasons),
retaining separate distances, and harvested in various seasons. Calamus
yields were considerably higher when planted in autumn (131.5 qt/ha) than
in the rainy season (65.7 qt/ha) (Tiwari et al., 2012). Crop harvesting after
one year resulted in greater rhizomes yield of 164.7 qt/ha and 93.7 qt/ha
during the autumn and rainy seasons, respectively. In various yield pieces, a
similar trend was also seen. Closer planting (20 x 20 cm, 30 x 20 cm) resulted
in slightly higher rhizome yields (86.2 qt/ha, 81.2 qt/ha) than a larger 40 x 40
cm (70.3 qt/ha) spacing. This research shows the possibility of maximizing
sweet ag rhizome yield by controlling planting and harvesting times while
maintaining sucient plant spacing (Tiwari et al., 2012).
2.13 POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND STORAGE
They are harvested into parts that are 5 to 7.5 cm longer and then dried in the
sun for one day then battered and rubbed. In the heat, this drying process and
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eventual rubbing is followed 2 to 3 times before the leaf scales and fibrous
roots are expelled. It’s packed to be shipped after rubbing. Cultivators have
been using hand-operated or power-operated equipment in recent days to
spread the leafy scales and fibrous roots (Lokesh, 2004). It ought to be kept
in a cool and dry place, but not >1 year. Following this, the roots lose the
majority of their active principles.
2.14 PROCESSING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PHYTO-
CONSTITUENTS
The different phytochemical studies of calamus have been disclosed that it
contains different phytochemical constituents. The constituents are sterols,
phenylpropanoids, triterpene glycosides, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoid
saponins, monoterpenes, and alkaloids, essential oil containing calameon,
calamen, asarone, clamenol, and sesquiterpenes. The plant additionally
comprises a bitter glycoside namely acorine along with α-pinene, β-pinene,
eugenol, and camphene (Sharma et al., 2020; Mukherjee et al., 2007; Chandra
et al., 2017; Imam et al., 2013).
The dierent studies of volatile oil of calamus obtained in mass spectrom-
etry and gas chromatography has 145 components in the oil from triploid
European Acorus calamus and 93 components in the oil from tetraploid
Indian Acorus calamus (Sharma et al., 2020; Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
The theory constituents found in the volatile oil are 2,4,5-trimethoxy-l-prope-
nylbenzene as β-asarone and α-asarone, chemically classied as trans-and
cis-isomers, respectively (Mukherjee et al., 2007; Baxter et al., 1960).
The oil from calamus also comprises lots of chemical compounds in
dierent concentrations (Mukherjee et al., 2007; Raina et al., 2003; Oprean
et al., 2001) like: γ-asarone, eugenyl acetate, methyl isoeugenol, isoeugenol,
p-cymene, azulene, calamol, dipentene, methyl ether of eugenol, asaronalde-
hyde, methyleugenol, 1,8-cineole, terpinolene, α-caryophyllene, hydrocar-
bons, and camphor (Mukherjee et al., 2007; Nigam et al., 1990; Srivastava et
al., 1997; Mukherjee, 2002). In addition, the oil consists of fatty acids such
as palmitic acid and its ester, heptylic acid, and butyric acid ester (Mukherjee
et al., 2007; Chaudhry et al., 1957).
2.14.1 PHENYLPROPANOIDS
These are having an aromatic ring along with a structurally varied category
of secondary plant metabolites derived from phenylalanine (C6–C3), such as
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 39
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alpha-asarone, β-asarone, eugenol, isoeugenol, etc. (Banerjee et al., 2020a;
Bose et al., 2020). Various phenylpropanoids from calamus rhizomes and
leaves have been described. The important components of this plant are
alpha and β-asarone discovered from the rhizome. There are also records of
a collection of aromatic rhizome oils with different structures.
2.14.2 SESQUITERPENOIDS
Around 44 sesquiterpenes, inclusive of lactones, were separated and recog-
nized in sweet-flag rhizomes. Sesquiterpene lactones are formed from three
units of isoprene and are made up of lactone rings. It is accepted that the
alpha-β unsaturated alpha-lactonic ring in sesquiterpene lactones is respon-
sible for pharmacological activities (46–99).
2.14.3 MONOTERPENES
These are the simplest class terpene (C-10) which is associate with 2 isoprene
units (monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, etc.) (Banerjee et al., 2020b). Mono-
terpenes may have diverse functional groups, as ketones, aldehydes, esters,
phenols, ethers, and alcohols (Benaiges et al., 2007). These organic compo-
nents spread the characteristic fragrance and flavor of calamus rhizomes and
leaves (100–122).
2.14.4 TRITERPENOID SAPONINS
Triterpenoid saponins comprise of a pentacyclic terpene (C-30) skeleton
(Banerjee et al., 2019). Till now only 2 triterpenoid saponins (123, 124) have
been recognized from sweet flag rhizomes.
2.14.5 OTHER COMPOUNDS
To date, calamus rhizomes have been described with 1 xanthone glycoside
(125), 2 alkaloids (126–127), 1 triterpene glycoside (128), 1 steroid (129), 12
amino acids (130–141), and 4 fatty acids (142–145).
The details of the chemical components of A. calamus along with their
processing and characterization are portrayed in Table 2.4 and Figure 2.1.
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TABLE 2.4. A. calamus Chemical Constituents Extracted from Various Plant Sections
Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
Phenylpropanoids 1 α-Asarone GC-FID, GC-MS Rhizome n-hexane,
aqueous,
methanol,
ethanol
Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et al.
(2010); Lee et al. (2011);
Padalia et al. (2014)
2β-Asarone
3ɣ-Asarone
4 Eugenyl acetate GC-MS Aqueous
extract
Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et al.
(2015)
5 Eugenol
6 Isoeugenol
7 Calamol
8Azulene
9 Eugenol methyl ether
10 Dipentene
11 Asaronaldehyde
12 Terpinolene
13 1,8-cineole
14 Methyl eugenol n-hexane,
ethyl acetate
Srivastava et al. (1997)
15 Methyl isoeugenol Hexane Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et al.
(2015); Kim et al. (2011)
16 (E)-Methyl isoeugenol GC-FID, GC-MS Aqueous
extract
Lee et al. (2011)
17 (E)-Isoeugenol acetate
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 41
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
18 Cinnamaldehyde n-hexane,
ethyl acetate
Srivastava et al. (1997)
19 Euasarone
20 Cis-methyl isoeugenol
21 Cyclohexanone GC-MS Hexane Kim et al. (2011)
22 Isoasarone NMR Chloroform Patra et al. (1981)
23 Acorin
24 Safrole
25 Z-3-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-2-
propenal
FTIR, NMR Ethanol Saxena (1986)
26 2,3-dihydro-4,5,7-trimethoxy-1-
ethyl-2-methyl-3 (2,4,5-trime-
thoxyphenyl) indene
27 (Z)-asarone GC-MS Leaves n-hexane Radušiene et al. (2007)
28 (E)-caryophyllene
29 Estragole Rhizome Aqueous Haghighi et al. (2017)
30 Carvacrol
31 2-cyclohexane-1-one
32 Naphthalene
33 ɣ-Cadinene
34 Aristolene
35 1(5),3-aromadenedradiene
36 5-n-butyltetraline
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
37 4,5-dehydro-isolongifolene
38 Calarene
39 Isohomogenol
40 Zingiberene
41 α-Calacorene
42 5,8-dimethyl isoquinoline
43 Cyclohexane methanol
44 Longifolene
45 Isoelemicin
Sesquiterpenoids 46 Calamene Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et al.
(2015)
47 Calamenenol
48 Calameone
49 Preisocalamendiol
50 1,4-(trans)1,7(trans)-acorenone Özcan et al. (2002)
51 1,4-(cis)-1,7-(trans)-acorenone
52 2,6 diepishyobunone
53 α-Gurjunene
54 β-Gurjunene
55 α-Cedrene Haghighi et al. (2017)
56 β-Elemene
57 β-Cedrene Özcan et al. (2002)
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 43
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
58 β-Caryophyllene
59 Valencene
60 Viridiflorene
61 Caryophyllene oxide
62 δ-Cadinene
63 α-Curcumene
64 Elemol
65 Cedrol
66 Spathulenol
67 Acorenone
68 α-Cadinol
69 Shyobunone Kumar et al. (2010);
Özcan et al. (2002);
Nawamaki et al. (1996);
Zaugg et al. (2011)
70 Isoshyobunone Özcan et al. (2002);
Nawamaki et al. (1996);
Yamamura et al. (1971)
71 Humulene oxide II GC-FID, GC-MS Lee et al. (2011); Özcan et
al. (2002)
72 α-Selinene
73 Humulene epoxide II Lee et al. (2011)
74 α-Bisabolol
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
75 Asaronaldehyde NMR Chloroform Patra et al. (1981)
76 Acorone Hydro
alcoholic
Zaugg et al. (2011)
77 Neo-acorane A Ethanol Li et al. (2017)
78 Acoric acid
79 Calamusin D
80 1,5-Guaiane-4,10-diol-6-one Zhou et al. (2012)
81 Calamusenone GLC, IR, NMR Petroleum
ether
Nawamaki et al. (1996)
82 Isocalamendiol
83 Dehydroxyiso-calamendiol
84 Epishyobunone
85 Dioxosarcoguaiacol HPLC Petroleum
ether
Yamamura et al. (1971)
86 7-tetracycloundecanol,4,4,11,11-
tetramethyl
GC-MS Ethanol Kumar et al. (2010)
87 4,7-Methano-4-naphth[1,8a-b]
oxirene
88 Spathulenol Haghighi et al. (2017)
89 Vulgarol B
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 45
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
90 Tatanan A HPLC, NMR 95% ethanol Yao et al. (2018)
91 Acoramone
92 2-hydroxyacorenone
93 4-(2-formyl-5-methoxymethyl
pyrrol-1-yl) butyric acid methyl
ester
94 2-acetoxyacorenone
95 Acoramol
96 N-transferuloyl tyramine
97 Tatarinoid A
98 Tatarinoid B
99 Acortatarin A
Monoterpenes 100 p-Cymene GC-FID, GC-MS Rhizomes,
roots
Aqueous Lee et al. (2011); Özcan
et al. (2002); Haghighi et
al. (2017)
101 α-Pinene GC-MS Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et
al. (2015); Özcan et al.
(2002)
102 β-Pinene
103 Camphene Mukherjee (2002); Nigam
et al. (1990); Kumar et
al. (2015); Özcan et al.
(2002); Haghighi et al.
(2017)
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
104 o-Cymol Haghighi et al. (2017)
105 ɣ-Terpinene
106 α-Terpinolene
107 Anethole
108 Thymol
109 Isoaromadendrene epoxide
110 Camphor Rhizome,
leaves,
roots
Aqueous,
hexane
Özcan et al. (2002);
Radušiene et al. (2007)
111 Sabinene Roots Aqueous Özcan et al. (2002)
112 Cis-linalol oxide
113 Cis-sabinene hydrate
114 Trans-linalol oxide
115 Terpinen-4-ol
116 α-Acoradiene
117 β-Acoradiene
118 α-Terpineol
119 2-hexenal
120 Limonene Özcan et al. (2002);
Haghighi et al. (2017)
121 Linalool Özcan et al. (2002);
Radušiene et al. (2007)
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 47
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
122 Isoborneol Leaves Hexane Radušiene et al. (2007)
Triterpenoid
saponins
123 1β,2α,3β, 19α-Tetrahydroxyurs-
12-en-28-oic acid-28-O-
{(β-D-glucopyranosyl
(1-2)}-β-D-galactopyranoside
NMR Rhizome Ethanol Rai et al. (1998)
124 3-β,22-α-24,29-Tetrahydroxyolean-
12-en-3-O-(β-Darabinosyl(1,3)}-β-
D-arabinopyranoside
Xanthone glycosides 125 4,5,8-trimethoxy-xanthone-
2-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl
(1-2)-O-β-D-galactopyranoside
Rai et al. (1999)
Alkaloids 126 Trimethoxyamphetamine,2,3,5 GC-MS Kumar et al. (2010)
127 Pyrimidin-2-one,4-[N-
methylureido]-1-[4-methyl amino
carbonloxy methy]
Triterpene glycoside 128 22-[(6-deoxy-L-rhamnopyranosyl)
oxy]-3,23-dihydroxy-, methyl
ester, (3β,4β,20α,22β)
NMR Root,
Rhizomes
Ethyl acetate Wu et al. (2007)
Steroids/Sterols 129 β-daucosterol
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
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Classification Compounds
No.
Chemical Ingredients Characterization
Techniques
Plant
Parts
Extracts
Used
References
Amino acids 130 Arginine HPLC Roots Ethanol Vashi et al. (1987); Weber
et al. (1994)
131 Lysine
132 Phenylalanine
133 Threonine
134 Tryptophan
135 α-alanine
136 Asparagine
137 Aspartic acid
138 Norvaline
139 Proline
140 Tyrosine
141 Glutamic acid
Fatty acids 142 Myristic acid GLC Rhizome Petroleum
ether
Asif et al. (1984)
143 Palmitic acid
144 Palmitoleic acid
145 Stearic acid
Abbreviation: GC-MS: Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry; GC-FID: Gas chromatography–flame ionization detector; NMR: Nuclear
magnetic resonance; GLC: Gas liquid chromatography; FTIR: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy; HPLC: High-performance liquid
chromatography; and IR: Infrared spectroscopy.
TABLE 2.4 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 49
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Figure 2.1 (Continued)
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Figure 2.1 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 51
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Figure 2.1 (Continued)
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Figure 2.1 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 53
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Figure 2.1 (Continued)
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FIGURE 2.1 Phytoconstituents obtained from Acorus calamus.
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 55
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2.15 BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF ACORUS CALAMUS
2.15.1 ANTICANCER ACTIVITY
Now a day’s cancer, a major non-infectious disorder is being treated with
different medicinal herbs or plants. Acorus calamus is a well-known thera-
peutic plant which have an anticancer activity. The Acorus calamus rhizome
extract possess antioxidant property. Antioxidants are the free radicals
which have the ability to prevent and cure the cancer from extremely reac-
tive oxygen compounds which is responsible for cancer. Sweet flag can
be implemented in cancer treatment (Gaidhani et al., 2009). The ethanolic
and methanolic extracts as well as essential oil of calamus rhizome was
evaluated on human gastric cell line (AGS) (Haghighi et al., 2017). Liu et
al. revealed in research that treatment with β-asarone diminished the occur-
rence and tumour formation number against genotoxic colonic chemical
carcinogen 1,2-Dimethyl hydrazine in CRJ: CD-1 (ICR) mice (Das et al.,
2019). Further research by Wu et al. demonstrates the impacts of β-asarone
which suppresses the proliferation in gastric cancer cell and induced early
apoptosis. Human colorectal cell lines HT-29 and SW-480 were treated with
β-asarone and nally concluded β-asarone inhibits colorectal carcinogenesis
(Das et al., 2019).
2.15.2 ANTIDIABETIC ACTIVITY
Diabetes, a ceaseless condition related with abnormally increase in sugar
levels (glucose) in blood causes in absence or insufcient production of
insulin or a disability of the body to appropriately utilize insulin. Acorus
caramus is extensively utilized in the diabetes treatment in conventional
folk medication. An antidiabetic study described that A. calamus methanolic
extract when administered orally, showed a signicant blood glucose level
decrease in streptozotocin induced diabetic rat. Blood glucose levels were
lowered after 21 days of extract therapy, while plasma insulin levels were
dramatically increased (Prisilla et al., 2012).
Prashanth et al. studied that A. calamus extract decreases the blood
glucose level signicantly. Total 54 rats were taken for that experiment on 2
dierent phases. A. calamus extract in diverse doses like 100, 150, and 200
mg per kg to various groups and observed thoroughly. It was shown that A.
calamus 150 mg/kg induces hypoglycemic action in both alloxan-induced
diabetic and non-diabetic rats.
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A minor drop in blood glucose level in fasted and glucose-fed normal
mice with 200–800 mg/kg A. calamus extract was further examined after 1
hour after ingestion (Si et al., 2010a).
2.15.3 ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY
Both plant-based and synthetic products from different sources have been
recognized over the past 2 decades and found Acorus calamus as one such herb
alleged to have antimicrobial activity. β-asarone, an antibacterial component,
was extracted from methanolic sweet flag leaves essence utilizing different
chromatographic methods. Due to pathogens with multi-drug resistance,
the clinical efciency of existing antibiotics is being dangerous (Bandow
et al., 2003). So, researchers are thinking to progress better herbal medicine
against microbial infections (Manikandan et al., 2010; Murugaian et al.,
2009). The study displayed potential antimicrobial action of methanolic A.
calamus rhizome extract, like it is highly active against lamentous fungi
(Phongpaichit et al., 2005).
It is clear from the experiment that A. calamus displays antibacterial
and antifungal activity, which gives solid evidence of the application of
this herb in various drugs (Kumar et al., 2014). Agar disc diusion process
(Bauer et al., 1996) was employed for antimicrobial bioassay. Several past
and continuing investigations have shown that calamus rhizomes have
antibacterial properties (Mungkornasawakul et al., 2000; McGaw et al.,
2002; Grosvenor et al., 1995). It is also traditionally utilized as medicinal
herb to treat bacterial infection in India (Panchal et al., 1989). From an
in-vitro experiment of calamus it can be understood that the compound has
remarkable antimicrobial activity (Kaithavalappil et al., 2015). Another
experiment reported that A. calamus methanol extract displayed inhibition
against Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Singh et al., 2011).
2.15.4 ANTI-INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY
Inflammation has been related with many diseases which bring the dangerous
effect on the patients, that can cause a threat to his/her life. Numerous
anti-inflammatory drugs are obtainable in the market to treat inflamma-
tion which are belonging to steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAIDS). But these drugs have many adverse effects, for example,
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 57
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gastrointestinal complications, bleeding, and acute renal failure. For this
reason, researchers have concentrated their focus on medicinal plants which
have the anti-inflammatory property. A. calamus is one of the famed thera-
peutic herbs which have important anti-inflammatory property. The study
had been conducted on plants and these plants had been screened for phyto-
chemicals which have anti-inflammatory property (Chamlagai et al., 2016).
In acute, chronic and immunological inflammation models, and compared
to hydrocortisone action, an extract of the Acorus calamus rhizome was
investigated. The A. calamus extract showed significant anti-inflammatory
activity (Kumar et al., 2013a). From the research it is clear that the aqueous
A. calamus leaves extract has anti-inflammatory action (Vengadesh et al.,
2009). The A. calamus leaves extract was studied on HaCaT keratinocyte
cell lines for anti-inflammatory effect (Kim et al., 2009). The calamus root
and rhizome extract have been accounted for anti-inflammatory action
(Valay et al., 2015). The anti-inflammatory function was demonstrated by
the analysis of distilled saponins derived from water and methanolic extracts
of A. calamus leaves (Shahzad et al., 2015).
2.15.5 ANTIDIARRHEAL ACTIVITY
Diarrhea is a nationwide issue, particularly among kids. Many medicinal
plants which are conveniently available had been portrayed to be efficient
against diarrhea. Sweet flag is a kind of therapeutic plant that has anti-
diarrheal properties. It was reported that A. calamus possess many medicinal
benets inclusive of anti-diarrheal property (Rajput et al., 2014). Water
boiled with A. calamus ought to be given to patient suffering from diar-
rhea. In an experiment it signicantly declines the severity caused by diar-
rhea. A. calamus are utilized in traditional folk medicine in order to treat
diarrhea (Kapadia et al., 2012). Additional analysis revealed that aqueous
and methanolic sweet flag extract displayed anti-diarrheal effect against
diarrheal model induced by castor oil (Devi et al., 2014). The A. calamus
rhizome is recognized in Ayurvedic medicine to have expectorant, aromatic
stimulant, emetic, diuretics properties. It’s utilized to treat a host of diseases,
for example, diarrhea and dysentery (Kirtikar et al., 1987). From the study
it is clear that the rhizomes of A. calamus is useful for diarrheal disorder
(Jha et al., 1996). An examination was conducted to assess the action of
calamus aqueous and methanol extract for anti-diarrheal effect (Mukherjee
et al., 2007).
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2.15.6 ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY
Helminthiasis, a macro-parasitic worm disease, is incurred by nematodes.
It is amongst the maximal common infection in human affecting a large
population worldwide. Many anthelmintics are available in the market but
the existing drugs causes adverse effects and made the parasites to drug
resistance. There are numerous medicinal herbs which have anthelmintic
activity. A. calamus is one of such type of popular medicinal plant. The
Acorus calamus fresh leaves extract is implemented to treat worm infec-
tions. The rhizomes and roots of this herbs have anthelmintic activity which
is reported earlier (Deepa et al., 2008). The rhizomes infusion of calamus
used to applied to children to offer relief from intestinal worms (Bhatt et
al., 2015). Previous research on sweet flag rhizome extracts found that it
has anthelmintic activity (Devi et al., 2014). A study discloses that aqueous
A. calamus extract has strong anthelmintic effects in compared to standard
Albendazole drug. The phenylpropanoid β-asarone of calamus rhizomes was
displayed anthelmintic activity (McGaw et al., 2002). In India, powdered
rhizome and rootstock are utilized as anthelmintic (Watt et al., 1962). The
investigation indicated that the isolated β-asarone from sweet flag had a
stronger anthelmintical impact compared to crude extraction (McGaw et al.,
2002). Anthelmintic action was observed in ethyl acetate-chloroform extract
of sweet flag rhizomes (Deepa et al., 2008). From the investigation it can be
inferred that the Acorus calamus extract displayed significant anthelmintic
effect at 100 mg/ml concentration (Deb et al., 2013).
2.15.7 ANTIADIPOGENIC ACTIVITY
Adipogenesis is dened as the procedure by which preadipocytes get sepa-
rated into adipocytes. The adipocyte, usually termed as fat cells and lipo-
cytes, is essential to the body’s energy balance. Some medicinal herbs have
antiadipogenic property, A. calamus is one of them. Hypolipidemic efficacy
of 50% sweet flag rhizome alcoholic extract in conjunction with saponins.
α-asarone shows hypolipidemic activity and β-asarone restrain the separa-
tion of 3T3-L1 adipose tissues. The investigation indicated that α-asarone
of calamus has the inhibitory impact on 3T3-LJ adipose tissue cells (Si et
al., 2010b) and asarone has been shown to suppress adipogenesis while
promoting lipolysis in 3T3-LJ adipose tissues (Lee et al., 2004). The etha-
nolic α-asarone extract had described to promote adipocytes differentiation
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 59
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(Lee et al., 2004). The major antiadipogenic component of sweet flag oil was
puried and identified as a α-asarone (Lee et al., 2010).
In the last several years, researchers studying the antiadipogenic proper-
ties of Acorus sp. have shown that Acorus calamus is hypolipidemic in rats
(Parab et al., 2002). Treatment of asarone signicantly restrained the separa-
tion of 3T3-L1 preadipose tissues (Lee et al., 2010). Another study showed
that β-asarone of calamus ethanol extract enhances dierentiation in mouse
adipocytes (Wu et al., 2007). The signicant anti-adipocytes compound
β-asarone repressed accumulation of lipid in a concentration dependent way
(Lee et al., 2010).
2.15.8 NEURO-PROTECTIVE ACTIVITY
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of interconnected networks to
form on the basis of neuronal function including thinking, learning, and
emotionality. Neuro protection is the active suppression of damaging neuro
toxic conditions in the nervous system. The aim of neuro protection is
to confine neuronal dysfunction after injury and give effort to maintain
the integrity of cellular interaction inside the brain. Diverse medicinal
herbs that can be utilized alone or in combinations as a neuro protective.
A. calamus is one of those, which is having prominent action on CNS
by improving memory, grasping power, intellect, and speech (Ray et al.,
2016). An investigation reveals that β-asarone has neuroprotective action.
It suppresses neuronal apoptosis by down regulating Bcl-W, Bcl2 and
caspase-3 (Kim et al., 2011). The methanol and acetone sweet flag leaves
extracts exhibit CNS depressant activity (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
A study demonstrated that the rhizome and root of the herb have CNS
depressant potency (Pandy et al., 2009). An effective neuroprotector that
preserved memories by shielding the hippocampus was β-asarone (Venka-
tramaniah et al., 2016). Acorus calamus is a drug for epilepsy, cognition,
enhancing intelligence in children and used to improve brain activities, as
suggested by Caraka and Susruta. Acorus calamus can enhance memory
and reduce stress, according to experimental and clinical research (Singh et
al., 2011). Another experiment showed that β-asarone when administered
orally, improved cognitive function (Geng et al., 2010). Rhizomes addition-
ally have defensive mechanisms over acrylamide induced neurotoxicity
(Shukla et al., 2002).
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2.15.9 IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE ACTIVITY
Immunosuppressive is mostly or totally suppressing the immune response of
an individual. Immunosuppressant is the operator that can repress or inhibit
immune response, so to treat various autoimmune disorders. Presently the
medical herbs and its products have been examined for immunomodula-
tory effects. Herb essences have been thoroughly researched for possible
immunosuppressive effects. The experiment shows the immunosuppressive
efficiency of A. calamus rhizome ethanolic extract (Mehrotra et al., 2003).
A. calamus extract prevents the activation of the cells which have shown
their immunosuppressive effect (Umamaheshwari et al., 2018). In another
examination the immunomodulatory action of ethanolic calamus rhizomes
extract has been assessed and positive response has been found (Bhatt et al.,
2015). A study by McGaw et al. demonstrated A. calamus root, rhizome, and
essential oils from rhizomes showed immunosuppressive action (McGaw
et al., 2002). A study has described that the A. calamus rhizome ethanolic
extract exhibit immunomodulatory actions (Mehrotra et al., 2003). Diverse
A. calamus extracts are also utilized as immunosuppressive action over
human lymphocytes (Divya et al., 2011). Inhibition of nitric oxide produc-
tions, that is essential in the immune systems, in the cell line after incubation
with the extract and LPS for the production of nitric oxide (Mehrotra et al.,
2003). Diverse investigation reports revealed numerous helpful bioactivi-
ties of calamus leaves and rhizomes extracts, essential oils, and separated
phytochemicals, for instance, immunosuppressive. The components were
seen as highly active in immunosuppressing (Reddy et al., 2018). A. calamus
stimulates production of in-vitro 1L-12 and Nitric oxide by murine macro-
phage (Devi et al., 2014).
2.15.10 INSECTICIDAL ACTIVITY
Various synthetic pesticides have been employed to combat pests during
the last five decades. Many synthetic pesticides are available but due to
environmental issues and public health, alternatives of synthetic pesticides
have been inquired about. According to watt et al. this plant is reported to be
useful for insecticides. According to the findings of the study, the insecticidal
effect of A. calamus rhizome ethanol extract. The study reflects ethanolic
calamus extract might be used for limiting the harmful impacts of pesticides
(Sharma et al., 2015). The powder of A. calamus and 2 bioactive compounds
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 61
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namely alpha and beta-asarone have the repellency and toxicity against
the red imported re ant (RIFA). Sweet flag rhizome extracts in acetone,
petroleum ether, and methanol exhibit insecticidal action. In between them
petroleum ether calamus extract was found more toxic than that of other
extracts in the insect species (Hossain et al., 2008). From the literature
survey it has also been found that the A. calamus extract had signicant
insecticidal activity (Chauhan et al., 1987; Khan et al., 1986; Schmidt et al.,
1994). According to one research, the essential oils from A. calamus rhizome
and its constituent methyl eugenol, (E)-methylisoeugenol and alpha-asarone
is potential insecticides for control of booklice. The A. calamus essential
oils have been exhibited to have insecticidal effect over many insect species,
e.g., termite, odontotermes, obesus (Tare et al., 2001), the kelpfly, coelopa
frigida (Ocampo et al., 1986), the large grain borer, proste phanus truh cates
(Schmidt et al., 1994). The plants rhizomes have insecticidal, repellent
activity with bioactive compounds like alpha and beta-asarone (Schmidt et
al., 1991; Hasan et al., 2006). The study showed that A. calamus may be
effective in controlling the stored product in godown.
2.16 PRECLINICAL AND CLINICAL TRIALS
Many preclinical examinations have been performed on the sweet flag plant
from a longer period. The performed experiments for preclinical trials are
described in Table 2.5.
Furthermore, calamus has been investigated in clinical trials as a mono-
therapy and in conjunction with other medical plants, as well as in healthy
volunteers and patients with distinct neurological and metabolic conditions.
The eect of A. calamus on depression, obesity, coronary, and neuroprotec-
tion disorders has been supervised by most clinical trials. The data procured
thus far may be found in chart given in Table 2.6.
2.17 COMMERCIAL/PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS AVAILABLE
The are many herbal drug formulations obtainable in the market, manufac-
tured by numerous companies, which are portrayed in Table 2.7 (Imam et al.,
2013; Sharma et al., 2020).
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TABLE 2.5 Preclinical Trial Claims of A. calamus in Different Disorders
Activity Plant Part
Used
Extract Type Dose Animal Models Results References
Antidiabetic Rhizomes Methanol 50 mg/kg, 100
mg/kg, and 200
mg/kg, p.o.
STZ-induced rats ↓Lipid profile and blood glucose,
↑Plasma insulin, G6PD level and
tissue glycogen.
Prisilla et al. (2012)
Ethyl acetate 150 and 200 mg
per kg, p.o.
Alloxan-induced rat ↓Blood glucose level Prashanth et al.
(2017)
100 mg per kg,
p.o.
Genetical obese
diabetic C57BL/Ks db/
db mice.
↓Triglycerides and serum glucose
levels
Wu et al. (2009)
100 mg per kg,
i.g.
GLP-1 expressions and
STZ-induced secretions
↓Blood glucose levels; ↑Secretion
of GLP-1
Liu et al. (2015)
6.25 µg, 12.5 µg,
and 25 µg per ml.
In vitro HIT-T15 cell
line and α-glucosidase
enzyme.
↑Insulin secretion in HIT-T15
cells
Si et al. (2010)
400 and 800 mg
per kg, p.o.
Glucose tolerance
mice.
↓Serum glucose, and ↓level
of glucose in blood
Anti-obesity Ethanol and
aqueous
100 mg and 200
mg per kg
HFD-induced rats ↓ Serum cholesterol and
triglycerides; ↑lipoprotein fraction
levels
Parab et al. (2002)
Diethyl ether 20 and 40 mg per
kg, p.o.
HFD-induced rats ↑Plasma fibrinogen levels; ↓Total
cholesterol and lower-density
lipoprotein levels
D’Souza et al.
(2007)
Methanol 250 mg and 500
mg per kg
Triton-X-100-induced
hyperlipidemic rats
Dose-dependent anti-
hyperlipidemic effect
Kumar et al. (2016)
250 and 500 mg
per kg, p.o.
HFD-induced rats ↓Total cholesterol, triglycerides,
and LDL; ↑HDL cholesterol level
Arun et al. (2012)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 63
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Activity Plant Part
Used
Extract Type Dose Animal Models Results References
Aqueous 100, 200, and 300
mg per kg, p.o.
HFD-induced rats ↓Serum glucose, leptin, and
insulin levels;
↓ Elevated levels of triglyceride,
lower-density lipoprotein, total
cholesterol, very LDL cholesterol,
phospholipids, and free fatty acid
Athesh et al. (2017)
Antihypertensive Ethyl acetate 250 mg per kg,
p.o.
Clamping the left side
kidney artery of rats
for 4 h
↓ DBP and SBP, blood urea
nitrogen, LPO, and creatinine;
↑Levels of NO, CAT, SOD, GPX
Patel et al. (2012)
Crude
extracts,
n-hexane, and
ethyl acetate
10, 30, and 50 mg
per kg
Blood pressure
reduction in
normotensive
anesthetized rats.
Relaxant effects mediated
through Ca2+ antagonism and NO
pathways.
Shah et al. (2009)
Ethanol and
α-asarone
100 and 9 mg per
kg, p.o.
Dimethyl sulfoxide-
induced noise stress
to rats.
↓Destructive impact of stress
enlightening the hippocampal
morphologic change.
Sundaramahalingam
et al. (2013)
Anti-inflammatory Leaves Ethanol 100 mg/kg and
200 mg/kg
Carrageenan-induced
rat paw oedema.
↓Histamine, 5-HT, and kinins Jain et al. (2010)
Antioxidant Rhizomes α-asarone 3 mg, 6 mg, and 9
mg per kg, i.p.
Noise stress induced
to rats.
↑SOD and LPO;
↓GPX, CAT, GSH, vitamin C and
vitamin E, and protein thiol level.
Manikandan et al.
(2005)
Leaves and
rhizomes.
Ethyl acetate
and methanol.
200, 100, 80, 60,
40, 20, 10, and 5
µg per ml
DPPH radical
scavenging chelating
ferrous ions, FRAP
Prominent DPPH scavenging
action, chelating Fe2+ ions, and
reducing power.
Devi et al. (2011);
Acuña et al. (2002)
TABLE 2.5 (Continued)
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Used
Extract Type Dose Animal Models Results References
Rhizomes Ethanol 250, 500 mg per
kg, p.o.
Acetaminophen-
induced rats.
↓MDA; ↑SOD, GPX, CAT, GSH
levels
Palani et al. (2010)
Anticonvulsant Roots Ethanol and α
-asarone
35 mg and 20 mg
per kg
Kainic acid-induced
convulsions.
↓Neuroprotective; epileptic
seizure; and regenerative ability
Venkatramaniah et
al. (2019)
Methanol 100 and 200 mg/
kg, p.o.
PTZ-induced
convulsion mice
↑Latency period; ↓PTZ-induced
seizure time
Jayaraman et al.
(2010)
Rhizomes Calamus oil 30, 100, and 300
mg/kg, p.o.
MES, PTZ, and MCS
mice model.
Calamus oil is found stable Kaushik et al.
(2017)
Ethanol 250, 500 mg/kg,
p.o.
MES and PTZ-induced
convulsion mice.
↓Hind limb extension and tonic
flexion of forelimbs.
Chandrashekar et al.
(2013)
Methanol 250 and 150 mg
per kg, p.o.
MES and PTZ-induced
rats
↓Immobility time at 250 mg per
kg, ineffective at 150 mg/kg
Yende et al. (2009)
Antidepressant 50 and 100 mg
per kg, i.p.
TST and FST in mice
model.
↓Immobility time in a dose-
dependent manner.
Pawar et al. (2011)
Leaves 50 and 100 mg
per kg
↓Immobility time Pushpa et al. (2013)
Roots Aqueous 100, 150, 200 mg/
kg, p.o.
Shashikala et al.
(2015)
Rhizomes Hydro-
alcoholic
extract.
75 mg/kg and 150
mg/kg, p.o.
↓Corticosteroid levels De et al. (2013)
Ethanol 72 mg/kg, p.o. HPM and OFB test No stimulation of postsynaptic
5-HT1A receptors.
Tripathi et al. (2010)
TABLE 2.5 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 65
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Extract Type Dose Animal Models Results References
Acetone and
methanol
5 mg/kg, 20 mg/
kg, and 50 mg/
kg, p.o.
Behavioral despair test ↓Spontaneous locomotor action Pandy et al. (2009)
β-asarone 25, 50, and 100
mg/kg, p.o.
EPM and FST ↓Immobility time Tiwari et al. (2014)
Neuroprotective Hydro-
alcoholic
10 mg/kg CCI of sciatic nerve-
induced neuropathic
pain of rat.
Significantly ameliorated
CCI-induced nociceptive pain.
Muthuraman et al.
(2012)
100 and 200 mg/
kg
CCI of sciatic nerve-
induced peripheral
neuropathy of rat.
┴CCI-induced neuropathy by
↓oxidation and inflammation.
Muthuraman et al.
(2013)
Leaves Acetone and
methanol
20 and 50 mg
per kg
Apomorphine-induced
stereotypy and
haloperidol-induced
catalepsy of mice.
Reversed stereotypy induced by
apomorphine and significantly
potentiated catalepsy induced by
haloperidol.
Vengadesh et al.
(2009)
Rhizomes Ethanol 200 mg/kg and
300 mg/kg to rats.
Spontaneous electrical
action and monoamine
levels of brain.
Depressive response by altering
electrical action, inclusive of
changing brain monoamine levels.
Hazra et al. (2003)
Hydro-
alcoholic
25 mg/kg MCAo-produced brain
ischemia of rat.
Improvement in neurobehavioral
performance; ↓GSH, SOD, and
↑LPO level.
Shukla et al. (2006)
Ethanol 5 ppm, 10 ppm,
15 ppm, 20
ppm, 25 ppm
concentration.
Methotrexate-induced
stress of fruit flies.
↓Elevated SOD, ROS, GPX, and
CAT levels.
Fathima et al. (2014)
TABLE 2.5 (Continued)
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Activity Plant Part
Used
Extract Type Dose Animal Models Results References
Cardioprotective n-hexane,
ethyl acetate
0.01 mg/ml Guinea pig tracheal
segments.
↓Force and contraction rates at
higher concentrations.
Shah et al. (2010)
Whole plant Ethanol 100 mg and 200
mg per kg to rats.
DOX-induced
myocardial toxicity.
↓Serum enzyme levels and
protected myocardium from
DOX’s toxic effects.
Kumar et al. (2016)
Abbreviation: COX: cyclooxygenase; CCI: chronic constriction injury; CAT: catalase; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-
1-picrylhydrazyl radical; DOX: doxorubicin; EPM: elevated plus maze; FST: forced swim test; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power;
GLP-1: glucagon-like peptide-1; GR: glutathione reductase; GPX: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: reduced glutathione; HFD: high-fat diet; HDL:
high-density lipoproteins; HPM: high plus maze; i.p.: intraperitoneal; i.g.: intragastric; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; MCAo: middle cerebral
artery occlusion; LPO: lipid peroxides; MCS: minimal clonic seizure; MES: maximal electroshock; MDA: malondialdehyde; NO: nitric oxide;
p.o.: per oral; OFB: open field behavior; ROS: reactive oxygen species; PTZ: pentylenetetrazol; SOD: superoxide dismutase; SBP: systolic
blood pressure; TST: tail suspension test; and STZ: streptozotocin.
TABLE 2.5 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 67
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TABLE 2.6 Clinical Trial Claims of A. calamus in Different Diseases
Formulations of A.
calamus
Study Objects Study Designs Interventions Primary Endpoint Outcomes Quality of
Evidence
References
Sweet flag rhizome
powder
24
hyperlipidemic
individuals (both
sexes).
A randomized,
single-blind
control trial.
For one month, 500 mg
of powder twice a day
after meals.
Body perimeter,
BMI, skinfold depth.
Significant decrease in
fatigueness, skinfold
depth, and excess
hunger.
III Singh et al.
(2017)
Davaie Loban capsules
(sweet flag, nut grass,
ginger, incense, and
black pepper).
24 patients of
both sexes with
Alzheimer’s
disease.
Randomized
double-blind
clinical trial.
For three months, 500
mg capsule three times
each day.
CDR-SOB and
ADAS-cog scores.
At 1 month and 3
months, significantly
reduced the CDR-SOB
and ADAS-cog scores.
Tajadini et al.
(2015)
A. calamus hydro-
alcoholic extract
(70%).
33 patients of
both sexes (20
males and 13
females) with
anxiety disorder.
Non-randomized,
open-labeled,
single-armed
study
For two months, one
capsule of 500 mg
extract twice a day after
meals
BPRS score Significantly decrease
in anxiety as well as
stress-related disorder.
Bhattacharyya
et al. (2011)
Guduchyadi Medhya
Rasayana, (A. calamus,
Achyranthes aspera,
Tinospora cordifolia,
Embelia ribes, S.
lappa, Convolvulus
pluricaulis, T. chebula,
Asparagus racemosus,
sugar, and cow ghee).
138 individuals
with senile
memory, all
sexes, aged
55–75 years
impairment.
Randomized,
two-parallel-group
study.
Three-gram granules
three times a day
post-meal for three
months.
Mini-mental state
examinations, serum
acetylcholinesterase
estimation, and
BPRS score.
Significant
improvements in recall
memory, amnesia,
cognitive impairment,
concentration ability,
stress, and depression.
Kulatunga et al.
(2012)
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Formulations of A.
calamus
Study Objects Study Designs Interventions Primary Endpoint Outcomes Quality of
Evidence
References
A. calamus aqueous
extract.
40 healthy
participants,
both sexes,
aged 18–50
years, with
an anesthetic
premedicant.
Randomized,
open-label,
two-parallel-group
research.
90 minutes prior to
anesthesia, the control
group received 0.2 mg
intramuscular (IM)
glycopyrrolate and
a 0.2 mg IM 50 mg
tablet of promethazine
hydrochloride with
water; the second group
received 0.2 mg IM
glycopyrrolate and 100
mg A. calamus extract.
Blood pressure,
pulse rate, body
temperature,
respiratory rate.
The dried aqua extract
has anti-hyperthermic
and sedative properties
without causing
respiratory depression.
Pande et al.
(2009)
Shankhapushpyadi
Ghana Vati (A.
calamus, Bacopa
monnieri, C.
pluricaulis, C. fistula,
A. indica, T. cordifolia,
Tribulus terrestris, S.
lappa)
20 hypertensive
individuals of
both sexes.
Randomized
single-blind
control trial.
One gram twice daily
after a meal for two
months.
DBP and SBP Significant reduction in
elevated DBP and SBP.
Mishra et al.
(2012)
Brahmyadiyoga
(A. calamus,
Centella asiatica,
Saussurea lappa,
Rauvolfia serpentina,
Nardostachys
jatamansi)
Ten individuals
with
schizophrenia,
both sexes, aged
18–40 years.
Non-randomized,
open label,
singlearm study.
For three months, four
pills after a meal three
times a day.
Symptoms rating
scale.
Significant effects
as a hypnotic, brain
tonic, tranquilizer, and
sedative.
Ramu et al.
(1983)
TABLE 2.6 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 69
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Formulations of A.
calamus
Study Objects Study Designs Interventions Primary Endpoint Outcomes Quality of
Evidence
References
Vachadi Churna (A.
calamus, Cedrus
deodara, Cyperus
rotundus, Aconitum
Heterophyllum, ginger,
T. chebula).
30 obese male
and female
patients ranging
in age from 14 to
50 years.
Non-randomized,
open-label,
single-arm study.
For one month, three
grams of powder with
lukewarm water two
times a day before
meal.
Girth measurement
of mid-thigh, BMI,
chest, abdomen, and
hip.
Significantly improved
in body heaviness,
extreme sleep, excessive
hunger, and fatigueness.
Soni1 et al.
(2012)
Vachadi Ghrita (A.
calamus, Hedychium
spicatum, T. cordifolia,
C. pluricaulis, E. ribes,
ginger, T. chebula, A.
aspera, and cow ghee).
90 healthy men
and women
between the
ages of 40 and
50 for cognition
assessment.
Non-randomized
positive-control
trial.
Ten grams twice daily
with lukewarm water
for 1 month.
Post Graduate
Institute Memory
Scale (PGIMS) test.
Marked improvement
in mental equilibrium,
holding of similar
and different pairings,
late-immediate memory,
and digestion.
Pawar et al.
(2018)
Bramhi Vati
(A. calamus, C.
pluricaulis, B.
monnieri, Onosma
bracteatum, iron and
copper pyrite, mercuric
sulfide, N. jatamansi,
Piper nigrum)
68 individuals
with essential
hypertension, all
sexes, aged 20 to
70 years.
Randomized,
double-blind,
parallel-group
comparative trial.
For one month, two 500
mg pills twice a day.
Hamilton anxiety
rating scale, DBP,
SBP, and MAP.
Significantly improved
Hamilton anxiety rating
scale, DBP, SBP, and
MAP.
Mishra et al.
(2019)
Tagaradi Yoga (A.
calamus, N. Jatamansi,
Valeriana wallichii).
24 individuals
with insomnia,
both sexes,
ranging in age
from 18 to 75
years.
Non-randomized
positive-control
trial.
For a fortnight, a
500 mg capsule of
hydro-alcoholic extract
was twice a day after
meals.
Initiating sleeping
time, sleep durations,
and sleep quality.
Significantly improved
initiation of sleeping
time, sleep durations,
and sleep quality.
Sharma et al.
(2017)
TABLE 2.6 (Continued)
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Formulations of A.
calamus
Study Objects Study Designs Interventions Primary Endpoint Outcomes Quality of
Evidence
References
Acorus calamus
rhizome powder.
20 obese patients
of both sexes.
Randomized
single-blind trial.
250 mg rhizome
powder twice daily for
one month.
Body weight, height
according to age,
waist-hip ratio, and
BMI.
Significantly improved
extreme sleep, fatigue,
body heaviness, and
excess hunger.
Paradkar et al.
(2019)
Bala compound (A.
calamus, Emblica
ocinalis, E. Ribes,
Piper longum, T.
cordifolia, C. rotundus,
A. heterophyllum,
Glycyrrhiza glabra).
24 neonates, both
sexes, 2.5 to 3
kg b.w.
Randomized
single-blind
control trial.
5 drops 2 times a day
orally for half a year.
Changes in serum
immunoglobulin
levels (IgA, IgG, and
IgM).
Significantly
improved levels of
immunoglobulins after
six months.
Ib Appaji et al.
(2009)
Acorus calamus
rhizome powder
45 individuals
with ischemic
heart diseases.
Non-randomized
positive-control
trial.
For three months, three
gms powdered rhizome
twice a day.
Serum cholesterol
levels, ECG
Improvements in chest
discomfort, dyspnea
on exertion, body mass
index decrease, better
ECG: lowered serum
cholesterol as well as
serum LDL, and higher
serum HDL.
Mamgain et al.
(1994)
TABLE 2.6 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 71
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TABLE 2.7 Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) Plant Formulations Available in the Market
Formulation Name Manufacturer Manufacturer Address
Acorus calamus herbal extract Vidya Herbs Private Limited Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Ayurvedic and herbal chemicals
of Acorus calamus
Jenson Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu,
India
Scavon vet cream The Himalaya Drug Company Makali, Bangalore, India
Mentat tablets and syrup
Abana
Mentat tablets and syrup
Muscle and Joint Rub
Anxocare
Erina-EP
Himpyrin, Himpyrin Vet
Varch oil Herbotech Pharmaceuticals Amritsar, India
Anxi-6 Kalhan Pharmaceuticals
Private Limited
Jalandhar, India
Herbal preparations of Acorus
calamus
Sydler Remedies Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai, India
Ayurvedic preparations of
Acorus calamus
Kebee Pharmachemie Private
Limited
Andheri, Mumbai, India
Botanical insecticide (Vasambu) Agricultural University and
Bhuvicare Private Limited
Tirunelveli, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India
Stresnil Universal Pharmaceuticals
Limited
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Nervine tonic, antispasmodic Salem Impex Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
Calamus oil Modern Natural Products Mumbai, India
Natural oil of vacha Bhagat Aromatics Limited New Delhi, India
Insecticides Ajinkya Chemtech Private
Limited
Pune, India
Krush capsules Prakruti Remedies Pvt. Ltd. Karnataka (India)
Brainokan Kangra Herb Pvt. Ltd. Kangra, Himachal Pradesh,
India
Calamus essential oil Katyani Exports Pitam Pura, New Delhi, India
Dark Forest Vekhand Powder Simandhar Herbal Pvt. Ltd. Dadar, Mumbai, India
Vacha powder capsule Heilen Biopharm Pvt. Ltd. Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Pilochek tablets and gel Dabur India Limited Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Brahm Rasayan
Mahasudarsan Churna
Janma Ghunti Honey
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Formulation Name Manufacturer Manufacturer Address
Brahmi Pearls capsules Kerala Ayurveda Ltd. Ernakulam, Kerala, India
GT capsules
Histantin tablets
Santhwanam oil
Mahathikthaka Ghrita capsules
Calamus root tincture Florida Herbal Pharmacy LLC Spanish Breeze Ct,
Riverview, FL
Vacha capsules DRWakde’s Natural Health
Care
London, United Kingdom
Vacha powder Bixa Botanical Vashi, Navi Mumbai, India
Amalth Mcnow Biocare Private
Limited
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Sunarin capsules SG Phyto Pharma Pvt. Ltd. Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India
Nilsin capsules
Dr. Willmar Schwabe India
Acorus calamus mother tincture
Dr. Willmar Schwabe India
Pvt Ltd.
Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Himalayan calamus root
essential oil
Naturalis Essence of Nature Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Calamus oil Kazima Perfumers Patparganj, Delhi, India
Winton tablets and syrup Scortis Healthcare Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Chesol syrup J&J Dechane Laboratories
Pvt. Ltd.
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Enzo fast Naturava Kharadi, Pune, India
Nervocare Deep Ayurveda S.A.S Nagar, Punjab, India
Antress tablets Ayursun Pharma Surat, Gujarat, India
Grapzone syrup Alna Biotech Pvt Ltd. Barwala, Haryana, India
Memoctive syrup Aayursh Herbal India Ahmedabd, Gujarat, India
Smrutihills capsules Ayush Arogyam Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Gastrin capsules Saravana Marundhagam Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Pigmento tablets Charak Pharma Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Paedritone drops
Vacha Churna Sadvaidyasala Mysuru, Karnataka, India
Alert capsules Vasu Healthcare Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Brento tablets Zandu Realty Limited Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Livotrit Forte
Zanduzyme
Vedic Slim Vedic Bio-Labs Pvt. Ltd. Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
TABLE 2.7 (Continued)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 73
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Formulation Name Manufacturer Manufacturer Address
Hinguvachaadi Gulika Nagarjuna Ayurvedic Group Kalady, Kerala, India
Norbeepee tablet AVN Ayurveda Formulations Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Sooktyn tablet Alarsin Pharma Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Deonac oil Doux Healthcare Pvt. Ltd. Panchkula, Haryana, India
Smrutisagar Rasa Shree Dhootapapeshwar
Limited
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Yogaraj Guggul
Kankayan Bati Baidyanath Pvt. Ltd. Nagpur, India
Brahmi Ghrita
Fat Go Jolly Healthcare Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Divya Mukta Vati Patanjali Ayurveda New Delhi, India
TABLE 2.7 (Continued)
2.18 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER/PATENTS
Three patents are reported over the plant sweet flag. In between, all seems to
be process patent. The specifics are shown in the chart beneath (Table 2.8).
KEYWORDS
•Acorus calamus
•antidiarrheal activity
•calamus
•herbaceous perennial plant
•insecticidal activity
•sweet flag
•traditional medicine
•wetland monocot
REFERENCES
Acuña, U. M., Atha, D. E., Ma, J., Nee, M. H., & Kennelly, E. J., (2002). Antioxidant
capacities of ten edible North American plants. Phytother. Res., 16, 63–65.
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TABLE 2.8 Patents Reported Over the Plant Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus)
Work Done Special Features Status Inventor
Name
Date of
Patent
References
Processing for preparing
1-Propyl-2,4,5-
trimethoxybenzene from toxic
β-asarone of Acorus calamus
or from crude calamus oil
containing β-asarone.
The process comprises providing crude calamus oil or 3-asarone
in a solvent; hydrogenating the solution in the existence of a
catalyst; filtration of the catalyst and solvent removal at decreased
arc, subjecting the reduced calamus oil to column of Silica gel
chromatography utilizing an eluent to obtain 1-Propyl-2,4,5-
trimethoxybenzene in liquid form with 85–97% purity.
Patented Arun Kumar
Sinha
04/03/2003 Sinha
(2003a)
Process for producing
pharmacologically active
α-asarone out of toxicant
β-asarone-rich sweet flag oil.
Process for producing of highly pure and yields trans-2,4,5-
trimethoxy cinnamaldehyde, α-asarone, 2,4,5-trimethoxy-phenyl
propionone, from the 3-asarone or β-asarone rich sweet flag
oils comprising α and ɣ-asarones by hydrogenation, following
by treatments with dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ) with/
without solid supports of alumina or silica gel in dried organic
solvent and α-asarone could additionally be procured by treating
the hydrogenated products of β-asarone or β-asarone rich
sweet flag with DDQ in an aqua organic solution to achieve an
intermediary product 2,4,5-trimethoxy phenyl propionone, which
is then is lowered with sodium borohydride to achieve the desired
2,4,5-trimethoxy phenyl propanol and finally treated with a
dehydration agent.
Patented Arun Kumar
Sinha; Ruchi
Acharya;
Bhupendra
Prasad Joshi
08/07/2003 Sinha et al.
(2003b)
Method of extracting for
Acorus calamus root extracts
oil including β-asarone using
Supercritical fluid extraction.
A technique for extraction of sweet flag root extract offers an
essential oil comprising a plurality of β-asarone by supercritical
extracting by adding sweet flag root extract to CO2 supercritical
fluid utilizing a sub-solvent (ethanol) under pressure conditions of
40°C to 60°C and 200 to 400 bar, followed by a stage of concentrate
the sweet flag extract.
Patented Gwicheol
Kim
16/10/2013 Kim
(2013)
Acorus calamus L. (Sweet Flag) 75
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